Textile Fabric Formation

Complete Master Notes — From Scratch to Exam-Ready

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, West Bengal | [Link] APM, Semester 4 | Paper Code: PC APM 401

Full Marks: 70 | Target: 50+ | Time: 3 Hours

These notes cover the complete syllabus Unit 1 through Unit 8 —

every concept, definition, working principle, diagram, comparison and
exam answer template you need to understand the subject from zero
and score well. Built for a student with no prior knowledge.
 How to Use These Notes & Exam Strategy
Read this page first — it will save you time and guide your focus

Paper Structure

Group Type Rule Marks

Group A Very Short (1 mark each) Answer any 10 of 12 10

Group B Short answer (5 marks each) Answer any 3 of 5 15

Group C Long answer (15 marks each) Answer any 3 of 5 45

Total 70

Syllabus vs Exam Coverage

Unit Topic Hrs Marks Likely in exam as

1 Introduction to Textile Fabric 3 5 Group A & B definitions

2 Weaving Process — terminology, looms, preparatory, sizing 8 20 Group C (15 marks), Group A/B

3 Shedding mechanisms 5 10 Group C (15 marks)

4 Picking and beat-up 8 20 Group C (15 marks), Group A/B

5 Secondary & auxiliary motions 3 5 Group C or B, Group A

6 Knitting process 5 10 Group B/C, Group A

7 Nonwoven 5 10 Group C (15 marks), Group B

8 Different types of woven fabric 8 20 Group A/B; drafting/lifting plans Group C

Exam-day plan: Group A — attempt all 12 one-liners (only best 10 count). Group B — pick any 3 of 5 short answers.
Group C — pick any 3 of 5 long answers. Always start each long answer with: (1) definition/principle, (2) a clearly labelled
sketch/diagram, (3) detailed step-by-step explanation, (4) brief summary. Diagrams earn dedicated marks — even a rough
labelled sketch is far better than no diagram.

How to write a complete answer for any mechanism question:

Step 1 — Define the process (2–3 lines). Step 2 — List components. Step 3 — Explain working step by step (numbered).
Step 4 — Draw and label the diagram. Step 5 — State merits/demerits or significance if relevant. Step 6 — Write one
concluding summary line.
 Unit 1 — Introduction to Textile Fabric
Syllabus: 3 Hrs / 5 Marks | Focus: definitions and fabric types — mostly Group A and B one-liners

1.1 What is a Textile Fabric?

Definition: A textile fabric is a flexible, planar (flat, sheet-like) structure produced by interlacing, interlooping, or
bonding yarns or fibres together, possessing properties such as strength, flexibility, coverage, porosity and drape, used
for clothing (apparel), household items and technical applications.

The word "planar" means it has two main dimensions (length and width) with relatively small thickness. Fabrics can be made
from natural fibres (cotton, wool, silk, jute), synthetic fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic), or blends of both.

1.2 Requirements of Fabric for Human Beings

Fabric must satisfy several needs:

Protection: from cold, heat, rain, UV radiation, abrasion, and mechanical hazards.
Comfort: softness against skin, breathability (air permeability), moisture absorption and wicking, thermal regulation.
Aesthetic appeal: colour, texture, surface finish, drape, lustre, and fashion value.
Durability: ability to withstand repeated use, washing, stretching and wear without deteriorating quickly.
Easy care: washability, dimensional stability (doesn't shrink badly), wrinkle resistance.
Technical/functional performance: flame resistance, waterproofing, antimicrobial properties, strength — depending on
end use (medical, sportswear, industrial, military).

1.3 Types of Fabric and Their Formation

Type Basic Formation principle Key property Examples

structural unit

Woven Yarn (warp + Two yarn sets interlace at right angles Stable, low stretch, Shirting, denim, canvas,
weft) strong voile, muslin

Knitted Yarn (single Yarn forms interlocking loops High elasticity, T-shirts, hosiery,
continuous) comfortable stretch sweaters, socks

Nonwoven Fibre (no yarn Fibres bonded/entangled mechanically, Economical, no yarn Diapers, masks,
needed) thermally or chemically stage needed geotextiles, wipes

Braided Yarn (3 or more Yarn systems interlace diagonally at angles Tubular structure Shoelaces, ropes, surgical
sets) possible, strong sutures

WOVEN KNITTED NONWOVEN BRAIDED

Interlacement (over/under)
Interlooping Fibre bonding (random web) Diagonal interlacing (3+ sets)

Fig 1.1 — Visual comparison of Woven, Knitted, Nonwoven and Braided fabric structure

1.4 Key Terms and Quick Facts (Group A bank)

Woven fabric with zero float: Plain weave (every thread interlaces at every crossing — no skipping/floating).
Source material for garment preparation: Fabric (woven/knitted/nonwoven) is cut and assembled into garments.
Sets of yarn needed for 3-D fabric: Minimum 3 sets (warp, weft, and a Z-direction set for thickness).
Sets of yarn needed for braid: Minimum 3 sets (diagonal interlacing of 3+ yarn systems).
Textile fabric definition (1 line): A flexible, planar structure of interlaced/interlooped/bonded yarns or fibres used for
apparel, household and technical purposes.
 Unit 2 — Weaving Process Part A: Terminology & Loom Basics
Syllabus: 8 Hrs / 20 Marks | Group A/B definitions + basis for all weaving questions

2.1 Principle of Woven Fabric Formation

Principle: A woven fabric is produced by the interlacement of two sets of yarn at right angles to each other — the warp
(lengthwise yarns) and the weft (crosswise yarn). The warp yarns are held under tension on the loom. The weft is inserted
through a gap (shed) created in the warp, one thread at a time. This interlacement, repeated continuously, builds up the
fabric.

Three primary (essential) motions make weaving possible, repeated every single pick:

1. Shedding — separating warp into upper and lower layers, creating the "shed" (gap)
2. Picking — inserting one weft thread (a "pick") through the shed
3. Beat-up — the reed swings forward and pushes the newly inserted weft pick firmly against the already-woven fabric

Two secondary motions keep the weaving going continuously:

1. Takeup motion — winds the newly made fabric forward onto the cloth roller at a controlled rate
2. Letoff motion — releases fresh warp yarn from the warp beam to replace what was just woven

2.2 Complete Loom Terminology (memorise all — Group A gold mine)

Term Full explanation

Warp Yarns running along the length of the fabric (lengthwise), held under tension between the warp beam (back)
and the cloth roller (front) on the loom.

Weft (Pick / Yarn inserted crosswise across the fabric width, interlacing with the warp. Each single weft insertion is called
Filling) one "pick."

Ends Individual warp yarns. "Number of ends" = how many warp threads run across the fabric width.

Picks Individual weft thread insertions. "Number of picks" = weft density per unit length = PPI (picks per inch) or
pick/cm.

Ends per inch Number of warp ends in one inch of fabric width — a measure of warp thread density.
(EPI)

Picks per inch Number of weft picks in one inch of fabric length — a measure of weft thread density.
(PPI)

Thread spacing Distance between the centres of adjacent warp threads (= 1/EPI) or adjacent weft picks (= 1/PPI).

Thread density General term for EPI or PPI — number of threads per unit length in either direction.

Fabric areal Weight of fabric per unit area — usually expressed as GSM (grams per square metre). Determined by yarn
density count, EPI, PPI and crimp.

Selvedge The two self-finished, non-fraying longitudinal edges of woven fabric, formed when the weft turns around at
each side of the loom. Prevents fabric from unravelling at edges.

Shed The triangular gap between the upper and lower warp sheet, created by shedding, through which the weft
carrier passes.

Fell of the cloth The line/point at which the last inserted weft pick meets the already-woven fabric — this is where weaving is
actively happening.

Heald (Heddle) A thin wire or cord with a central eye. Each warp thread passes through the eye of one heald. The heald guides
the warp up or down.

Heald shaft A rectangular frame carrying multiple healds. All warp ends threaded through the same heald shaft move
(Heald frame) together (up or down) during shedding. Minimum 2 shafts needed for plain weave.

Heald count Number of healds mounted per unit length of the heald shaft (e.g., 40 healds per inch). Determines spacing of
warp ends.

Reed A comb-like device made of closely spaced thin metal blades (called dents) mounted in a frame. Used to (a) beat
up the weft, and (b) keep warp ends at correct spacing.

Dent One gap between two adjacent blades of the reed, through which warp ends are threaded.
Reed count Number of dents per unit length of the reed (e.g., 60 dents per inch). Determines warp yarn density in the
(Sett) fabric.

Ends per dent Number of warp ends drawn through each individual dent of the reed. Commonly 1 or 2 ends per dent. EPI =
(yarns per dent) Reed count × ends per dent.

Pirn A small bobbin-like package with weft yarn wound on it, inserted inside the shuttle on shuttle looms. The weft
unwinds from the pirn as the shuttle travels across.

Shuttle A boat-shaped carrier (made of wood/synthetic material) that holds the pirn and is thrown across the shed to
insert weft.

Temple A device near the fell of the cloth that grips the fabric edges and holds them at the correct full width,
preventing width contraction after beat-up.

Race board A smooth surface at the bottom of the reed frame on which the shuttle slides during its traverse across the
(Race plate) loom.

Warp beam A large cylinder at the back of the loom on which the warp yarn is wound. Supplies warp to the loom during
weaving via the letoff motion.

