BEEF PRODUCTION

Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Table of Contents
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................ii
List of Tables............................................................................................................................iv
List of Figures...........................................................................................................................iv
1 THE ZIMBABWEAN BEEF INDUSTRY.......................................................................1
1.1 Chapter objectives.......................................................................................................1
1.2 Introduction.................................................................................................................1
1.3 The overview of the beef industry in Zimbabwe.........................................................1
1.4 National herd size and its components........................................................................2
1.5 Offtake of beef cattle in Zimbabwe.............................................................................2
1.6 Beef terminology.........................................................................................................3
1.7 The general characteristics of beef production............................................................4
1.8 Performance targets.....................................................................................................6
1.9 Efficiency of beef production......................................................................................6
1.10 Activity....................................................................................................................6
2 BEEF CATTLE BREEDS.................................................................................................7
2.1 Chapter objectives.......................................................................................................7
2.2 Beef cattle breeds........................................................................................................7
2.3 Factors affecting choice of beef breed to use............................................................12
2.4 Activity......................................................................................................................16
3 BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS..................................................................................17
3.1 Chapter objectives.....................................................................................................17
3.2 The beef production systems in Zimbabwe...............................................................17
3.3 Activity......................................................................................................................19
4 GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE.........................................................20
4.1 Chapter objectives.....................................................................................................20
4.2 Role of breeding in beef production..........................................................................20
4.3 Traits of economic importance..................................................................................20
4.4 Cattle Identification...................................................................................................22
4.5 Record keeping..........................................................................................................23
4.6 Selection of breeding stock.......................................................................................24
4.7 Activity......................................................................................................................28
5 PEDIGREE CATTLE PRODUCTION...........................................................................29
5.1 Chapter objectives.....................................................................................................29
5.2 Introduction...............................................................................................................29
5.3 Aims..........................................................................................................................29
5.4 Pedigree records........................................................................................................29
5.5 Calving times or breeding times................................................................................29
5.6 Weaning times...........................................................................................................29
5.7 Activity......................................................................................................................30
6 BREEDING PLANS/SYSTEMS.....................................................................................31
6.1 Chapter objectives.....................................................................................................31
6.2 Introduction...............................................................................................................31
6.3 Pure breeding.............................................................................................................31
6.4 Crossbreeding............................................................................................................32
6.5 Activity......................................................................................................................37
7 FEEDING OF BEEF ANIMALS.....................................................................................38
7.1 Chapter objectives.....................................................................................................38

ii
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

7.2 Introduction...............................................................................................................38
7.3 Veld grazing..............................................................................................................38
7.4 Green grass loss.........................................................................................................39
7.5 Guidelines on feeding different classes of animals...................................................40
7.6 Supplementary feeding..............................................................................................42
7.7 Watering cattle...........................................................................................................46
7.8 Creep feeding.............................................................................................................46
7.9 Drought management and feeding of beef cattle.......................................................46
7.10 Fattening/Finishing cattle......................................................................................48
7.11 Activity..................................................................................................................59
8 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF COWS.......................................................................60
8.1 Chapter objectives.....................................................................................................60
8.2 Introduction...............................................................................................................60
8.3 Breeding management...............................................................................................60
8.4 Bullying systems.......................................................................................................61
8.5 Bulling management..................................................................................................62
8.6 Calving......................................................................................................................65
8.7 Prophylactic herd health programme for a Zimbabwean beef herd..........................65
8.8 Cow-calf management...............................................................................................67
8.9 Activity......................................................................................................................83
9 BEEF CATTLE MARKETING AND GRADING..........................................................84
9.1 Chapter objectives.....................................................................................................84
9.2 Introduction...............................................................................................................84
9.3 Marketing of beef cattle.............................................................................................84
9.4 Classification and grading of cattle carcasses...........................................................85
9.5 Activity......................................................................................................................87
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................88
APPENDIX 1...........................................................................................................................89

iii
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

List of Tables

Table 1-1 Livestock census by sector 2002...............................................................................2

Table 1-2 Management targets of beef enterprises....................................................................6
Table 2-3 Summary of different breeds characteristics...........................................................15
Table 4-1 Calculation of day indexes and ratios......................................................................21
Table 4-2 Changes in day ratios with age................................................................................21
Table 7-1 Recommended levels of supplementary protein in winter (g CP/day)....................42
Table 7-2 Louwrens liquid urea/molasses lick.........................................................................44
Table 7-3 Two Successful Zimbabwean protein/urea/salt licks..............................................44
Table 7-4 Home-made urea/salt block.....................................................................................45
Table 7-5 The Agritex block....................................................................................................45
Table 7-6 Expected weight gain on veld fattening...................................................................49
Table 7-7 Other minerals required in beef pen fattening diets.................................................52
Table 7-8 Minimum induction weights for different age groups.............................................54
Table 7-9 Adaptation programme to high energy diets...........................................................56
Table 7-10 Adapting animals to a diet through variation........................................................56
Table 8-1 Bullying seasons in Zimbabwe................................................................................60
Table 8-2 Effect of castration age on weaning mass of calves................................................69
Table 8-3 Summary of routine management practices............................................................74
Table 8-4 Water troughs measurements guidelines.................................................................76
Table 8-5 Feed troughs specifications for group feeding.........................................................77
Table 8-6 Race specifications..................................................................................................80
Table 8-7 Paddock size for beef herds in different regions.....................................................83
Table 9-1 Age estimation using dentition................................................................................85
Table 9-2 Grades of beef..........................................................................................................87

