DYNAMICS – DETAILED EXAM NOTES

Based on the syllabus shown in the uploaded image

Motion • Distance & Displacement • Speed & Velocity • Acceleration • Graphs • Equations of Motion •
Periodic/Oscillatory Motion • Simple Pendulum • Waves • Work & Energy • Forms & Sources of Energy • Newton’s
Laws • Motion under Gravity

1. INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that studies motion of bodies and the forces that cause or change that motion.
Kinematics describes motion without considering its cause; dynamics connects motion with force, mass and energy.

Important quantities: position, distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration, force, mass, momentum, work
and energy.

2. MOTION
Motion: A body is said to be in motion when its position changes with time relative to a chosen reference point/frame.

Rest: A body is at rest when its position does not change with time relative to the reference frame.

Reference frame: Motion and rest are relative. A passenger is at rest relative to a train but moving relative to the
ground.

Types of motion: translational (rectilinear/curvilinear), rotational, circular, oscillatory/vibratory and periodic motion.

3. DISTANCE TRAVELLED AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance: Total length of the actual path travelled. It is a scalar quantity and is always non-negative.

Displacement: Shortest straight-line change from initial position to final position, with direction. It is a vector quantity.

Key relation: Magnitude of displacement ≤ distance travelled. They are equal only for straight-line motion without reversal.

Example: A person walks 5 m east and then 3 m west. Distance = 8 m; displacement = 2 m east.

4. SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed = distance / time. It is scalar. SI unit: m/s.

Average speed = total distance / total time.

Velocity = displacement / time. It is vector. SI unit: m/s.

Average velocity = total displacement / total time.

Uniform speed: equal distances in equal time intervals. Uniform velocity: equal displacements in equal time intervals
in the same direction.

Conversion: 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h; 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s.

5. ACCELERATION
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.

Average acceleration = (final velocity − initial velocity) / time.

a = (v − u)/t
SI unit: m/s². Acceleration is a vector quantity. If velocity decreases, acceleration opposite to the direction of velocity is
often called retardation/deceleration.
Important: An object can have zero acceleration while moving at constant velocity. In uniform circular motion, speed can
remain constant but velocity changes, so acceleration is present.
6. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOTION
Distance–time graph: Slope gives speed. A horizontal line means the object is at rest. A straight sloping line indicates
uniform speed.

Displacement–time graph: Slope gives velocity. Positive slope → positive velocity; negative slope → negative
velocity; zero slope → zero velocity.

Velocity–time graph: Slope gives acceleration; area under the graph gives displacement.

Acceleration–time graph: Area under the graph gives change in velocity.

Exam rule: Slope = rate of change; area under v–t graph = displacement.

7. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
For motion in a straight line with constant acceleration:

First equation: v = u + at

Second equation: s = ut + ½at²

Third equation: v² = u² + 2as

Fourth useful form: s = (u + v)t/2

Here u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = constant acceleration, t = time, s = displacement.

Special case from rest: u = 0 → v = at; s = ½at²; v² = 2as.

Derivation idea: From acceleration a = (v−u)/t, obtain v = u+at. Average velocity for uniform acceleration is (u+v)/2; multiplying by t gives s =
(u+v)t/2, and substitution gives the remaining equations.

8. PERIODIC MOTION
Periodic motion: Motion that repeats itself after equal intervals of time. The interval is called the time period T.

Frequency f = number of oscillations per second = 1/T. SI unit: hertz (Hz).

Angular frequency: ω = 2πf = 2π/T.

Examples: revolution of a planet, hands of a clock, vibration of a tuning fork, oscillation of a pendulum.

9. SIMPLE HARMONIC / OSCILLATORY MOTION

Oscillatory motion: To-and-fro motion about a mean/equilibrium position.

In ideal simple harmonic motion (SHM), restoring acceleration is proportional to displacement and directed toward the
mean position: a ∝ −x, or a = −ω²x.

Amplitude: maximum displacement from mean position. Time period: time for one complete oscillation. Frequency:
oscillations per second.

10. SIMPLE PENDULUM – APPLICATION OF OSCILLATORY MOTION

A simple pendulum consists ideally of a small bob suspended by a light, inextensible string from a fixed support. For
small angular oscillations, its motion is approximately SHM.

Law 1 – Length: T ∝ √L. A longer pendulum has a longer time period.

Law 2 – Acceleration due to gravity: T ∝ 1/√g. Greater g gives smaller T.

Law 3 – Mass: For small oscillations, T is independent of the mass of the bob.
Time period: T = 2π√(L/g)

Frequency: f = 1/T = (1/2π)√(g/L)

 Important conditions: small amplitude, light/inextensible string, small bob treated as a point mass, negligible air
resistance and friction.

Uses: clocks and timing devices; determining g; demonstrating periodic motion; classroom experiments.

11. PERIODIC MOTION – WAVES

Wave motion: Propagation of a disturbance through a medium or space that transfers energy from one region to
another without net transport of matter.

Wavelength λ: distance between two successive points in the same phase, such as crest-to-crest.