Cloth roller A cylinder at the front of the loom on which the woven fabric is wound via the takeup motion.
(Fabric roll)

① Shedding② Picking ③ Beat-up

H2↓

Fell of cloth
Shed
H1↑
Shuttle Temple
Breast beam
Warp Beam Back rest Cloth Roller

Reed

Fig 2.1 — Complete loom layout (side view) showing all major parts and the three primary motions

2.3 Types of Looms

Type Weft carrier Speed Use / Feature

(picks/min)

Handloom Shuttle (hand-thrown) ~30–60 Small-scale, traditional weaving; all motions manual/foot-
operated

Power loom Shuttle (motor-driven) ~150–250 Large-scale conventional weaving; motor-driven primary
(shuttle) motions

Projectile loom Small metal projectile ~400–600 Wide-width, no pirn needed, lighter carrier than shuttle

Rapier loom Rigid/flexible rapier rod or ~300–500 Versatile, good for fancy yarns; weft transferred by rapier
tape head

Air-jet loom Compressed air jet ~600–1000+ Fastest; no mechanical carrier; only for light to medium
yarns

Water-jet loom Water jet ~400–600 Used only for non-absorbent (synthetic) yarns

Takeup mechanism in handloom: Negative/manual takeup — the weaver manually pulls the cloth forward using a
ratchet-and-pawl or simple friction brake, not a powered gear train.
Takeup mechanism used in handloom (1-mark answer): "Simple negative (manual) takeup mechanism."

Unit 2 (cont.) — Weaving Preparatory Process & Sizing

EXAM FOCUS — Appeared as 15-mark question in both 2023-24 and 2024-25. Know every step, every function, every diagram.

2.4 Why Preparatory Process is Needed

Yarn as it comes from the spinning mill is wound on a spinning bobbin — a small, fragile, non-uniform package. This cannot be
used directly on a loom because:

The package is too small to last a weaving run without frequent changes.
The yarn may contain faults (thick places, thin places, knots, loose fibres) that would cause weaving stoppages.
Warp yarn must be assembled from hundreds of individual ends into one wide sheet at exact tension and spacing.
Warp yarn needs to be strengthened to survive the repeated abrasion, tension and bending of weaving without breaking.

Therefore, a series of preparatory steps are carried out before weaving begins. These are collectively called the Weaving
Preparatory Process.

2.5 Passage of Warp Yarn — Process Flow

Spinning Winding Warping Sizing Drawing-in / LOOM

(most critical) Denting (Weaving)

Fig 2.2 — Complete passage of warp yarn through the weaving preparatory process (draw and label this in the exam)

2.6 Function of Each Process (write 2–3 lines each in the exam)

① Winding

Purpose: Transfers yarn from the small, irregular spinning bobbin onto a large, uniform, fault-free package (cone or
cheese) that can unwind smoothly at high speed during warping and weaving.

Also does: Yarn clearing — removing faults like thick/thin places, knots, slubs, and splicing or knotting broken ends,
making the yarn more uniform. A yarn-clearing device (electronic sensor or mechanical clearer) is used during winding to
detect and remove faults automatically.

Output package: Cone (tapered cylindrical package with yarn wound at an angle — most common for warp) or Cheese
(straight cylindrical package with parallel layers).

② Warping

Purpose: Combines hundreds of individual yarn ends from a creel of cones into one wide, parallel sheet of yarn, all at
equal tension and equal length, wound onto a warper's beam.

Why needed: A woven fabric may have 1,000 to 10,000+ warp ends. You cannot unreel all of these from separate cones
directly onto the loom. Warping assembles them into one neat, parallel sheet at exact length/tension so the loom can work
with them.

Types: Direct (beam) warping — all ends wound directly to one beam, fast for long runs. Sectional warping — beam built
in sections (strips), good for fancy/multi-colour warps.

③ Sizing (Slashing)

Purpose — the most important preparatory step for warp yarn:

1. Coat each warp thread with a thin film of size paste (adhesive — usually starch, PVA, CMC or their blends).
2. The size film increases yarn strength (by sticking fibre bundles together under the film), helping the warp survive
repeated tension and bending during weaving.
3. The size lays down / smooths protruding fibre hairs (hairiness) on the yarn surface, reducing friction between
adjacent warp ends and between warp and loom parts (healds, reed dents).
4. Together these effects dramatically reduce warp end breakage rate and increase loom efficiency (less downtime
for repairing broken ends).

Size paste ingredients: Adhesive (starch/PVA), lubricant (wax/tallow — to keep yarn pliable), softener, anti-microbial
agent, water.
Output: Sized warp wound onto the weaver's beam, ready to go on the loom.
④ Drawing-in (Drawing through healds and reed)

Purpose: Each warp end from the weaver's beam is individually threaded (drawn) through the correct heald eye in the
correct heald shaft, and then through the correct dent of the reed — in the exact sequence specified by the drafting plan
(which shaft controls which end) and the denting plan (how many ends per dent).

Why critical: This step physically sets up the weave structure. The order in which ends are drawn through heald shafts
determines which threads lift together, hence the weave pattern produced.

Alternative (if re-weaving a similar design): Instead of fresh drawing-in, new warp ends are knotted/tied to the old
warp already threaded through healds and reed — called "tying-in" or "knotting-in." Saves time since the old threading
sequence is already correct.

2.7 Objective of Sizing (2-mark question)

The main objectives of sizing are:

(1) To increase warp yarn tensile strength — sized yarn can be 30–50% stronger than unsized yarn, enabling it to
withstand weaving stresses.
(2) To bind down protruding fibre ends (reduce hairiness) on the yarn surface, which greatly reduces friction
between adjacent ends and between warp and heald/reed.
(3) To thereby reduce warp breakage rate, reduce weaving stoppages, and increase loom efficiency and productivity.

2.8 Size Add-on, Warp Breakage Rate and Loom Efficiency — Graph & Explanation (4 marks)

Size add-on % = (weight of dry size on yarn / original yarn weight) × 100. As this % increases from zero:

Initially, breakage rate falls sharply (even a small size coating greatly improves strength and reduces hairiness/friction).
Correspondingly, loom efficiency rises sharply (fewer stoppages).
Beyond the optimum size add-on, excess size makes yarn too stiff and brittle — the rigid size film cracks/flakes during
weaving, increasing fly/dust, friction, and shed-crossing difficulty. Breakage rate starts rising again; efficiency falls.
Therefore, for each yarn type there is an optimum size add-on % that minimises breakage and maximises loom efficiency.

Optimum
add-on point
max. efficiency
Loom Efficiency
Value →

Breakage Rate

min. breakage

Low Optimum High

Size Add-on % →

Fig 2.3 — Size add-on % vs Warp Breakage Rate and Loom Efficiency (sketch these two curves and mark the optimum point in the exam)

Scientific justification: Size reduces yarn surface friction and increases strength — but excess size creates a thick, rigid
coating that lacks flexibility, causing the film to crack during the repeated flexing over healds and through the reed,
releasing abrasive size particles (fly) that make conditions worse. Hence an optimum exists beyond which more sizing is
counterproductive.

2.9 Sizing Machine — Passage of Warp (9-mark question component)

The sized warp travels through the sizing machine in the following sequence:
 Warp Guide & Size Box Squeezing Drying Splitting Weaver's
Beam Creel Tensioner (immersion) Rollers Cylinders Rods Beam

Fig 2.4 — Passage of warp yarn through a sizing machine (draw each box and label in exam)

Function of each section:

Warp beam creel: Holds multiple warper's beams, releasing warp ends simultaneously under controlled tension.
Guide & tensioner: Guides warp ends and maintains uniform tension before the size box.
Size box: The warp sheet passes through a trough of hot size paste — yarn is fully immersed and wetted by the size.
Squeezing rollers (nip rollers): Two or more heavy rollers squeeze out excess size paste, leaving a controlled, uniform
amount of size in/on the yarn (this controls the add-on %).
Drying cylinders (steam-heated): Heated cylindrical drums evaporate moisture from the sized yarn, locking the size film
permanently onto the yarn surface.
Splitting rods: As warp ends stick together slightly during sizing and drying, these smooth rods separate the ends back
into individual threads without damaging the size film.
Weaver's beam: The fully sized, dried, and separated warp is wound uniformly onto the weaver's beam, which will then be
mounted on the loom.
 Unit 3 — Shedding Mechanisms
Syllabus: 5 Hrs / 10 Marks | EXAM FOCUS — the tappet shedding 15-mark question appeared nearly word-for-word in BOTH past papers. Master
this unit completely.

3.1 What is Shedding?

Definition: Shedding is the first primary motion of the loom. It is the process of separating the warp threads into two
distinct layers — an upper layer and a lower layer — creating a triangular opening between them called the shed, through
which the weft yarn is then inserted (by the picking motion).

Without shedding, the weft cannot interlace with the warp — so shedding is the foundation of fabric formation.

How it works conceptually: Some warp threads are raised (lifted up), others remain down. The gap between the lifted and
lowered threads forms the shed. On the next pick, the reverse happens (threads that were up go down, threads that were
down come up), so the weft passes through on alternate sides of the warp — creating interlacement.

3.2 Heald and Heald Shaft — the building blocks of shedding

Component What it is Function

Heald A thin metal wire or flat Each warp thread passes through the eye of one heald. When the heald moves up or
(Heddle) steel strip with a central eye down, it carries its warp thread with it.
(hole)

Heald shaft A rectangular frame All warp threads through one shaft move together. Moving the shaft up lifts all its
(frame) carrying many healds, side ends into the upper shed layer; down pushes them to the lower layer.
by side

Minimum 2 heald shafts Shaft 1 carries odd-numbered ends; Shaft 2 carries even-numbered ends. They
shafts for plain alternate up/down each pick, creating the over-one/under-one plain weave
weave interlacement.