List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Relationship between calving rate & weaning mass................................................5
Figure 2-1 Relationship between surface area to volume ratio................................................13
Figure 6-1 Two breed single cross terminal systems...............................................................33
Figure 6-2 Back-cross..............................................................................................................34
Figure 6-3 Three breed terminal systems.................................................................................35
Figure 6-4 Two breed rotational crossbreeding system...........................................................36
Figure 6-5 Three breed criss-cross rotational crossbreeding system.......................................37
Figure 7-1 Basis for fundamental problems of grazing animals..............................................39
Figure 7.2 illustration of severe weight loss at changeover to wet season..............................40
Figure 8-1 Wagon wheel paddock design................................................................................76
Figure 8-2 Calf creep feeder design.........................................................................................78
Figure 8-3 Forcing pens design................................................................................................79
Figure 8-4 Structure of a race...................................................................................................79
Figure 8-5 Sorting gates layout................................................................................................80
Figure 8-6 Structure of a bail...................................................................................................81
Figure 8-7 Cattle loading ramp................................................................................................81
Figure 9-1 Measuring degree of finish in beef carcasses.........................................................86

iv
1 THE ZIMBABWEAN BEEF INDUSTRY

1.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter seeks to introduce the student to the Zimbabwean beef industry, both past and
present trends. Terminology used in beef production is introduced and the measures of
efficiency of a beef enterprise are also discussed. Disparities in off-take rates between small
scale and commercial scale are discussed.
1.2 Introduction
Beef production is the growing, rearing, and fattening of cattle for meat production.
The objectives of beef production enterprise are:
 to produce meat that is demanded by the consumer. The meat must be of good quality
i.e. high meat yield with less fat and bone. This beef should be produced efficiently in
order to realise greater profit from the veld with less use of purchased feeds.
 to generate income from cattle/beef sales
 as a sign of wealth

1.3 The overview of the beef industry in Zimbabwe

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of Zimbabwe contributing between 15 to 20
percent of the GDP. Agriculture provides 100 percent of the nation’s food requirements in a
normal rainfall year, 60 percent of the raw materials for industry and 45 percent of foreign
currency. In 2001 agriculture provided 26 percent of the formal employment in the country
and 70 percent of the population with employment or livelihood.

Livestock products contribute about 25 percent of the value of agricultural output in all
farming sectors. Beef accounts for over 70 percent of domestic consumption of marketed
meat followed by poultry meat, pig meat and small ruminants (sheep and goats).

About 70 % of Zimbabwean land is suitable for grazing. Of this, about 64 percent falls under
NR IV and V in which rainfall is too erratic and unreliable for consistent and viable crop
production. Except for a few situations where water for irrigation is available, range livestock
and wildlife production are the most viable agricultural activities. On the other hand the
higher rainfall regions offer potential for intensive production of all species of livestock
because of the possibility of integrating crops with livestock. As a result livestock production
has been highly dependent on grain particularly maize as the energy source. The feedlot
systems developed in the mid-1960s and now in common use in NR II depend primarily on
availability of grain. It has enabled cattle to be finished at a young age. This has enhanced
production turnover and has made the high rainfall cropping areas a major source of beef for
both domestic and export markets.
Animal products availability in Zimbabwe remained relatively stable throughout the 1990s
except for poultry, which has experienced a significant growth. In the semi-arid NR IV and V
and parts of NR III, the main production system is extensive grazing on natural rangeland.
Exotic beef breeds dominate in the system made up of Simmental, Hereford, Sussex,
Aberdeen Angus, Beefmaster, Limousine, Charolais and others. Of the indigenous breeds, the
Tuli and the Mashona are the most used then the Brahman & Nguni.

The 1991-92 drought resulted in huge losses of cattle. The smallholder sector was the most
affected because of limited feed and water resources in that sector. The drought resulted in 8
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

percent reduction in the size of the herd in the commercial herd and 31 percent reduction in
the smallholder sector. The growth of the commercial herd since then has been hindered by
the viability problems. In the smallholder sector the hindrance has been the use of
inappropriate breeds unsuitable for the conditions in the sector. The land reform programme,
started in 2000, has led to a decrease in large-scale commercial farm sizes. The affected cattle
producers have had to de-stock, resulting in further decline in the size of the commercial
herd. It is estimated that the commercial beef herd has declined from 2.5 million head before
1991 to about 250000 head at the end of 2002.
Beef production is dual in nature, composed of the communal and commercial sector.
Establishment of Cold Storage Commission in 1938 boosted the commercial sector beef
production due to a guaranteed market and prices. After the market liberalisation in the
1990s, parastatal institutions were commercialised and others were privatised. In the process
the meat processing Cold Storage Commission was commercialised to become the Cold
Storage Company (CSC) and many private abattoirs erupted. As a result CSC’s share of the
market has declined from 85 percent before the liberalisation to about 40 percent. The
Livestock Development Trust (LDT) was established in 1995 to spearhead livestock
development and marketing in the smallholder sector. The Livestock Identification Trust
(LIT) was established in 1999. The LIT is responsible for registering animals in order to meet
international requirements for traceability of meat and other animal products on the export
market. The marketing is done through CSC and private abattoirs. Universities, Agricultural
colleges, do training. Financing is obtained from commercial banks and other companies.
Zimbabwe used to export a quarter (9100 tonnes) of beef to European Union and was banned
in 2001. The major reasons for the ban were outbreaks of FMD and failure to meet EU
standards particularly in areas like registration, identification and labelling bovine animals.
Uncontrolled movement of domestic and wild animals makes it difficult to maintain E.U.
standards due to difficulties in treating diseases passed from wild to domestic animals.
Scarcity of vaccines (FMD vaccine) has also contributed to decline of EU standards.
1.4 National herd size and its components
Table 1-1 Livestock census by sector 2002
Sector Cattle numbers
Communal 3 740 000
A1 605 000
Resettlement 385 000
Small scale 220 000
Commercial 550 000
Grand total 5 500 000
NB. Cattle in the communal sector are not differentiated by breed i.e. beef or dairy. Grand
totals for 2007 & 2008 were 5 221 720 & 5 255 011, respectively; 2016 total was 5 300 000;
2017 total is 5 500 000. 90% is owned by smallholder farmers, 68 % from communal sector,
11% from A1 farmers, 7% from old resettlement areas, small scale commercial farms 4 %,
large scale commercial farms 10 %.
1.5 Offtake of beef cattle in Zimbabwe
This is the number of cattle sold as a proportion of the total herd. It is ~6 percent in the
smallholder sector and 15-24 percent in the commercial sector.

