Introduction
Networks and Circuits
• The interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements forms an electrical network. If the network
contains at least one closed path, it is also an electric circuit.
Note: Every circuit is a network, but not all networks are circuits.
• A network that contains at least one active element, such as an independent voltage or current source,
is an active network. A network that does not contain any active elements is a passive network.
Types of Elements
• Active and Passive Elements
• Linear and Non-Linear Elements
• Bilateral and Unilateral Elements
• Distributed and Lumped Elements
• Time Invariant and Time Varying Elements
Active and Passive Elements
• In the presence of active sources, all the passive elements will absorb
the energy.
• Whenever they are absorbing the energy, the currents through them
will always flow from positive to negative terminals.
• In the absence of active sources, the stores energies in the memory
elements (L&C) will be delivered to the memoryless resistances.
• Whenever L & C elements are delivering the energy, the currents
through them will always flow from negative to positive terminals.
Note: As the resistor is always absorbing the energy, the current
through it always flow from positive to negative terminals.
Independent Voltage Sources
• An independent voltage source is characterized by a terminal voltage which is completely independent of the
current through it.
• The independent voltage source is an ideal source and does not represent exactly any real physical device,
because the ideal source could theoretically deliver an infinite amount of energy from its terminals. This
idealized voltage source does, however, furnish a reasonable approximation to several practical voltage
sources.
Independent Current Sources
• Another ideal source which we will need is the independent current source. Here, the current through the
element is completely independent of the voltage across it.
• Like the independent voltage source, the independent current source is at best a reasonable approximation for
a physical element.
• In theory it can deliver infinite power from its terminals because it produces the same finite current for any
voltage across it, no matter how large that voltage may be. It is, however, a good approximation for many
practical sources, particularly in electronic circuits.
Dependent Sources
• An element is said to be active if it delivers a net amount of energy to the outside
world, otherwise it is said to be passive.
• An element is said to be linear if for all time ‘t’ its characteristics is a straight line
through the origin otherwise it is said to be non-linear.
• An element is said to be bilateral if it offers same impedance for the different
directions of the same current s flow otherwise it is said to be unilateral.
• An element is said to be time invariant if its characteristics does not change with
time otherwise it is said to be time varying.
• The resistors, inductors and capacitors are said to be passive if and only if R≥ 0,
L≥0 and C ≥0 otherwise they are said to be active.
i.e., R<0, L<0 and C<0 (2nd and 4th quadrant characteristics).
• The opposition for the energy flow is continuous or distributive in nature but
practically we can approximate this single distributive opposition into the three
lumped oppositions called R, L and C for lower frequencies (upto 1 MHz).
• So the network theory is applicable only for the lower frequencies.
• At higher frequencies (above 1 MHz), we cannot approximate the distributive
elements into lumped elements hence no lumped electrical network.
• So no network theory. Hence the field theory approach is used directly on
distribution elements (conductors).
• Lumped elements are considered as the separate elements which are
small in size. Ex: Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors. In a lumped
element model, physical quantities are concentrated at specific points
in space and are function of time only. Ordinary differential equations
govern lumped elements.
• Distributive elements are not electrically separable. These are
distributed over the entire length of the circuit. Ex: Transmission lines.
In a distributed element model, physical quantities are dependent on
both time and space. Partial differential equations are used to
describe distributed elements.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• KCL is always defined at a node.
• Simple node is an interconnection of only two branches whereas principle node is an interconnection of
atleast 3 branches.
• The algebraic sum of the currents entering any node is zero. (or)
• In a lumped electrical circuit, for any of its nodes and at any time ‘t’, the algebraic sum of branch currents
leaving the node is zero.
• KCL applies to any lumped electrical circuit. It doesn’t matter whether
the elements are linear, non linear, active, passive, time varying, time
invariant etc. i.e, KCL is independent of nature of the elements
connected to the node.
• Since there is no accumulation of charge at any node, the KCL
expresses conservation of charge at each and every node in a lumped
electrical circuit.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• It is always expressed in a loop or mesh.
• The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.
• KVL is independent of nature of element present in a loop.
• KVL expresses conservation of energy in every loop of a lumped electrical
circuit.
KVL + Ohm’s Law = Mesh Analysis
KCL + Ohm’s Law = Nodal Analysis
• All the techniques discussed till now are network solving procedures. They
are valid only for the lumped electric circuits at a constant temperature
(where Ohm’s law is valid).
• The node and mesh analysis are independent to each other since KCL and
KVL are independent to each other.
• Both KCL and KVL are independent of nature of the elements.
• Ohm’s law is defined across an element, that element can be lumped or
distributive whereas KCL and KVL are defined for lumped electric circuits.
• Ohm’s law is not applicable for the active elements like sources
(generators) since the voltage and current relation is non-linear.
Mesh Analysis
• Identify the number of meshes.
• Assign mesh currents in the clockwise direction.
• By using KVL first and the Ohm’s law next write the mesh equation.
Nodal Analysis
• Identify the number of nodes.
• Assign the node voltages with reference to the ground node whose
voltage is always equal to zero.
• By using KCL first and Ohm’s law next, write the nodal equations.
INDUCTANCE
• Inductance is the property of a coil that opposes any change in the amount of current flowing through it.
• Inductance is defined as the ratio of flux linkage to the current flowing through the coil. The practical unit of
inductance is henry and is represented by the symbol H.
• The inductance of an inductor depends on the following factors.
(i) It is directly proportional to the square of the number of turns.
(ii) It is directly proportional to the area of cross section.
(iii) It is inversely proportional to the length.
(iv) It depends on the absolute permeability of the magnetic material.
CAPACITANCE
Tellegan’s Theorem
• In any arbitrary network, the algebraic sum of powers at any given instant is zero.
• Power delivered by some element is equal to the power absorbed by the
remaining elements in the network.
• When the current enters at the negative terminal of an element then the element
will deliver the power otherwise it will absorb the power.
• The sources can deliver the power or they can absorb the power whereas the
passive element will always absorb the power since the current will enter at the
positive terminal.
• Tellegan’s theorem depends on the voltage and current product in an element
but not on the type of element.
Note: While verifying Telllegan’s theorem do not disturb the original network given
for evaluating the voltages and currents in every element of the network.
STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION
When a circuit cannot be simplified by normal series–parallel reduction technique, the star-delta transformation
can be used.
The resistance between terminals 1 and 2
Referring to the star network, the resistance between terminals 1 and 2
= R1+R2.
Since the two networks are electrically equivalent,
Star to Delta Transformation