3.3 Types of Shedding Mechanisms

Mechanism How pattern is controlled Max. heald shafts Suitable for

Tappet Non-circular rotating cams (tappets) on the bottom shaft Up to 8–12 Plain weave, simple twills,
(Cam) directly move the heald shafts simple patterns
Shedding

Dobby A dobby mechanism reads a pattern chain/dobby card to Up to 24–32 Complex twills, small
Shedding select which shafts lift each pick geometric patterns, small
repeats

Jacquard Jacquard machine controls each warp end individually via a Unlimited (each Large intricate designs,
Shedding hook-and-needle system reading a pattern card/electronic thread = individual brocades, damasks, figured
signal control) fabrics

Remember: Tappet shedding is for simple/few shafts, dobby for medium complexity, jacquard for maximum design
freedom. The exam focuses most heavily on tappet shedding.

3.4 Tappet Shedding — Working Principle (your guaranteed 10-mark/15-mark answer)

Components of Tappet Shedding Mechanism:

1. Bottom shaft — rotates at a sub-multiple of the crankshaft speed (for a 2-shaft plain weave, the bottom shaft rotates once
every 2 picks; i.e., at half the crankshaft speed).
2. Tappet (Cam) — a non-circular disc/plate mounted on the bottom shaft. Its profile has a "rise" (high point/lobe) and a
"dwell" (low/circular portion) and sometimes a "fall" region.
3. Bowl/roller (follower) — a roller that rests against the tappet's edge and follows its contour as it rotates.
4. Treadle lever — a lever, pivoted at one end, that holds the bowl/roller at its other end, transmitting the tappet's motion as
a rocking/reciprocating action.
5. Connector (lug strap / cord / rod) — connects the treadle lever to the heald shaft, transmitting the reciprocating motion.
6. Heald shaft — the frame carrying the healds (and warp ends), moved up/down by the treadle.
7. Return spring or counter-tappet — for a negative tappet, a spring pulls the shaft back up; for a positive (double) tappet,
a second cam controls the return positively.

Step-by-step working:
1. The main crankshaft drives the loom's picking and beat-up, and simultaneously drives the bottom shaft via a gear train at
the appropriate speed ratio.
2. The tappet (cam), mounted on the bottom shaft, rotates continuously with it.
3. As the tappet rotates, its non-circular profile causes its "high lobe" region to push against the bowl/roller, forcing the
roller outward (down).
4. This forces the treadle lever to pivot, pushing one end down.
5. Through the lug strap/connector, this downward motion is transmitted to pull the heald shaft downward.
6. When the tappet's "dwell" (low circular part) is in contact with the bowl, the treadle lever is released — a spring (or
counter-tappet) returns the heald shaft upward.
7. Meanwhile, the paired heald shaft (connected via a pulley or balanced lever on top, like a see-saw) does the opposite: when
shaft 1 goes down, shaft 2 goes up — and vice versa. This opens the shed.
8. The timing is set so the shed is fully open when the picking mechanism is about to throw the weft, and begins to close after
picking.

Overhead balance lever / pulley

↓ DOWN
Shaft 1

heald eye
Connector / lug strap

Shaft 2
↑ UP
Treadle lever (pivoted) SHED Weft

⬆ Spring return Bowl (roller follower)

Bottom Shaft Tappet/Cam

(non-circular profile)

Fig 3.1 — Tappet Shedding Mechanism: bottom shaft rotates tappet → bowl/treadle lever reciprocates → connector pulls Shaft 1 DOWN →
overhead balance raises Shaft 2 UP → shed opens for weft insertion

Positive vs Negative Tappet Shedding

Feature Negative Tappet Positive Tappet

Return of heald shaft By a spring or the weight of By a second tappet (paired cam) that positively controls both downward
the shaft AND upward motion

Number of tappets 1 tappet per shaft 2 tappets per shaft (one controls down, one controls up)
per shaft

Reliability Spring can wear, less positive More positive, reliable control; better for high-speed looms
control

Complexity Simpler More complex but more reliable

3.5 Heald Reversing Mechanism (5-mark sub-question — paired with tappet shedding
question)

What it is: A mechanism fitted to a tappet shedding loom that can reverse the normal up/down movement of a heald shaft
for specific picks during the weaving repeat.

Why it is needed: A given set of tappets is designed for a weave repeat containing a specific number of picks (usually an
even number, because the bottom shaft rotates once per repeat and it's geared to the crankshaft at a simple ratio).
 However, many weave designs have an odd number of picks per repeat (e.g., 3-pick, 5-pick repeats, certain twills).
Without correction, the normal tappet sequence would put two consecutive picks in the same shed position — an error in
the weave pattern.

How it works: The heald reversing mechanism, at the specific pick where the shaft should change direction,
mechanically reverses the lift/lower command to that shaft (via a reversing lever or cam arrangement), so the shaft makes
the opposite movement — lifting when it normally would have lowered (or vice versa). This corrects the weave without
needing to change the tappets.

Result: Allows the same set of tappets to weave odd-pick-repeat designs correctly, extending the versatility of the tappet
mechanism without additional tappets.

Exam answer (memorise this paragraph): "The heald reversing mechanism is used in tappet shedding to reverse the
normal direction of movement of a heald shaft at a particular pick in the weave repeat. It is required when a weave design
has an odd number of picks per repeat, because the basic tappet sequence (designed for even repeats) would otherwise
place two consecutive picks in the same shed position, creating a weaving error. The mechanism corrects this by
reversing the shaft's movement at the critical pick, enabling the same set of tappets to correctly produce odd-pick-repeat
weave designs without modification."

3.6 Comparison of Shedding Mechanisms

Feature Tappet Dobby Jacquard

Design complexity Simple designs Medium designs Complex, large, individual designs

No. of heald shafts Up to 12 Up to 32 Unlimited

Pattern flexibility Fixed by cam profile; limited High (changed by card/chain) Highest (each end controlled individually)

Cost and speed Cheap, highest loom speed Moderate cost, moderate speed Expensive, slower speed

Examples Plain, 2/2 twill Fancy twills, small geometrics Brocade, damask, figured fabrics

3.7 Drafting Plan and Lifting Plan

Drafting plan (Draw plan): A diagram showing the order in which warp ends are threaded through the heald shafts. It
tells you which shaft controls which warp end. It is written on point paper (graph paper) as a grid: columns = warp ends,
rows = heald shafts; a filled square = that end goes through that shaft.

Lifting plan (Peg plan / Tie-up plan): A diagram showing which heald shafts are raised (or lowered) for each pick.
Combined with the drafting plan, it completely determines the weave structure of the fabric.

Together: Weave structure = drafting plan + lifting plan.

Straight Draft (most common drafting plan)

Straight draft: The simplest and most widely used drafting plan. Warp ends are drawn through heald shafts in strict
numerical order: end 1 → shaft 1, end 2 → shaft 2, end 3 → shaft 3 ... end n → shaft n, end n+1 → shaft 1 again (repeat). On
point paper, this appears as a diagonal line of filled squares.

Why straight draft is widely popular (Group-A question):

(1) It is the simplest drafting sequence — no calculation or special pattern needed, minimising drawing-in errors and time.
(2) It is universally applicable — the vast majority of common weave designs (plain weave, twills, satins, and their
derivatives) can all be produced using a straight draft simply by changing the lifting plan.
(3) It gives the most even distribution of warp ends across all heald shafts, ensuring uniform tension and wear on each
shaft.
(4) In any disruption (broken end, shaft problem), the loom setter immediately knows which shaft to check for any given
end position, simplifying maintenance.
Straight Draft (4-shaft, plain weave)
Drafting Plan (ends vs. shafts): Resulting
Lifting Plan (picks vs. shafts lifted) — Plain Plain
Weave:Weave:
End: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pick: 1 2
Shaft Shaft
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 ■ 1
Plain weave design on point paper
← diagonal pattern = straight draft → Green = shaft lifted for that pick

Fig 3.2 — Straight Draft (point paper), Lifting Plan and resulting Plain Weave design
 Unit 4 — Picking and Beat-up
Syllabus: 8 Hrs / 20 Marks | EXAM FOCUS — heaviest unit; picking mechanisms, types, shuttle vs shuttleless, selvedge, temple, beat-up

4.1 Picking — Definition and Importance

Definition: Picking is the second primary motion of the loom. It is the process of inserting one weft thread (called a
"pick") through the open shed — the gap created between the upper and lower warp layers by shedding — across the full
width of the loom. Each insertion is called one pick; the number of picks inserted per unit time (picks per minute, ppm)
determines the loom's weaving speed.

The weft carrier (whatever device carries the weft across) must: travel completely across the loom width, insert the weft, and
return (or be ready for the next insertion) before the shed changes and the reed beats up.

4.2 Two Major Categories of Picking

A. Shuttle picking (conventional) — weft wound on a pirn inside a shuttle; the shuttle is thrown across the shed.

B. Shuttleless picking (modern) — weft package stays at the side; only the weft itself (or a lightweight weft carrier) enters
the shed, not a large shuttle.

4.3 Shuttle Picking — In Detail

The pirn and shuttle

Pirn: A small, tapered bobbin on which weft yarn is wound in a specific way (package builds from tip to base). The pirn sits
inside the shuttle cavity.
Shuttle: A solid, boat-shaped body (traditionally seasoned wood, now often synthetic) weighing 400–600g, with a metal tip
at each end. Carries the pirn; one end has a threading eye through which the weft exits.
As the shuttle is thrown across, the weft unwinds from the pirn through the eye, laying a weft thread across the shed.