2
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

1.5.1 Reasons for low offtake from communal areas

[Link] Multiple uses of cattle
Communal herd have multiple uses and beef production is a residual product at the end of the
animal’s life. Functions of communal cattle include draught power (42 %), milk (29 %), cash
when needed (17 %), manure (7 %), meat consumption (5 %), investment or capital assets,
and socio-cultural roles (Danckwerts, 1994). Thus cattle have high intrinsic value as live
animals compared to meat production.
[Link] Poor management especially of grazing lands
The communal land tenure system allows benefits to accrue to individuals, while the cost of
maintaining the system is borne by the whole community. It is therefore not easy for
individuals to improve management of resources. With poor management, animal
productivity is also low, leading to low offtake rates. It is also probable that farmers do not
have adequate knowledge of the correct husbandry practices.
[Link] Low resource base
Smallholder farmers do not normally purchase essential inputs, such as supplementary feeds
and veterinary drugs. Farmers also find it difficult to obtain credit to purchase these inputs,
either because they do not like to be indebted or the facilities may not be available.
[Link] Complex ownership
In communal areas, cattle found on one household are owned by different members of the
family. Some owners of the cattle do not normally depend on the sale of these animals as a
regular source of income and would regard them as a form of investment or security. All this
promotes the tendency not to sell cattle to the formal market.
[Link] Low prices
The grading system used at abattoirs is the sore point for communal area farmers as they feel
that their cattle are down-graded unfairly leading to payment of low prices.
[Link] Transport costs
Some farmers are located in remote areas to the extent that transport costs will take a greater
proportion of what is supposed to be part of their cash.
1.6 Beef terminology
 Calf refers to young cattle from birth to weaning.
 Weaner is a young animal from weaning to about a year old.
 Long weaner/ yearling refers to young animal aged 12 to 18 months.
 Young bull/bullock is an entire male that is still below the age of two years.
 Bull is an entire male that is above the age of two years that can be used to breed cows.
 Heifer is a female animal above 18 months of age that has not calved.
 Cow is a female animal that has produced a calf before.
 Fat cow / fat bull is a cow/bull that has been culled and fattened for slaughter.
 Calving rate or percentage is the number of cows that calve (dead or alive) expressed
as a percentage of all the cows that were put to the bull during the bulling period.
 Steer –castrated male animal raised for meat and not given a chance to produce young
(1.5-3.5 years)
 Ox is a castrated male animal used for draft power, usually above 2 years
 Conception/Pregnancy rate –is the number of cows that conceive annually as a % of all
mated cows.

3
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 Weaning rate is the number of calves weaned as a percentage of cows mated the
previous year.
 Culling rate is the number of cows culled per year, normally 20-30 %.
 Perinatal losses are those which occur from commencement of parturition until 48 hours
later. Causes include dystocia, pneumonia and drowning in amniotic fluid.
 Postnatal losses are those which occur from two days post-calving until weaning.
 Calving interval refers to the period in a cow’s life between the birth of one calf and her
next calf.
 Contemporaries are animals of the same age group.
1.7 The general characteristics of beef production
Generally although intensive production is coming now especially in overseas countries, one
finds that beef production is an extensive system of production with a low turnover. Thus
beef production is suited to farms with ample grazing and cow feed production. To ensure
profitability, the beef cow must calve every year and rear a heavy weaner.
1.7.1 Factors affecting profitability of beef production
[Link] Sale price
This is what you get for your animals per kilogram that you sell. It depends on the weight of
the carcass that is achieved, for example for a beast to get to the super grade in the CSC
grading system it must give a CDM of 250kg.
[Link] The mortality rate
This is very important (the level expected is less than 10 percent for pre weaning, while
overall it should be less than 4%). If calves die then there will be no animals to sale thus
profitability declines.
[Link] The stocking rate
This is important as it affects the amount of herbage available to the animals thus the level of
nutrition. It will influence the rate of gain. The level of manuring or fertilisation, the grass
quality and management and the general management of the animals will also affect this.
[Link] The management level must be high to make profits
The calving rate and weaning rate must be high. The national average is 40 to 50 percent,
which shows that there is room for improvement. This will provide the calves that are grown
for sale.
[Link] Weaning stress
The transition from suckling its dam’s milk to depending entirely on eating solid feed is
stressful. If the stress is too much, it can cause serious setbacks in growth and development.
Where these setbacks are very extreme, a second constraint arises: A heifer that does not
grow and develop enough. She will reach puberty at a late age and may not be able to get
pregnant.
[Link] The weaning mass
The weaning mass is very important because at weaning the calf has already reached about
50 percent of its slaughter mass and 75 percent of mature skeletal size. The weaning mass
will depend on milk production of the cow and her mothering ability and the ability of the
calf to make fast and efficient gains. The significance of calving rate and weaning mass is
illustrated in Figure 1.1.