Wave speed: v = fλ = λ/T.

Frequency: number of complete waves per second. Amplitude: maximum displacement of particles from equilibrium.

Mechanical waves: require a material medium (e.g., sound). Electromagnetic waves: do not require a material medium
(e.g., light).

12. ENERGY, MOTION AND MECHANICAL WORK

Work: Work is done when a force causes displacement. For a constant force, W = Fs cosθ.
SI unit of work and energy: joule (J). Work is a scalar quantity.

Kinetic energy: energy possessed due to motion. KE = ½mv².

Potential energy: stored energy due to position/configuration. Near Earth's surface, gravitational PE = mgh.

Power: rate of doing work, P = W/t. SI unit: watt (W).

Mechanical energy: sum of kinetic and potential energies. In an ideal system without non-conservative losses, total
mechanical energy remains constant.

13. FORMS AND SOURCES OF ENERGY

Forms: mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, light/radiant, nuclear and sound energy.

Renewable sources: solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, geothermal and tidal energy. They are naturally replenished.

Non-renewable sources: coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuels such as uranium. Fossil fuels are finite and
cause significant environmental pollution.

Energy transformation: energy changes form but is not created or destroyed (law of conservation of energy). Example:
hydroelectric plant—gravitational potential energy → kinetic energy → mechanical energy → electrical energy.

14. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

First Law – Law of Inertia: A body remains at rest or continues in uniform straight-line motion unless acted upon by a
net external force.

Inertia: tendency of a body to resist change in its state of motion. Greater mass means greater inertia.

Second Law: Net force equals rate of change of momentum. For constant mass, F = ma.
SI unit of force: newton (N). 1 N = 1 kg·m/s².

Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The two forces act on different bodies, so they do
not cancel each other.

Momentum: p = mv. It is a vector quantity; SI unit kg·m/s.

Impulse: J = F∆t = ∆p. It equals change in momentum.

Examples: recoil of a gun, walking, swimming, rocket propulsion and jumping illustrate Newton’s third law.

15. MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

Acceleration due to gravity (g): acceleration produced in a freely falling body due to Earth's gravitational attraction.
Near Earth's surface, g ≈ 9.8 m/s² (often taken as 10 m/s² in elementary problems).

Ignoring air resistance, all bodies near the same location fall with the same gravitational acceleration, independent of mass.

Downward-positive convention: v = u + gt; s = ut + ½gt²; v² = u² + 2gs.

Upward-positive convention: v = u − gt; s = ut − ½gt²; v² = u² − 2gs.

Object dropped from rest: u = 0 → v = gt; s = ½gt².

Vertical upward throw: At maximum height, final velocity v = 0. Time to reach maximum height t = u/g; maximum height H
= u²/(2g). Total time of flight back to the same level = 2u/g.

Important: Gravitational acceleration acts downward throughout the flight, including while an object is moving upward.

16. QUICK FORMULA SHEET

Quantity Formula SI unit

Speed distance/time m/s

Velocity displacement/time m/s

Acceleration (v−u)/t m/s²

Momentum mv kg·m/s

Force ma N

Work Fs cosθ J

Kinetic energy ½mv² J

Potential energy mgh J

Power W/t W

Wave speed fλ m/s

Pendulum period 2π√(L/g) s

Frequency 1/T Hz

17. EXAM-ORIENTED KEY POINTS

1. Distance is scalar; displacement is vector.
2. Speed uses distance; velocity uses displacement.
3. Slope of displacement–time graph = velocity.
4. Slope of velocity–time graph = acceleration.
5. Area under velocity–time graph = displacement.
6. Area under acceleration–time graph = change in velocity.
7. Equations of motion apply directly to constant acceleration.
8. In uniform circular motion, velocity changes even if speed is constant.
9. Pendulum time period is independent of bob mass for small oscillations.
10. T = 2π√(L/g).
11. Wave relation: v = fλ.
12. Work can be zero when force is perpendicular to displacement.
13. Newton’s second law gives F = ma for constant mass.
14. Action and reaction act on different bodies.
15. In free fall, acceleration is g downward when air resistance is neglected.

18. PRACTICE EXAMPLES WITH ANSWERS

Example 1: A car travels 120 m in 10 s. Speed = 120/10 = 12 m/s.
Example 2: A body starts from rest with a = 2 m/s² for 5 s. v = 0 + 2×5 = 10 m/s; s = ½×2×25 = 25 m.

Example 3: A body has u = 5 m/s, a = 3 m/s² and t = 4 s. v = 5 + 12 = 17 m/s.

Example 4: If a wave has f = 50 Hz and λ = 2 m, v = fλ = 100 m/s.

Example 5: A 2 kg body moves at 3 m/s. KE = ½×2×9 = 9 J.

Example 6: A 5 kg object has acceleration 4 m/s². Force = ma = 5×4 = 20 N.

Example 7: A pendulum has L = 1 m and g ≈ 9.8 m/s². T ≈ 2π√(1/9.8) ≈ 2.01 s.