Cone-Over Picking Mechanism — Working Principle (12-mark question)

What "cone-over" means: The picking cam (tappet) surface and the picking strap interact through a cone-shaped
surface/roller. The cone shape causes the motion to transfer very suddenly and sharply at the moment of pick — converting a
gradual cam rotation into a sudden, powerful jerk — like a whip crack — which is exactly what's needed to propel a heavy
shuttle to full speed in milliseconds.

Components:

1. Picking shaft (or bottom shaft pick arm) — driven by the main loom shaft.
2. Picking tappet (cam) — rotates with the picking shaft; designed to release a sharp impulse at the correct moment of each
pick.
3. Picking bowl (cone-shaped roller) — follower that contacts the tappet's surface; its cone profile creates the sudden
motion amplification.
4. Picking strap (lug strap) — a strong leather/synthetic strap connected between the picking treadle and the picking stick.
5. Picking stick — a long rigid lever, hinged at its base, with a picker at its top.
6. Picker — a robust cup of leather or synthetic material at the top of the picking stick, which directly contacts and strikes
the shuttle.
7. Shuttle box — the compartment at each side of the loom that receives the shuttle and holds it ready for the next pick.
8. Buffer/spring in box — absorbs the shuttle's kinetic energy as it arrives, decelerating it safely within the box.

Step-by-step working:

1. The picking tappet rotates with the picking shaft.

2. At the correct instant (when the shed is fully open), the tappet's profile contacts the cone-shaped picking bowl, exerting a
sharp, sudden outward push on it.
3. The cone surface amplifies this into a very rapid, high-force motion transmitted to the picking strap.
4. The picking strap pulls the bottom of the picking stick inward very rapidly.
5. Since the picking stick is pivoted at its base, its top end (with the picker) swings rapidly outward.
6. The picker strikes the shuttle (sitting in the shuttle box) with a very fast, powerful blow.
7. The shuttle is launched at high speed across the loom on the race plate, through the open shed, from one shuttle box to the
 other.
8. Weft unwinds from the pirn inside the shuttle as it travels.
9. The shuttle is received in the opposite shuttle box, decelerated by the buffer.
10. On the next pick, the mechanism on the other side picks the shuttle back in the reverse direction.

Picking Stick
← Picker strikes shuttle
Picker
Shuttle Box Receiving Box
Shuttle flies across shed
Shuttle Open shed
(with buffer)
Race plate (shuttle slides across this)

Picking
Strap

Cone Bowl

Picking Tappet
Picking Shaft

Fig 4.1 — Cone-Over Shuttle Picking Mechanism (label all components in exam)

4.4 Merits and Demerits of Shuttle Picking (7-mark question)

Merits of Shuttle Picking Demerits of Shuttle Picking

Simple, well-understood, robust mechanism; low loom cost and easy Heavy shuttle (400–600 g) thrown at high speed → very high
maintenance noise, vibration, mechanical wear on the loom and shuttle
boxes

Weft is inserted continuously (shuttle carries weft back and forth Loom speed severely limited (heavy mass must be
across the full width), forming a natural, strong, continuous accelerated to full speed and decelerated to stop, every pick)
selvedge automatically at both edges — no special selvedge device — typically max 200–250 picks/min vs 600–1000 for air-jet
needed

Weft appears as a continuous thread interlaced on both sides — Frequent pirn changes required when weft runs out —
suitable for many traditional fabric structures requiring interlaced stopping the loom, removing empty pirn, inserting new pirn
selvedge (donning) and restarting. Reduces loom efficiency
significantly.

Can handle relatively thick/heavy/irregular weft yarns (since weft is Pirn winding is an additional preparatory process (time, cost,
inside a protected shuttle) extra machinery needed)

Suitable for a wide range of fabric widths including narrow fabrics Shuttle flying out of the loom is a serious safety hazard to
operators

— Weft yarn in the pirn must be wound in a specific way — not

all yarn types or package sizes are suitable for pirn winding

4.5 Shuttleless Picking Systems

In shuttleless looms, the weft package (a large cone or cheese) stays stationary at the side of the loom. Only the weft itself (or
a very light carrier) enters the shed, not a large, heavy shuttle. This allows much higher speeds.

① Projectile (Gripper) Loom

Working: A small, lightweight metal projectile (a few grams, compared to a 400–600g shuttle) with a gripper jaw at its
front grips the weft tip from the stationary package. The projectile is accelerated across the shed by a powerful torsion
bar/spring mechanism, releasing the stored torsional energy in a sharp impulse (like a catapult). On arrival at the
receiving side, the weft is released and the projectile returns along a guide rail back to the sending side, ready for the
next pick.

Advantages of projectile picking: (1) Very light carrier → very high speed possible. (2) Weft package stays stationary,
so no pirn winding needed. (3) Low noise and vibration. (4) Wide range of weft yarns and wide looms economically
possible. (5) Easy multi-color weft changes (multiple projectiles can carry different yarn types simultaneously in a multi-
 box system).

② Rapier Loom

Working: A rigid or flexible rod/tape (the "rapier") with a weft gripper at its tip carries weft from the package into the
shed.

Single rapier: One long rapier inserts across the full loom width, then withdraws.
Double rapier: Two shorter rapiers — one from each side — meet in the middle of the shed; one (the "giver") passes
the weft to the other (the "taker"), which withdraws it to the opposite side. More efficient; can weave wider fabrics
with shorter rapier travel.

③ Air-Jet Loom

Working: A focused jet of compressed air propels the weft yarn through the shed at very high speed. Relay nozzles
placed at intervals along the reed profile (profiled reed/multi-nozzle system) maintain the air jet's carrying force across
the full width. No mechanical carrier enters the shed at all.

Advantages: No mechanical mass thrown → fastest weft insertion rate of all loom types. Very low vibration. Very quiet
compared to shuttle looms. Suitable for light to medium weight yarns (not heavy/hairy yarns since air cannot carry them
well).

④ Water-Jet Loom

Working: A thin, focused jet of water carries the weft thread across the shed by friction with the water stream. The weft
must be non-absorbent (synthetic: polyester, nylon) — natural fibres like cotton absorb the water and do not work. Used
in specialised environments where water management is possible.

4.6 Weft Insertion Rate (WIR) — Comparison (5-mark question)

Definition: Weft Insertion Rate (WIR) is a measure of how fast weft is being laid into the fabric, accounting for both
speed and loom width.
Formula: WIR (m/min) = Picks per minute (ppm) × Loom weaving width (m)

Loom type Typical WIR Reason

picks/min ranking

Shuttle loom 150–250 LOWEST Heavy shuttle mass limits acceleration/speed; energy wasted decelerating shuttle
each pick

Rapier 200–350 Low Rapier must travel full width and return; limited by rapier mass and reed length
(single)

Rapier 300–500 Moderate Each rapier only travels half the width; weft transfer in middle; faster than single
(double) rapier

Projectile 400–600 High Very light carrier (few grams); high insertion speed; projectile returns by gravity rail
loom

Air-jet loom 600–1200 HIGHEST No mechanical mass at all; weft carried by air — only limited by air pressure and yarn
characteristics

Water-jet 400–600 High Similar to air-jet principle but limited to synthetic yarns only
loom

Conclusion to write in exam: "The weft insertion rate increases progressively as the mass of the weft carrier decreases
— from the heavy shuttle (lowest WIR) to the massless air jet (highest WIR). Air-jet looms achieve the highest WIR
because there is no mechanical mass entering the shed; only air (which has negligible mass) carries the weft, so
acceleration is virtually unlimited."

4.7 Comparison: Shuttle vs Shuttleless Picking

Parameter Shuttle Shuttleless

Weft carrier Pirn inside shuttle; shuttle Projectile / rapier / air / water; weft package stationary at side
thrown

Speed Low (~150–250 ppm) High (300–1200 ppm depending on type)

Noise/vibration Very high Low to moderate

Selvedge Natural, continuous (no special Cut selvedge (weft cut at edge each pick) — special tucked-in or leno selvedge
device needed) device needed to prevent fraying

Weft waste Low (weft turns at selvedge with Some waste at each selvedge (cut weft tail)
no cutting loss)

Weft package Small pirn inside shuttle; Large cheese/cone; very infrequent changes
frequent changes

Preparatory Pirn winding needed No pirn winding needed

process

Loom cost Low High

Running High due to pirn changes, noise, Low; much higher production efficiency
cost/efficiency maintenance

Yarn types Wide range (yarn protected Some limitations (e.g., air-jet not for heavy/hairy yarns; water-jet only for
inside shuttle) synthetics)

4.8 Selvedge in Woven Fabric

Selvedge (selvage): The finished, non-fraying longitudinal edges of a woven fabric, produced by the turning of the weft
yarn at each side of the loom.
Shuttle loom: Natural/true selvedge — the weft turns around at each edge inside the shuttle box, making a clean,
continuous, strong, locked edge automatically.
Shuttleless loom: The weft is cut at the selvedge edge after each pick. Various methods are used to prevent fraying:

Tucked-in selvedge: The cut weft end is folded back and tucked into the shed of the next pick by a special
needle/tucker device, locking it in.
Leno selvedge: Extra warp threads at the edge twist around each weft pick, locking it in place without cutting or
tucking.
Fused selvedge: For thermoplastic yarns, the cut edge is fused by heat to prevent unravelling.

4.9 Function of Temple (5-mark question)

What is a temple: A device placed on the loom near the fell of the cloth on both the left and right sides of the fabric,
gripping the fabric edges.