4
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Beef per cow (kg)

At 205 weaning mass, someone at 40 % calving rate will be having about 90 kg of beef
whereas
180 at 60 % calving rate he will be having about 115 kg of beef and higher yield at
Calving rate
higher calving rates.
[Link] Post-weaning stress 90 %
At birth the abomasum takes up over 80% of the total capacity of the four stomachs. In a
mature animal, the abomasum takes80 up%about 7 % of the total capacity. It takes almost a year
for a 135
calf to be able to digest roughage adequately.
It is most important to understand the nutritional requirements of calves that are being
weaned because they cannot fully digest60 %grass until they are about one year old. In addition,
weaning often takes place towards or during the dry season, which increases stress. Feed is
lower quality and is combined with not being able to ruminate fully. The result is that calves
cannot grow and develop optimally. Animals
40 % that are stunted look young (e.g. 8 months) but
when90you look more closely it becomes clear that they are older (e.g. 2 years). A farmer
should develop a well-trained eye which see indicators for age: the teeth, size and shape of
horns and hooves, quality of the calf’s coat (it will be rough and long haired) and its general
appearance and size.
135 180 205 230 255
[Link] Long calving interval
Weaning mass (kg)
This will result in cows that produce few offspring during their productive life.
Figure 1-1
[Link] Relationship
Internal between calving rate & weaning mass
parasites
These cause more damage to young, vulnerable animals, making their chances of recovery
smaller. They reduce the animal’s ability to eat, and may affect their ability to digest feed,
their rumen size, and in particular the liver and kidneys.
1.8 Performance targets
Inorder to maximise profits in a beef enterprise, there must be some management targets of
the following order.
Table 1-2 Management targets of beef enterprises
Production factor Level expected
Calving rate 90%
Weaning rate of first calf cows 90%
Weaning rate second calvers 75%
Weaning rate mature cows 80%
Weaning mass ±42 % mature mass for the breed
Replacement heifer mass at bulling ±67% of mature mass
about 2years
Mass at first calving of 36 months 85% of mature mass
Overall mortality of the herd Less than 2 %
Culling rate 15 to 25 %
Replacement rate 15 to 25 %
Bulling rate 2 to 4 % or 1 bull to 50 cows to 1 bull to 25 cows
Daily gain in feedlot 1.2-1.6kg/day
Feedlot FCR 7.25-8

5
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

1.9 Efficiency of beef production

This can be measured using the following parameters.
 Conception rate
 Calving rate
 Calving interval
 Mortality rate
 Weaning weight
1.10 Activity
1. What do you think should be done to improve offtake from communal areas?
2. Explain the challenges associated with a higher culling rate.
3. Measure efficiency of the beef enterprise at your institution.
4. What can be done to improve productivity of beef cattle at your institution?

6
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

2 BEEF CATTLE BREEDS

2.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter introduces the student to the different classes of beef breeds available in
Zimbabwe. Characteristics of the different classes of the breeds are discussed together with
some selected breeds.
2.2 Beef cattle breeds
There are two types of cattle i.e. the Bos taurus and the Bos indicus. The Bos indicus include
the indigenous breeds like the Mashona, Nkone (Nguni) and Tuli. The Zebus are the
Afrikander, Brahman, and Bonsmara.
Sanga cattle is the collective name for indigenous cattle of sub-Saharan Africa. They are
sometimes identified as a sub-species with the scientific name Bos taurus africanus.
A zebu sometimes known as indicine cattle or humped cattle, is a species or sub-species of
domestic cattle originating in South Asia. Zebu are characterised by a fatty hump on their
shoulders, a large dewlap, and sometimes drooping ears.
In the Bos taurus we have the British and the Continental beef breeds. The British beef
breeds include the specialist beef breeds (e.g. the Aberdeen Angus, Sussex and Hereford) and
the dual-purpose breeds (e.g. the South Devon and the Shorthorn). The continental large
breeds also include specialist beef breeds (e.g. the Charolais, Limousin) and the dual-purpose
breeds (e.g. the Simmental).
Lastly there are the composite/synthetic breeds. These are crosses of the Zebu and British
breeds. They include the Brangus (5/8AA, 3/8Bra), the Santa Getrudis (5/8Ssx, 3/8Bra),
Beefmaster (2/4Bra, 1/4Hr, 1/4Ssx) and Bonsmara (5/8 Afr, 3/16 Short horn, 3/16 Her).
2.2.1 Characteristics of selected beef cattle breeds
A. Indigenous breeds
[Link] Mashona
Colour: Black and red are common.
Weights: Bulls up to 720 kg and cows up to 400 kg.
[Link] Tuli
The breed is more prevalent in the Lowveld and Matabeleland.
Colour: Golden dun.
Weights: Bulls 800 kg and cows 450 kg.
[Link] Nkone
This breed is concentrated in North-West Matabeleland.
Colour: Red and white.
Weights: Bulls weigh up to 900 kg whereas cows go up to 500 kg.
[Link] General production characteristics for indigenous breeds
 Hardy breeds. They can tolerate poor nutrition conditions, droughts, heat and parasites
and diseases.
 Highly fertile. Calving percentage of +/- 90 % common.
 Poor growth rate in general due to small body mass.
 Best for crossbreeding with exotic breeds.
 They have good mothering ability. Cows feed their young ones well and protects it
against predators. She will not allow her calf to get lost in the bush.