Why the fabric contracts at the edges: When the weft is beaten up into the shed, the warp threads at the edges tend to
be pulled inward (toward the fabric centre) because the weft runs straight across but must then curve around the
outermost warp thread at each side. This causes the fabric to be narrower than the reed width, especially near the fell —
a phenomenon called "draw-in" or "loss of width."

Function of the temple:

1. The temple grips the woven fabric at both edges, just behind the fell, using small pins, needles, or serrated rollers that
dig slightly into the fabric edge.
2. It holds (stretches) the fabric out to its correct full weaving width at the fell.
3. This prevents the warp threads from converging inward, maintaining correct EPI at the selvedge.
4. Results: uniform fabric width, correct weft angle (weft lies perpendicular to warp), prevention of selvedge damage, and
prevention of broken warp ends at the edges.
 Without Temple (fabric draws in):
Reed width

Temple Temple
← Fabric narrows (draw-in) →

With Temple: fabric held at full reed width at the fell ✓

Fig 4.2 — Effect of draw-in and the role of the temple in maintaining full fabric width at the fell

4.10 Beat-up — Third Primary Motion

Beat-up: Immediately after the weft is inserted (picking), the shed closes and the reed swings forward (toward the fell of
the cloth) and pushes the newly inserted weft pick firmly against the last pick of the already-woven fabric (the fell). This is
called beat-up. It compacts the weft picks to the correct spacing (PPI) and consolidates the fabric.

Mechanism: The reed is carried in the sley (slay) — a swinging frame pivoted at the bottom of the loom. The sley is
driven by the crankshaft via a crank-and-connecting-rod mechanism, giving it a back-and-forth (oscillating) motion. When
the sley swings forward, the reed beats up. When it swings back, the shed is opened for the next pick.

Timing of primary motions

All three primary motions are precisely timed relative to each other in one revolution of the crankshaft (= one pick cycle):

1. Shed opens fully → picking begins.

2. Weft carrier travels across shed → picking complete → shed begins to close.
3. Reed swings forward → beat-up → reed returns to back position.
4. Next shed opens → repeat.

4.11 Loom Speed, Loom Width and Production Rate

Fabric production rate (m/hr): = (ppm × 60) / PPI × loom efficiency

Where ppm = picks per minute, PPI = picks per inch of fabric length.

Increasing loom speed (ppm) increases production rate but requires more robust mechanisms. Increasing loom width
increases fabric width but increases the challenge for weft insertion (carrier must travel further).
 Unit 5 — Secondary and Auxiliary Motions
Syllabus: 3 Hrs / 5 Marks | Takeup and letoff — conceptual understanding + PPI calculation; also auxiliary stop motions

5.1 Why Secondary Motions are Needed

The three primary motions (Shedding, Picking, Beat-up) repeat every pick and directly form the fabric. But without two
additional secondary motions, the loom would quickly run out of warp (or the fabric would pile up at the front). These are:

1. Letoff motion — releases fresh warp from the warp beam as it is consumed by weaving.
2. Takeup motion — winds the newly formed fabric forward onto the cloth roller at a controlled rate, making room for the
next pick and setting the PPI.

5.2 Letoff Motion

Purpose: To release warp yarn from the warp beam continuously and at a controlled rate, maintaining near-constant
warp tension throughout the weaving run. Warp tension must be:

Not too tight → would cause excessive warp breakages.

Not too loose → would cause an unclear/poor shed, poor interlacement, and fabric defects (missing picks, broken
picks).

Types of Letoff Motion

Feature Negative Letoff Positive Letoff

How beam Beam is held back by a braking/friction device (weight or spring- Beam is actively driven to rotate and
releases yarn loaded brake band). When warp tension increases (as fabric is release a calculated, precise length of warp
woven and beam shrinks), the warp itself pulls against the brake at each pick via a gear/cam mechanism —
with enough force to slip the brake and release yarn — "demand like a servo system, irrespective of tension
controlled." changes.

Compensation Poor — as beam gets smaller (warp depletes), the brake must be re- Good — the gear train automatically
for beam adjusted manually or tension will drift adjusts for reducing beam diameter
diameter (positive system regulates feed per
change rotation)

Tension control Less precise; tension varies during run More precise; consistent tension

Cost/Complexity Simple, low cost Complex, higher cost; used on modern

automatic looms

Use Handlooms, simple power looms Modern automatic looms, especially for
sensitive/fine yarns

5.3 Takeup Motion

Purpose: To wind the woven fabric off the fell of the cloth and onto the cloth roller at a controlled, constant rate. The rate
at which fabric is taken up per pick directly determines PPI (picks per inch):

Less fabric taken up per pick → picks are packed more closely together → higher PPI.
More fabric taken up per pick → picks are spread further apart → lower PPI.

Therefore, the takeup motion controls weft density (PPI) of the fabric.

Types of Takeup Motion

Feature Negative Takeup Positive (Seven-Wheel) Takeup

Mechanism Ratchet-and-pawl system with friction weights/brakes; the beat- A gear train of (typically) 7 gears positively drives
up force nudges the ratchet forward slightly each pick; the cloth roller by a precise, calculated amount
resistance from friction determines how much. every pick, directly and actively.

PPI control Less accurate; prone to drift over time as beam builds up and Very accurate and consistent PPI throughout the
accuracy resistance changes cloth roller build-up

Use Handlooms, simple/older looms All modern power looms

 PPI By changing weight/friction By changing the change wheel (PPI pinion) in
adjustment the gear train

5.4 Seven-Wheel Positive Takeup — PPI Relationship

The gear train consists of about 7 gears between the driving shaft and the cloth roller. One of these gears is the change
wheel (also called PPI wheel or change pinion). By swapping this wheel for another with a different number of teeth, the gear
ratio changes, altering the fabric advance per pick, hence the PPI.

Larger change wheel → more fabric advance per pick → lower PPI
Smaller change wheel → less fabric advance per pick → higher PPI
Change Cloth
Driving G1 G2 Wheel G4 G5 G6 G7
shaft Roller

← swap to change PPI →

Fig 5.1 — Seven-wheel positive takeup gear train; swapping the change wheel controls PPI of the fabric

PPI formula (conceptual):

PPI ∝ 1 / (fabric advance per pick) ∝ 1 / (change wheel size in gear ratio context)
In practice: PPI × change wheel teeth = constant (for a given gear train design).
So: higher change wheel tooth count → lower PPI; lower change wheel tooth count → higher PPI.

Group-A answer: "In a power loom takeup mechanism, PPI can be adjusted by changing the change wheel (PPI wheel /
change pinion) in the seven-wheel gear train."

5.5 Relationship Between Takeup and Letoff

Interdependence: Both secondary motions must work in precise balance and synchronisation with each other and with
the primary motions:
If letoff releases too little warp → warp tension increases → warp breakages.
If letoff releases too much warp → warp goes slack → poor shed, picks fall back (beat-up fails), fabric defects.
If takeup is too fast → picks spread too far apart → PPI too low → fabric too open.
If takeup is too slow → picks bunch up → PPI too high → fabric too dense, may cause loom to stall.

Together they control warp tension, PPI, and fabric quality — any imbalance causes fabric defects or loom stoppages.

1-mark answer: "Takeup and letoff motions are related in that they must be balanced and synchronised — takeup winds
fabric forward at the correct rate while letoff simultaneously releases an equal length of fresh warp from the beam,
maintaining constant warp tension and correct weft spacing (PPI)."

5.6 Change of Pick Spacing in Loom (Concept of PPI Change)

If the weaver wants to make a fabric with more picks per inch (denser fabric):

1. Fit a smaller change wheel in the takeup gear train → less fabric advances per pick → picks pack more closely → higher
PPI.
2. Simultaneously, adjust the letoff brake (negative) or letoff gear (positive) to release less warp per pick, matching the
reduced fabric advance.

5.7 Warp Stoop Motion and Warp Protector

Warp stop motion (drop wire system): Each warp end passes through a thin metal wire (drop wire) hung on it. If the
end breaks, the drop wire falls, completing an electrical circuit or releasing a mechanical catch that stops the loom
instantly. Prevents the loom from weaving missing-end defects.
Warp protector motion: If the shuttle fails to complete its traverse (misses the receiving box) while the shed is closing,
the warp threads would be broken or the reed smashed by the shuttle hitting the closed shed. The warp protector senses
this and immediately prevents the reed from beating up, stopping the loom before damage occurs.
Weft stop motion: Detects when the pirn runs empty or the weft breaks; stops the loom to prevent a "weft bar" (a visible
band of missing weft) in the fabric.
 Unit 6 — Knitting Process
Syllabus: 5 Hrs / 10 Marks | Principle, terminology, types, comparison with weaving — Group A/B and possible Group C comparison question

6.1 Introduction to Knitted Fabric

Knitting is a method of producing fabric by interlooping one or more yarns using needles. In knitting, yarn is bent into
loops and each new loop is pulled through the previous loop, creating an interconnected structure of loops. This is
fundamentally different from weaving (interlacement at right angles) and nonwoven (bonded fibres).

Knitted fabric is characterised by its high stretch and recovery in multiple directions, softness, and comfort — making it ideal
for body-hugging and stretch garments.

6.2 Knitting Terminology

Term Complete explanation

Loop The basic structural unit of knitted fabric. One loop = one bend of yarn pulled through another loop by a needle. The
entire fabric is built from interlocking loops.

Course A horizontal row of loops, running across the width of the fabric. In weft knitting, one course is formed in one pass of
the carriage (one row of hand knitting, or one revolution of a circular knitting machine). Courses run perpendicular to
the direction of knitting.

Wale A vertical column of loops, running along the length (in the direction of knitting) of the fabric. Each needle forms its
own wale, stacking loops vertically. "Wales per inch" is a measure of fabric width density.

Loop The length of yarn consumed in forming one complete loop (measured in mm). It is the primary control parameter in
length knitting: longer loop length → less yarn per unit area → lower fabric weight, looser, more extensible fabric. Shorter
loop length → more yarn per unit area → heavier, denser, more compact fabric.

Stitch Number of loops per unit area = (courses per unit length) × (wales per unit width).
density

Fabric Weight per unit area (g/m²), controlled by yarn count, loop length, and stitch density.
areal
density
(GSM)

Field of T-shirts, hosiery (socks, stockings), sweaters, sportswear, swimwear, underwear, gloves, carpets (cut-pile), medical
application compression garments.

One loop

(horizontal row of loops)

COURSE

WALE
(vertical column)

Fig 6.1 — Knitted fabric loop structure showing Courses (horizontal rows) and Wales (vertical columns)

6.3 Basic Loop Types

Loop type Formation Effect in fabric

Knit Needle draws new loop through the old loop from back to front. Smooth V-shape visible on face side; basic fabric
(face/plain) The top part of the loop (the head) faces the front of the fabric. unit for all knitted structures.
loop

Purl loop Needle draws new loop from front to back — the reverse of Horizontal bar (crossbar) visible on face side.
knit. The loop head faces the back of the fabric. Combining knit and purl in alternation creates
 different texture.

Tuck loop A needle receives a new loop (yarn feeds) but does NOT Creates a raised, textured surface, increased fabric
release/cast off the old loop — it holds both loops together on width/thickness, used for patterning and jacquard
the needle for one or more picks before casting off. The held effects.
loops form a tuck/pile on the fabric surface.

Float A selected needle is not activated for one or more picks — the Creates colour patterns (yarn floats on back,
(Miss) loop yarn passes straight across it (floats) without forming a loop. different colour shows on face). Used for colour-
The yarn "floats" on the back of the fabric across that needle pattern (Fair Isle, Jacquard) knitting. Float creates
position. fabric with less stretch in that area.

6.4 Warp Knitting vs Weft Knitting

Feature Weft Knitting Warp Knitting

Yarn One or few continuous yarns supplied crosswise (weft- Many yarns supplied lengthwise (warp-wise) — one per
supply wise); loops formed row by row across the width. needle; each yarn forms loops along the length (wale).

Run Poor — one broken loop can cause a "run" (ladder) Good — interlocking of adjacent wale loops prevents running
resistance running vertically up/down

Stretch High in both directions Less stretch (especially lengthwise); more dimensionally
stable

Machine Circular knitting machine, V-bed flat machine, hand Warp knitting machine (Raschel, Tricot)
type knitting

Speed Moderate Very high production speed

Examples T-shirts, socks, sweaters, underwear Lace, net fabric, swimwear, automotive trim, medical
bandages

6.5 Rib, Purl and Interlock Structures

Plain (Single jersey) knit: All loops formed in the same direction on a single-bed machine — face side shows V-shapes
(knit), back shows horizontal bars (purl). Different appearance on two sides.
Rib knit: Alternating columns of knit and purl stitches (e.g., 1×1 rib = one column knit, one column purl, repeating).
Formed on a double-bed (two sets of needles) machine. Excellent crosswise elasticity and recovery — used for cuffs,
collars, waistbands.
Purl knit: Alternating courses of knit and purl (rows of knit and purl alternating). Same appearance on both sides. High
lengthwise stretch.
Interlock knit: Two rib structures interlocked together (each needle set knits alternately so they interlock). Results in a
smooth, double-faced, thicker fabric — identical appearance on both sides; more stable and less stretchy than plain jersey.

6.6 Comparison: Weaving vs Knitting vs Nonwoven

Parameter Weaving Knitting Nonwoven

Basic structural Yarn (warp + weft, 2 sets) Yarn (1 continuous or few Fibre (no yarn at all)
unit yarns)

Method of fabric Interlacement of two yarn sets at Interlooping of yarn Bonding/entanglement of fibres directly
formation right angles

Stretch/Elasticity Low (unless special elastic yarns High in both directions (loops Generally low; can be engineered to any
used); dimensionally stable can flatten/extend easily) level depending on fibre/bonding type

Strength High (in warp and weft Moderate; loops distribute Generally lower strength than woven/knitted
directions) stress for same weight; depends on bonding
method

Drape and Stiff to moderately drapey; Soft, comfortable, conforms Paper-like (some) to soft-fabric-like
handle depends on yarn count, weave to body shape (spunbonded/meltblown); wide range
structure

Process steps Many: spinning, winding, Fewer: spinning + winding, Fewest: fibre preparation → web formation →
warping, sizing, drawing-in, then then directly to knitting bonding (no yarn spinning needed)
weaving machine
Production rate Moderate High Highest

Cost Moderate to high (many process Moderate (fewer steps) Lowest (fewest steps, no yarn needed)
steps)

Typical Shirting, denim, canvas, suiting, T-shirts, sportswear, hosiery, Diapers, masks, geotextiles, wipes,
applications furnishing sweaters interlinings

6.7 Group-A Answers on Knitting

Main advantage of hand knitting: Hand knitting allows complex, custom, individually designed patterns and 3D
shaping (such as sweater panels, socks, mittens with unique motifs) without any machine, requiring only needles and yarn
— very low capital investment; ideal for one-off, artisanal, or custom production where machine setup cost is not justified.

Name a knitted garment produced by hand knitting: Sweater / pullover (also: muffler, socks, gloves, cap/beanie,
baby bootees).

Five hand-knitted products: Sweater, Muffler/Scarf, Socks, Gloves, Cap/Beanie.

 Unit 7 — Nonwoven Fabric
Syllabus: 5 Hrs / 10 Marks | EXAM FOCUS — high-ROI unit; definition, classification, field of application, comparison with woven/knitted —
appeared as Group B and Group C every year

7.1 What is Nonwoven Fabric?

Definition: A nonwoven fabric is a flat, porous sheet structure made directly from fibres (not from yarns) by holding the
fibres together through a bonding or interlocking mechanism — mechanical, thermal, chemical, or solvent-based —
without the conventional textile processes of weaving, knitting, or braiding.

Key distinguishing feature: Unlike woven (uses interlaced yarns) and knitted (uses interlooped yarn), nonwoven is
made directly from loose fibres bonded/entangled into a web — there is no yarn formation stage. This makes
nonwoven the simplest, fastest, and most economical way to convert fibre into a fabric-like sheet.

7.2 Raw Materials

Raw material for nonwoven (1-mark answer): Staple fibres or continuous filaments, which can be natural (cotton,
jute, wool) or, more commonly, synthetic (polypropylene, polyester, viscose/rayon, nylon). These are used directly as loose
fibres — not spun into yarn first.

7.3 Complete Classification of Nonwoven

Classification is done in TWO stages: (Stage 1) how the fibre web is formed, and (Stage 2) how the web is bonded.

STAGE 1 — WEB FORMATION METHODS

Method Process Fibre Best for

arrangement

Dry-laid: Fibres are opened, cleaned, and carded (combed/aligned) on a card machine, Predominantly Products needing
Parallel then laid as a web on a moving conveyor directly — fibres all run in one parallel to strength in one
(Carded) direction (machine direction). machine direction only
direction

Dry-laid: Carded webs are passed through a cross-lapper that lays successive layers of Fibres Products needing
Cross-laid web at an angle to the machine direction (criss-crossing), building up a multi- distributed at balanced isotropic
(Cross- layer web. angles — more properties
lapped) balanced in all (geotextile, filter)
directions

Air-laid Fibres are broken apart into individual fibres, carried by an air stream, and Truly random Absorbent products
deposited randomly onto a perforated forming drum or belt through which the 3D (wipes, diapers,
air is sucked out. arrangement hygiene)
(isotropic)

Wet-laid Short fibres are dispersed in water (like a paper slurry), then the suspension Random, Fine, paper-like
is deposited on a moving wire screen (like papermaking) and the water planar nonwovens; short
drained — the fibres mat together as they dry. fibre processing;
wall coverings, tea
bags

Spunbond Polymer chips are melted and extruded through fine spinnerets, producing Random High volume
(Spunlaid) continuous filaments that are drawn (stretched), then laid directly as a continuous disposables: diaper
random web without any separate fibre/web formation step. The whole filaments backing, medical
process from polymer to bonded web is continuous ("spunbond"). drapes, crop
covers, bags

Melt- Molten polymer is extruded through very fine nozzles while high-velocity, Very fine, Filtration (very fine
blown high-temperature air blows the polymer stream into ultrafine fibres (1–5 randomly particles), surgical
microns diameter) that are directly collected as a web. entangled masks (inner
ultrafine fibres layer), sorbents

STAGE 2 — BONDING METHODS

Method Process Result Examples

Needle Punching Barbed needles repeatedly punch through the fibre web (hundreds Strong, felt-like Carpet backing,
(Mechanical) of needles per cm², thousands of times per minute). The barbs fabric; durable geotextile, felt,
catch fibres and carry them through the web thickness, physically mechanical automotive
entangling fibres from different layers together. No chemicals or interlocking of interiors,
heat needed. fibres filtration

Hydroentanglement High-pressure fine jets of water (at ~100–400 bar) bombard the Soft, fabric-like, Wipes (baby
/ Spunlacing fibre web from multiple nozzle banks. Water jet energy physically drapeable wipes, cosmetic
(Mechanical) entangles fibres around each other without any binder. The web nonwoven; fibres wipes), medical
passes through a series of nozzle manifolds, then the excess water entangled without dressings,
is removed. chemicals hygiene fabrics