7
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 The breed has good fat deposition (marbling fat) thus good beef quality.
 Heifers can attain breeding age by 15 months of age.
[Link] Afrikander
Colour: Red/Brown common.
Weights: Bulls weigh up to 900 kg and cows can reach 450 kg.
Horns are required as a breed standard. They curve downwards and then upwards.
[Link].1 Production traits
 Afrikander are hardy animals, adaptable, easily handled and disease resistant,
especially tick-borne diseases. They are drought resistant and heat tolerant.
 Poor fertility on average but has a long productive life of up to 12 years or more
 The cow seldom experiences difficulty in calving because of relatively small birth
mass of the calf (30-40 kg) and the particular shape of the hind quarters.
 Cows have good mothering ability and good temperament, low calf mortality and
excellent walking ability. She weans a heavy calf in a crossbreeding programme.
 Cows are of small to medium frame size and are economical as a result of their low
maintenance requirements.
[Link] Brahman
This is a Bos indicus breed with its origins in the cattle of the harsh and demanding climate of
India. The breed is favoured for its adaptation to environmental stresses and resistance to
internal and external parasites as well as heat. The breed has its own distinctive appearance:
 hump on top of its shoulders
 large pendulous ears
 abundant folds of skin
 distinctive colour
The Brahman is like a chameleon because it’s so adaptive. Research has shown that
Brahmans have a great reproductive response to improved levels of nutrition. This is because
of their unique ability to shut down their reproductive system as a survival mechanism when
under stress. Some of the production traits include the following:
 Heat tolerance is also a vital trait –it is facilitated by its darkly pigmented skin that
dissipates internal heat & also by the efficiency & size of the sweat glands.
 Its sleek coat reflects sun, its loose skin increases the surface area for heat dissipation
and a lower metabolic rate generates less body heat
 As a beef breed, the Brahman is remarkable in that its skin is underlain with a well-
developed subcutaneous nerve and muscle system. This valuable adaptation enables
the animal to involuntarily twitch its skin in response to the slightest touch.
 The breed has a long & highly mobile tail switch –a formidable swatter –it affords
unparalleled protection against biting flies
 With a skin oil gland discharge called sebum, Brahmans are able to withstand ticks
and other clinging ecto-parasites
 Another advantage of the breed is that it only cuts its teeth after 24 months. At this
stage, premium carcasses give significant financial benefits for beef producers.
 Brahman cows are excellent mothers & wean above-average sized calves because of
their rich milk.
 Cows calve easily and have longevity

8
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 Cows fiercely protect their calves against predators, enhancing the breed’s value in
extensive beef-ranching operations
 The Brahman’s temperament makes it a formidable prospect for stock thieves.
Inquisitive and intelligent, it becomes very tame and calm, even affectionate, with the
correct handling. But if it find itself in a strange and threatening situation, its
legendary powers of escape kick in and it becomes impossible to confine.
 Does well in crossbreeding systems with Bos taurus breeds resulting in high heterosis.
The genetic ability of the breed to complement and add value to any other breed,
especially in the F1 generation and in the breeding of terminal weaner calves results
in big spin-offs for the beef industry
 Brahman is used in making of synthetic breeds such as the Brangus, Braford and
Simbra in SA
 Crossbred cows have an ability to control the size of the calf in the womb thus
controlling calving difficulties
 Brahford (Brahman x Hereford) –by introducing Brahman genetics into Herefords,
the problems ecto-parasites pose to pure-bred Herefords will be overcome. Other hard
characteristics of Brahmans were also transferred to the Brahfords
 Skin thickness and pigmentation. The skins of the Brahman breed are thick so as to
protect the animals from intense solar radiation and insects.
 They are also heavily pigmented, black or brown. This also reduces the risk of
contracting ultraviolet induced skin cancer.
 Brahman breed also have a higher upper critical temperature at which their respiratory
rate starts to increase and start to seek for shelter.
[Link] Boran
The indigenous Boran cattle are to be found in the Borana province of southern Ethiopia, but
the breed has spread all over north-eastern Africa.
The breed is like Brahman but with smaller ears.
Weights: Mature Boran bulls weigh between 550-850 kg and cows 400-450 kg.
Height at withers is 125-135 cm for mature bulls and 115-127 cm for mature cows.
Walking ability: calves can walk long distances with their mothers.
[Link].1 Production characteristics
 Drought resistance. The animals have low maintenance requirements and the ability to
live on low quality feed and convert it into beef.
 Mothering ability. Cows feed their calves well and protects it against predators. She
will never allow the calf to get lost in the bush.
 Animals are docile thus good temperament.
 Fertility. Cows have a calving rate of 85 % and above and can give a calf every year.
B. British breeds
[Link] Hereford
The Hereford breed originated in Herefordshire in the west of England. It has a white face
and deep red coat, with occasionally white markings over the crest, brisket, belly and legs.
The white face is a dominant characteristic which means that when Hereford cattle are mated
to other breeds, the offspring will always have white faces. This is known as colour marking.
Weights: bulls weigh up to 1000 kgs or more. Cows weigh between 500 and 550 kgs.

9
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link].1 Production characteristics

 Good beef qualities but not as high as Aberdeen Angus breed.
 Very docile
 High fertility: 80 % calving percentage is common.
 Good grazers
 Suitable for crossing with other breeds e.g. dairy breeds or Bos indicus breeds. The
progeny will be of high beef quality compared to pure-bred Hereford.
In the tropics, Herefords suffer from ophthalmia and cancer eye due to sun burn which is
made worse by lack of pigmentation around the eyes. Animals with darker hair and skin
around the eye appear to suffer less from sunburn.
[Link] Aberdeen Angus
The breed was developed in Scotland. The breed is more adaptable to Zimbabwean
conditions.
Colour: pitch black is the standard colour, white is acceptable only on the underline behind
the navel.
NB. Red Angus are now in existence.
Weights: Bulls go up to 900 kg or more whereas cows up to 450 kg.
[Link].1 Production characteristics
 Produces very high quality beef of low bone to meat ratio.
 Fertility is average. It is lower than in Herefords.
 Due to the small size, rate of growth in the feeding pen is low compared to most other
breeds.
 Less calving problems are experienced.
 Good mothering ability.
[Link] Beef Shorthorn
The shorthorn is regarded as the “great improver” in beef circles because of its high beef
qualities. The animals are short legged and possess a blocky appearance with high cutability
at slaughter. Little wastage is obtained at slaughter from shorthorn (also Angus) because of
thin hide.
Colour: white, red or roan.
Weights: Bulls weigh up to 1000 kg or more, cows up to 700 kg or more.
[Link].1 Production characteristics
 High quality beef producer.
 Fertility is average.
 Breed does not do well under hot conditions.
 Good for crossing with other breeds. Shorthorn crossed to Hereford animal makes
excellent beef animal.
[Link] Sussex
Colour: deep cherry red coat with a white switch.
Weights: Bulls weigh up to 1000 kg and cows 600 kg.
[Link].1 Production characteristics
 Produces average quality beef

10
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 Fertility is average
 Cows have good mothering ability.
 Suitable for crossing with other breeds such as Hereford, Afrikander, Brahman
[Link] South Devon
Colour: light brown-red coat.
Weights: bulls can weigh 1 000 kg or more while cows weigh between 650-700 kg.