Thermal Bonding The web contains thermoplastic fibres (bi-component or single Soft, strong, clean Diaper top
thermoplastic). Heat (via heated calendar rolls at specific nonwoven; no sheet (soft,
pressure, or through hot air) is applied — thermoplastic fibres melt chemical residue; skin-contact
at contact/crossing points, and on cooling fuse/bond the very suitable for layer),
surrounding fibres together. hygiene interlinings,
applications face masks

Chemical Bonding A liquid chemical binder (resin: acrylic latex, PVA, SBR latex, etc.) Firm, stiff or soft Interlinings,
is applied to the web by saturation, spraying, foam, or printing, depending on filtration,
then cured (dried + cross-linked by heat or UV) to form a glue binder type and disposable
matrix around fibre crossing points. amount; good wipes, roofing
tensile strength membranes

Stitch Bonding The fibre web (or pre-formed web) is stitched together by threads Very strong Home textiles,
(Malimo) using a warp knitting mechanism (Malimo system) — threads run nonwoven, with shoe linings,
along the fabric, catching and securing the fibres/layers. knit-like threads backing for
visible; can combine tufted carpet
multiple layers

STAGE 1: WEB FORMATION STAGE 2: BONDING

Dry-laid (Parallel / Cross-lapped) Needle punching (mechanical)
Air-laid Hydroentanglement (mechanical)
Wet-laid Thermal bonding
Spunbond / Spunlaid Chemical bonding NONWOVEN
Fibres / Polymer
Melt-blown Stitch bonding FABRIC

→ Loose fibre web / mat produced → Web converted to coherent fabric

Fig 7.1 — Nonwoven fabric formation: two-stage process of Web Formation → Bonding (draw and label this in exam)

7.4 Field of Application (Products)

Application Nonwoven products

sector

Hygiene / Diapers (both top sheet and acquisition/distribution layer), sanitary napkins, surgical masks, surgical gowns/drapes,
Medical bandages, wound dressings, wet wipes, cotton-like pads

Filtration Air filters (HVAC, automotive), liquid filters, vacuum cleaner bags, surgical masks (meltblown inner layer)

Geotextile Road base stabilisation, drainage (water flow through), erosion control on slopes, embankment reinforcement

Automotive Roof liners, door panels, trunk liners, insulation pads, seat backing

Agriculture Crop covers (frost protection, light diffusion), seed blankets, weed-control ground cover

Apparel / Interlinings (fusing interlining in shirt collars, jacket fronts), shoulder pads, shoe linings, disposable apparel
Fashion

Home / Floor cleaning wipes, dust wipes, tea bags, coffee filters, wallpaper backing
Consumer

Construction Roofing underlays, house-wrap, insulation blankets

 Nonwoven product used in women's care: Sanitary napkins (the soft, permeable top sheet that contacts skin is a
thermal-bonded or spunbonded nonwoven; the absorbent core may also be an air-laid nonwoven pulp pad).
Five nonwoven products for daily use: Surgical/face masks, Diapers, Sanitary napkins, Baby/facial wet wipes,
Disposable tea bags (or: cosmetic cotton pads, disposable non-woven bags, crop cover sheets).

7.5 How Nonwoven Differs from Woven and Knitted Fabric

Fundamental difference: Woven and knitted fabrics are made from yarns — spun and wound from fibres; nonwoven is
made directly from fibres — no yarn formation step at all.
Woven vs Nonwoven: Woven = two sets of yarns interlaced at right angles; Nonwoven = random or aligned fibres
bonded together. Woven is stronger, more dimensionally stable and durable. Nonwoven is cheaper, faster to produce,
and often disposable.
Knitted vs Nonwoven: Knitted = interlooped yarn giving high stretch; Nonwoven = bonded fibres with generally low
stretch. Knitted is more comfortable and conforming. Nonwoven is more economical and suited for
absorbent/filtration/technical applications.
General principle: Woven = most structured, most durable; Knitted = most comfortable, most stretchy; Nonwoven =
most economical, most disposable, most versatile for technical uses.

7.6 Parallel-Laid vs Cross-Laid Web

Parallel-laid (carded, unidirectional):

All fibres predominantly aligned in one direction (machine direction).
Fabric is very strong along the machine direction (parallel to fibre alignment).
Very weak in the cross direction — tears easily sideways.
Anisotropic (properties different in different directions) — a significant limitation.

Cross-laid (cross-lapped):
Multiple layers of carded web are laid at angles to each other (cross-lapper folds the web back and forth laterally).
Fibres in different layers run at different angles, giving the composite web strength in multiple directions.
More isotropic (more balanced properties in all directions), much better cross-directional strength and tear resistance.
Thicker and heavier web can be built by increasing the number of cross-laid layers.

Advantage of cross-laid over parallel-laid: More balanced, uniform strength in both length and width directions;
better tear resistance; more suitable for applications needing good properties in all directions (geotextile, carpet base,
filtration media).
 Unit 8 — Different Types of Woven Fabric
Syllabus: 8 Hrs / 20 Marks | Weave structures, interlacement, float, basic and special weaves, fabric types — can appear as Group B or Group C
(drafting/lifting plan question)

8.1 Concept of Interlacement and Float

Interlacement point: A point where a warp thread passes over or under a weft thread — i.e., where actual
crossing/interlacing occurs. The number and arrangement of interlacement points determine the weave structure.

Float: A length of yarn (warp or weft) that passes over (or under) more than one crossing thread without interlacing. For
example, in a 3/1 twill, the warp thread passes over 3 weft threads (a float of 3) before going under 1. Floats give a
smoother, more lustrous surface but reduce resistance to snagging and make the fabric slightly less firm than plain
weave.

Woven fabric structure with zero float: Plain weave — every warp thread passes over exactly one weft thread and
under the next one alternately; there is no floating of any thread over more than one crossing.

8.2 Plain Weave

Plain weave is the simplest of all weave structures. Every warp thread interlaces with every weft thread alternately —
over one, under one, over one, under one — throughout the entire fabric. Repeat size = 2 ends × 2 picks.

Zero float — maximum interlacement points per unit area.

Firmest, most stable weave structure.
Both sides look identical.
Minimum 2 heald shafts required.
Examples: Muslin, voile, taffeta, organdy, canvas, calico, cheesecloth.

Plain Weave (design on point paper)

2/2 Twill Weave 5-end Satin Weave

Dark = warp over weft (warp floats overDiagonal

weft) step pattern (twill line)
Light = weft over warp (weft floats over warp)
Repeat: 4 ends × 4 picks Only 1 interlacement per repeat
Repeat: 2 ends × 2 picks Long floats → lustrous surface

Fig 8.1 — Point paper designs for Plain Weave, Twill Weave and Satin Weave (know the visual difference)

8.3 Twill Weave

Twill weave: A weave in which the interlacement points are arranged in a stepped diagonal pattern, creating a diagonal
rib or twill line on the fabric surface. At least one thread must float over two or more threads.

Notation: written as "warp up / warp down" e.g., 2/1 twill = warp passes over 2 weft threads, under 1; 2/2 twill =
over 2, under 2; 3/1 twill = over 3, under 1 (denim twill).
Minimum heald shafts: 3 (for 2/1 twill), 4 (for 2/2 or 3/1 twill).
Properties: Diagonal rib visible; softer and more flexible than plain weave due to fewer interlacement points; more
fabric produced per unit warp/weft; some lustre on long-float side.
Examples: Denim (3/1 warp-faced twill), drill, gabardine (steep twill), serge, flannel.

8.4 Satin Weave

Satin weave: A weave in which interlacement points are widely spaced and non-adjacent (never touching each other),
with long warp floats on the face (warp satin) or long weft floats (sateen/weft satin).
 Only ONE interlacement point per thread per repeat (the interlacement points are arranged to be as widely separated
as possible — no two are adjacent).
Minimum ends/picks in repeat: 5 (5-end satin) — minimum for non-adjacent spacing to be achievable.
Properties: Extremely smooth, lustrous face (the long floats reflect light uniformly); soft and drapey; but weak (floats
catch easily, snag readily, poor abrasion resistance).
Examples: Satin (apparel, lining, lingerie), sateen (cotton bed sheets), damask.

8.5 Comparison: Plain vs Twill vs Satin

Property Plain Weave Twill Weave Satin Weave

Float length Zero (no float) Moderate (2–5 threads) Long (4–7+ threads)

Firmness / Stability Highest (most interlacement points) Moderate Lowest

Lustre / Smoothness Dull to moderate Moderate; diagonal rib Highest — very smooth, lustrous

Drape/Softness Stiff Moderate flexibility Very drapey, soft

Snagging tendency Lowest Moderate Highest

Min. heald shafts 2 3–4 5

Examples Muslin, canvas, calico Denim, drill, gabardine Satin, sateen, damask

8.6 Rib and Basket Weave Variants

Rib weave: Derived from plain weave; obtained by grouping 2 or more ends together in one heald and the dent, so they
act as one thick warp unit, OR by using alternating thick and thin yarns. Creates distinct lengthwise (warp-rib) or
crosswise (weft-rib) cords/ribs on the fabric surface. Examples: Rep weave, ottoman fabric.

Basket (Matt) weave: Derived from plain weave; obtained by weaving 2 or more warp ends and 2 or more weft threads
as one unit simultaneously, creating a flat, open, basket-like appearance. Example: Monk's cloth, hessian (jute sacking),
some panama shirting.