C. Continental breeds
[Link] Charolais
Colour: Creamy white with pigmented skin.
Weights: Bulls weigh up to 1200 kg whereas cows reach 700 kg.
[Link].1 Production characteristics
 Fertility is above average
 High quality beef with very little subcutaneous fat
 High growth rates and FCE
 Breed is more tolerant to heat than Herefords, Aberdeen Angus, and Sussex. This is
partly due to its colour (white) which tends to reflect heat/sunlight.
 Due to its large size, the Charolais tends to have calving problems especially among
heifers. It is therefore not advisable to use Charolais bulls on small breed cows.
[Link] Simmental
Colour: white face and a yellowish brown body with white markings or red with white
markings.
Weights: Bulls weigh up to 1000 kg or more and cows weigh 700-750 kg or more.
[Link].1 Production characteristics
 High milk production hence a dual purpose breed (up to 4000 kg per lactation).
 It has high growth rate.
 It is docile
 Produces good quality beef, but not as high as Aberdeen Angus or Charolais.
[Link] Limousine
[Link].1 Production characteristics
 Fast growth rate
 Higher percent of saleable meat products
 Good carcass quality with a high meat to bone ratio
 Carcass has less fat
 Higher FCE
 When crossed with dairy breeds, it produces young with good carcass quality.
 Easy calving in cows.

D. Zebu-British synthetics
[Link] Beefmaster
This breed has six essential traits: fertility, growth, disposition (temper and way it looks),
milk, hardiness and conformation. Beefmasters’ are able to “look after themselves”, easy to

11
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

handle and control and do not require constant supervision. This enables farmers to devote
full attention to their crops during the peak growing season. This is particularly true of the
more labour intensive crops.
In the drier and more arid areas of the country, the bulls have proved themselves in hardiness
and fertility, producing calves and weaners that gain weight quickly and finish early on the
veld or in pens.
[Link] Bonsmara
Originated in South Africa. It was developed by Prof. Jan Bonsma from Mara farm. The
breed has a red-brown colour. It is a cross between Afrikaner cows (5/8) X European
shorthorn (3/16) X Hereford bulls (3/16). Cows weigh 495 kg and bulls up to 900 kg
producing calves with birth weights ranging 34-36 kg. the breed adapts very well to African
climates.
[Link].1 Production characteristics of the breed
 Regular calving
 High weaning weights
 Cows gain weight while suckling calves
 Low mortality
 Docile disposition (natural way of feeling and acting)
 Smooth hair coat
 Good FCE
 Produce high quality beef which is tender, tasty and succulent with an even cover of
fat.
 Early maturity
 Low birth weight for easy calving
 Cows have well developed udders
[Link] Braford
This breed is from Australia. It is a cross between the Brahman and Hereford. Modern
Braford is a fixed breed which may vary in emphasis from three eights to five eights
Brahman influence, the remainder being Hereford. The Braford maybe polled or horned.
Brahman characteristics such as a hump, loose skin, short coat and long ears are evident
while its colour markings are similar to the Hereford.
[Link].1 Production characteristics
 It is a good forager
 Performs well under harsh conditions.
 It is heat tolerant
 Relatively tick tolerant
 Highly fertile
 Has fast growth rates
 Good carcass quality with high dressing percentage.
2.2.2 Crossbreeding projects
Projects to compare the calving and weaning rates of indigenous and exotic pure and cross
bred animals have shown that indigenous breeds outperform exotic breeds under extensive or
semi-extensive conditions.

12
 Beef production mortifa@[Link]

2.3 Factors affecting choice of beef breed to use

2.3.1 Personal preference
Often one is likely to do well with breed of one’s choice.
2.3.2 Availability of stock/breed
One has to choose a breed, which is readily available. It is pointless to want to use a breed
that is not available on the market. Otherwise you will have to use a lot of money to import
the stocks or semen from outside the country.
2.3.3 Management and condition
Where management is poor either through stockman involved or other management criteria
you will need a breed that does well with little pampering or the hardy breeds and their
crosses. Under intensive conditions you require less hardy breeds, as under this system you
can pamper the animals. This ties in well with environmental conditions.
2.3.4 Environmental conditions
You need to choose a breed that is well adapted to the prevailing conditions. These will do
well in terms of production (fertility and growth). Climate is one important environmental
condition to consider. Beef cattle are homeotherms i.e. they maintain a constant body
temperature within a certain point (38.50C). They must balance heat production in the body
with the external heat or cold. The animals would produce well at the thermo-neutral
zone/comfort zone. This is the temperature range in which animals do not need to use energy
to maintain their body temperature. Energy is spent in losing the heat.
[Link] Adaptation to environmental conditions
Adaptation is any physiological and anatomical changes that increases the survival chances of
an animal.
a) Size and shape.
Large stocky animals have smaller surface area relative to volume (mass). And they produce
more heat yet they have less surface area to get rid of the heat. This is illustrated in the
diagrams Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 shows that bigger animals have less surface area to lose heat. Hence the hypothesis
1cm

that big animals do best in cold climates, and small animals do better in warm climates. But
2cm

there are big animals1cmin the hot tropics and these have some adaptations to enable them to live
in these areas.
1cm These adaptations include the following;
2cm

i. They have increased surface area via the large legs, ears, dewlaps, loose skin with
folds.
ii. The 2cm coloured to reflect heat.
Volume = 1external
cm3 coat is shiny, smooth and often light
iii. Skin
Surface thickness
= 6cm 2 and pigmentation -The skins
Volume of the
= 8cm 3 animals that developed in the
tropics
Volume: are thicker
surface than
area ratio those of temperate
= 1:6 animals.
Surface area = 24 This
cm2 is to protect the animals
against intense solar radiation (and insects). They are also heavily
Volume: surface area ratio 1:3 pigmented yellow,
black or brown. This also reduces the risk of contracting ultraviolet induced skin
Figure cancer.
2-2 Relationship between surface area to volume ratio

13
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

iv. Sweating ability and respiratory rate. Tropical breeds have high sweating ability by
having high pores per unit area of skin, more sweat glands and short hairs to aid the
evaporation-perspiration, which helps to cool the animals.
v. The tropical breeds also have a higher upper critical temperature at which their
respiratory rate starts to increase and start to seek for shelter.
2.3.5 Topography
This has an indirect effect as a result of its effects on rainfall and temperature
2.3.6 Vegetation
The direct effects of vegetation are through the species composition in the area. This affects
the amount of grazing available and the nutritive value of the vegetation.
2.3.7 Breed complementarity
All breeds have strengths and weaknesses. No one breed excels in all relevant traits (refer to
Table 2.3). Therefore production can be optimized when mating systems place breeds in roles
that maximise their strengths and minimise their weaknesses.
2.3.8 Production system
Breeds need to be selected that fit into the desired production system. The production system
for cow-calf producers (calves retained for breeding) should include a crossbreeding
programme that utilises two or more breeds which can produce calves appropriate for the
production system. For example, when selling calves as weaners one should be interested
with high weaning weight; when marketing replacement heifers one should consider maternal
and reproductive performance along with growth rate and calving easy.
2.3.9 Market demands and functional demands
The idea is to use cattle, which gain more rapidly and to use large mature size paralleled with
less fat. Large size and late fattening leads to animals of heavy mass at slaughter without
excessive fat. However the carcass composition is affected by slaughter mass, sex,
conformation (shape), nutrition and breed. Large cows require more feed than small cows.
This will increase the maintenance cost of the herd. This means that within a given breed and
sex, heavier animals tend to be fatter. Fat is the most variable tissue in a carcass and
excessive gives low saleable cut out. The summary of breed characteristics is given in the
Table 2.3.

14
 Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Table 2-3 Summary of different breeds characteristics

Characteristic Breeds
AA AFR BRA CHAR HER MAS SUC SIMM NKO TUL
Rapid growth & large size 0 - - ++ + - + ++ - -
Small size & low maintenance + + 0 - 0 ++ 0 - + +
cow
Highly fertile cows ++ - - - + ++ + + ++ ++
Highly fertile bulls and libido ++ - 0 0 + ++ + + ++ ++

Early puberty & conception ++ - - 0 + ++ + 0 ++ ++

Good milking qualities + 0 0 0 - 0 0 ++ 0 0

Carcass quality early maturing ++ + + - ++ ++ + - - +

and gradeability
Late maturing lean muscular - 0 0 ++ - - 0 ++ 0 0
Adapted to environment require - ++ ++ - 0 ++ 0 0 ++ ++
1) moderate to low nutritional
levels & tolerant to stress
2) High nutritional level, + - - ++ + - + ++ - -
minimal stress tolerance
Docile temperament 0 0 - ++ ++ 0 0 ++ 0 0
Longevity& freedom from 0 ++ - 0 + ++ 0 - ++ ++
defects
Key to table: + Above average ++ Well above average 0 Average -Below average

15
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

2.4 Activity
1. Explain the anatomical features of the Brahman breed which enable it to survive in
harsh climatic conditions.
2. List the production characteristics of the following beef breeds.
a. Mashona
b. Hereford
c. Limousin
3. Discuss the anatomical features that enable large beef breeds to survive in the tropics.

16
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

3 BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

3.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter introduces the student to the beef production systems used in Zimbabwe. Factors
affecting choice of the beef production system are also discussed. Examples of production
policies followed in the different production systems will be discussed.
3.2 The beef production systems in Zimbabwe.
Unlike most other agricultural commodities beef producers have a fairly wide range of
options as far as systems of production are concerned. One can opt for:
a. breeding-in and sell stock or
b. buy-in stock, finish them & sale or do both.
3.2.1 Breeding-in production system
The system is called breeding-in because the farmer will be producing the animals which will
be sold on the farm. Within the breeding option marketing may be done at various stages
from weaning to slaughter at different stages. The slaughter stock can be sold at various
stages by various methods. One can divide the breeding into the following:
a. Sale of slaughter stock from 2 to 4.5years old.
b. 2.5year olds sold usually as feeders.
c. 1.5 year olds sold usually as yearlings or long weaners
d. 6 to 9 months olds sold as weaners.
A stable production system must have a planned herd composition based on the carrying
capacity of the property at the critical end of the summer growth period of the grass. It
coincides with the peak herd numbers in the breeding systems, all summer calves will have
been born but sales will not have started.
3.2.2 Buying–in production system
In this system, animals are bought, kept for a specific time period, usually fed to gain
mass/carcass grade and then sold. One can buy-in the following age groups:
a. Weaners
b. Yearlings
c. Feeders.
The profitability of buying–in systems is closely related to the purchase price and selling
price used. From the above one can see that the systems vary from extensive to intensive. The
length of the production cycle may also vary. Unlike the breeding-in system which may
involve a 5 to 6 year production policy/cycle, the buying-in system may involve a shorter
time period of 6 to 20 weeks i.e. buying animals and fattening them off.
3.2.3 Factors affecting choice of the production system
[Link] Profitability
This is the most important factor. One has to consider the potential profitability of the
different systems of production as specific circumstances favour one or more production
systems. Profitability has to be considered in the light of likely future market trends rather
than base the estimates entirely on current market status. All the other factors will affect
profitability of the different system to differing extents.
[Link] Efficiency of production
Generally the profitability of beef production will be determined by the efficiency of the
system than by the system of production followed. The efficiency of production can be