8.7 Special and Fancy Woven Fabrics (brief definitions for Group A)

Fabric Key feature

Gauze / Very open, light plain weave with low EPI and PPI; very sheer and open structure.
Cheesecloth

Chiffon Very fine, lightweight, semi-transparent plain or crepe weave using fine twisted yarns; soft and drapey.

Voile Lightweight, sheer, crisp plain weave using fine highly-twisted yarns; stiff for its weight.

Muslin Lightweight, soft, plain weave cotton fabric; loosely woven.

Chambray Plain weave with a coloured warp (usually blue) and white weft — gives a slightly mottled, light blue appearance.

Broadcloth Very tightly woven plain or twill cloth (originally wool, now cotton/polyester); smooth, fine, firm.

Grosgrain Heavy, ribbed plain weave with prominent crosswise ribs; stiff; used for ribbons, trimmings.

Poplin Plain weave with fine warp and heavier/thicker weft — creates a fine crosswise rib. Crisp, smooth.

Oxford cloth 2×1 or 2×2 basket weave; soft, slightly pebbly surface; used for shirts.

Denim 3/1 warp-faced twill weave; warp dyed (usually blue), weft undyed (white/grey) — distinctive blue on face, white on
back.

Gabardine Tight, steep twill (63° twill line) with fine yarns; smooth, hard-wearing; used for trousers, suits, uniforms.

Hopsacking Loose, open basket weave; coarse, rough texture; originally made from jute/hemp.

Pique / Raised lengthwise cords formed by extra sets of warp/stuffing threads creating a corded effect.
Bedford cord

Dimity Light, plain weave with periodic extra warp ends woven in, creating fine stripes or checks.

Canvas / Heavy, plain or basket weave from coarse yarns; very strong, stiff, used for tents, bags.
Duck

Damask Reversible figured fabric — design formed by contrasting areas of warp-faced and weft-faced satin weave, produced
on dobby or jacquard loom.

Brocade Jacquard-woven fabric with a raised, embossed figured design in a different colour/texture, formed by extra weft
floats.

Leno weave A structural weave where warp threads twist around each weft thread instead of simply interlacing — gives a stable,
open, mesh-like structure. Used for gauze, grenadine, marquise fabric.

Crepe fabric Fabric with a crinkled, pebbly surface — achieved by using highly-twisted crepe yarns (warp/weft) that cause the
yarn to coil and shrink on finishing, puckering the fabric surface.

Terry cloth Pile weave with loops of yarn standing upright on one or both sides — very absorbent; used for towels, bathrobes.
(Towelling) Loops formed by a special loose-beam terry pile system.

Velvet A cut pile woven fabric — a supplementary warp is woven in at the same time, then the floats of this supplementary
warp are cut to form an upright pile of even height; soft, luxurious.

8.8 2/2 Weft Rib — Drafting and Lifting Plan (12-mark question type)

2/2 Weft Rib: Two picks go in as shaft 1 down (both making plain over-2-under-2 on weft side), then two picks go in as
shaft 2 down — creating horizontal pairs of raised ribs on the fabric surface, perpendicular to the warp. Repeat = 2 ends
× 4 picks. The visual effect is prominent horizontal cords across the fabric.

2/2 Weft Rib Structure:

Drafting Plan (straight draft):
Lifting Plan:
E1 E2 E1 E2 P1 P2 P3 P4
Picks: Sh: Sh:
P1 2 2

P2 1 1

P3 End 1 → Shaft 1 Green = shaft raised for that pick

End 2 → Shaft 2 Sh1 up for P1,P2; Sh2 up for P3,P4
P4

Design: 2E × 4P repeat

Result: 2/2 Weft Rib fabric (cross-section view):

← prominent
horizontal
rib effect

Fig 8.2 — 2/2 Weft Rib: Design, Drafting Plan, Lifting Plan and the resulting rib fabric appearance
Final Revision Bank — All Group A One-Liners (1 mark each)
Read this right before the exam. Every answer here is based on the complete syllabus — any of these can appear.

Question (as it may appear) Answer

What is the main advantage of hand Allows custom, complex patterns and shaping with no machine; low capital cost; ideal for
knitting? artisanal/small-scale production.

What is the raw material for Staple fibres or continuous filaments (natural or synthetic, e.g. polypropylene, polyester,
nonwoven? viscose) — used as loose fibres without yarn formation.

Which woven fabric structure has zero Plain weave.

float?

What is the source material for Fabric (woven, knitted, or nonwoven) is cut and assembled into garments.
garment preparation?

How many sets of yarn are required to Minimum 3 sets (warp, weft, and a Z-direction set for thickness).
produce a 3-D fabric?

Which shedding mechanism has a Tappet shedding mechanism.

heald reversing mechanism?

What is the mass of yarn in a pirn? The weight of weft yarn wound on a small bobbin (pirn) placed inside the shuttle on a
shuttle loom. (Typical mass: 50–120 g depending on yarn count.)

In a power loom takeup mechanism, The change wheel (PPI wheel / change pinion) in the seven-wheel gear train of the takeup
the fabric PPI can be adjusted by mechanism.
changing which parameter?

Name a knitted garment produced by Sweater / pullover (also: muffler, socks, gloves, beanie cap).
hand knitting.

Name a nonwoven product used in Sanitary napkin (menstrual pad).

women's care.

Why is straight draft widely popular? It is the simplest drafting sequence, requires no special calculation, is universally
applicable to most weave designs, and ensures even distribution of ends across all shafts.

What is a textile fabric? A flexible, planar structure made by interlacing, interlooping, or bonding yarns/fibres; used
for apparel, household, and technical purposes.

Write the name of the yarn package Cone or Cheese (also: ring bobbin/cop from ring spinning — but the standard output wound
which comes from spinning mill. package for further processing is a cone/cheese).

What is the mass of a projectile (in Very light — typically 40–60 grams; kept as light as possible to allow very high picking
projectile loom)? speed.

What take-up mechanism is used in Negative (manual) takeup — simple ratchet-and-pawl or hand-pulled; no powered gear
hand loom? train.

What is the minimum number of yarn Minimum 3 sets of yarn (diagonally interlacing).
sets required to produce a braid
structure?

Name the yarn package used in shuttle Pirn — a small tapered bobbin wound with weft yarn, placed inside the shuttle.
(of a shuttle loom).

Which yarn package builds layer to Cheese — a parallel-wound cylindrical package where yarn is wound in straight, parallel
layer? layers directly on top of each other.

Which shaft gives motion to Dobby Bottom shaft (via a pattern chain/dobby cylinder that reads the liftplan and drives the
selection mechanism? dobby).

What is the main drawback of shuttle High noise and vibration; low loom speed (heavy shuttle mass limits picks per minute);
picking? frequent pirn changes reduce efficiency; shuttle flying out is a safety hazard.

In a loom, how are takeup and letoff They must be balanced and synchronised — takeup advances fabric forward at a controlled
motions related? rate while letoff simultaneously releases an equal length of warp from the beam,
maintaining constant warp tension and correct PPI.

What is a course in knitted fabric? A horizontal row of loops, running across the width of the knitted fabric.

What is a wale in knitted fabric? A vertical column of loops, running along the length of the knitted fabric.
Define shed. The triangular gap formed between the upper and lower warp layers during shedding,
through which the weft carrier (shuttle or other) passes to insert the weft thread.

What is selvedge? The self-finished, non-fraying longitudinal edge of a woven fabric formed by the turning of
the weft yarn at each side during weaving.

What is the fell of the cloth? The point/line where the last inserted weft pick meets the edge of the already-woven fabric;
the active weaving point on the loom.

Define reed count. The number of dents (gaps between reed blades) per unit length of the reed (e.g., 60 dents
per inch) — controls warp spacing/EPI.

What is a float in weaving? A length of warp or weft yarn passing over (or under) more than one crossing thread
without interlacing — creates lustre but reduces firmness.

What is sizing? The application of a size paste (adhesive) to warp yarn to increase its strength and lay
down protruding fibre hairs, reducing warp breakage during weaving.

What is warping? The process of assembling hundreds of warp ends from a creel of cones into a wide parallel
sheet, wound with uniform tension onto a warper's beam, ready for sizing/drawing-in.

What is beat-up? The third primary motion — the reed swings forward and pushes the newly inserted weft
pick firmly against the fell of the already-woven fabric, consolidating the weave and setting
the PPI.

What is a heald (heddle)? A thin wire or cord with a central eye, mounted on a heald shaft, through the eye of which
each warp thread is threaded — moves the warp thread up or down during shedding.

What is dobby shedding used for? For medium-complexity weave designs requiring more heald shafts (up to 32) than tappet
shedding can provide, but not requiring the full individual control of Jacquard.

Final Exam Tip — How to Use These Notes in the Exam Hall
1. Read the question paper fully in the first 5 minutes. Circle the questions you will answer in each group.
2. For Group A: write crisp, direct 1-line answers (no elaboration needed — the mark is for the correct key word/phrase).
3. For Group B: write 5–6 clear lines per question; include a definition, key details, and if applicable, a brief list or comparison. A
small diagram where relevant adds marks.
4. For Group C: start with definition (2–3 lines), then list components (numbered), then step-by-step working (numbered), then
draw a clearly labelled diagram (even rough diagrams with correct labels earn full diagram marks), then add a
comparison/significance/application para if marks remain.
5. Never leave a Group C question completely unattempted — a partially answered question with a correct definition and partial
explanation earns partial marks, which can be decisive when targeting 50.
6. Your most prepared Group C topics (in order of confidence): Shedding (tappet) → Picking (shuttle/shuttleless) → Nonwoven
(classification) → Sizing/warp passage → Takeup/letoff → Drafting/lifting plan.