17
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

measured in terms of calving rate, weaning rate, mass for age in relation to cost of
production. These must be realistically estimated. A low weaning rate will depress the
profitability of weaner production to a greater extent than a system of marketing at an older
age. Thus one should have a weaning rate of 75 percent and above to do weaner production
with normal supplementary feeding. If the weaning rate is less than 65 percent any
production system is likely not to be viable. Systems involving breeding make greater
demands on management and require greater expertise than buying–in and growing out. If
your efficiency is low then you will be better off with buying–in systems. Beginners should
first consider buying-in systems especially in less developed farms.
[Link] Markets
There is a guaranteed market for slaughter stock at CSC and private abattoirs at negotiated
prices. This provides stability for systems involved in the production of slaughter stock. The
young stock market at the same time fluctuates in relation to supply and demand. A sudden
drop in price can seriously affect the profitability of weaner or feeder production. The best is
to get into firm contracts with buyers before you produce the young stock. However, young
stock production is likely to be more profitable than slaughter stock production. This must be
considered in relation with the stability and demands on management.
[Link] Natural regions
In NR IV and V the incidences of drought makes it inadvisable to run large breeding herds.
Therefore slaughter stock is preferred to weaner production systems. In the drought prone
areas it is advisable to commit for example only 75 percent of the carrying capacity to
breeding herd and rearing of slaughter stock. The rest is reserved for finishing bought-in
stock depending on the season.
In the other NRs there is no restriction on choice of production system. In areas where veld
cannot be used to achieve high slaughter mass and grades without considerable
supplementary feeding and grain cannot be fed economically, the production of young stock
is advisable.
[Link] Cropping or Other enterprises on the farm
On farms where beef production is a secondary enterprise, efficient management of cattle
could be limited by lack of time. On crop farms it may not be possible to devote sufficient
time to the breeding herd. If this is the case then breeding should be discouraged or the
breeding season may be altered.
Many crop farms in high rainfall areas have large amounts of crop residues and maize but
limited areas of grazing. They are therefore best suited to purchasing of young stock for
growing out to slaughter. On these farms fattening of slaughter stock homebred or bought-in
is usually very obvious except when beef to grain ratio makes it uneconomic. The
profitability will depend on the relative cost of homebred feeders, bought-in feeders and
weaners.
[Link] The farm carrying capacity and extend of development
The weaner production and buying-in systems involve fewer herds than systems of breeding
and selling stock especially when carrying capacity is less than 500 livestock units (LU).
They involve less paddocking and water development and hence less overheads. This makes
them attractive on small farms. Increased supervision possible on small farms ensures higher
weaning rates which in turn allows for high chances of success of weaner production. In the
early stages of development buying-in systems are better as they require less infrastructure

18
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

compared to breeding systems. This is so since they bring in cash early than breeding-in
systems and the cash can be used for development of the farm.
[Link] Planted pastures
These increase the carrying capacity of the farm and widen the choice of production systems
to be considered. The economically optimum system of production on a property having
pastures will vary depending on the overall carrying capacity, the ratio of veld to pastures and
whether or not grain can be fed economically to animals.
[Link] Fodder flow
The veld is the main feed source for cattle. Whether the beef herd is run under intensive or
extensive conditions, matching the fodder requirements of herds on the farm to the fodder
produced reduces inputs. In situations where both systems of production are practiced, it is
advised to reserve 75 % of the land to breeding and rearing slaughter stock, with the
remainder (25 %) being used for finishing bought-in stock, depending on seasons.
[Link] Predators
In predator problem areas where calf losses are high, it is better to buy-in at relatively mature
stages or have slaughter stock with relatively small breeding herds. There is need to use a
breed with high mothering ability and precautious calves.
[Link] Personal preference
People are motivated to work harder for systems they like and prefer most. However,
personal preference must not override sound economic considerations.
3.3 Activity
1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of buying-in and breeding beef production
system.
2. Advice a farmer, in NR IIa, who wish to venture into breeding-in production systems,
selling weaners.

19
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

4 GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE

4.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter covers traits of economic importance in beef production. Types of records and
their uses will be discussed.
4.2 Role of breeding in beef production
The primary goal of breeding in beef cattle is to improve efficiency of production of saleable
weights through genetic means. In Zimbabwe, beef is mostly produced on veld or range,
therefore adaptation of any breed to local environmental conditions is important. The genetic
improvement of beef cattle requires that accurate and appropriate records are kept of all
animals with special attention to traits of economic importance.
4.3 Traits of economic importance
4.3.1 Reproductive Efficiency or cow productivity
Cow productivity can be defined as the weight of weaned calf per each cow exposed to the
bull during the breeding season. It is the most important trait as it determines the profitability
of the whole enterprise. Cow productivity depends on conception rate, calf birth weight,
survival to weaning for the calf and weaning weight.
4.3.2 Conception rate
This is a lowly heritable trait (h 2 ~ 0.1). Most of the phenotypic variations are due to
environmental factors which include feed/nutrition, diseases, bulling ratio and injury to
reproductive tract. Low fertility can be due to genetic effects. Lowly heritable traits are best
improved through cross-breeding programs.
4.3.3 Survival to weaning
Survival from conception to weaning is a function of embryonic, foetal and postnatal
mortality rates. Dystocia causes a significant number of losses in calves and to some extent to
the dam. More dystocia cases are found in first calf calvers especially when they are bred to a
bull of larger breeds. It is a normal practice to breed heifers to bulls of smaller size for the
first time and the practice is referred to as “opening up heifers”.
4.3.4 Weaning weight
This is a moderately heritable trait and careful selection for it should result in some
improvement over a number of years. Up to 60% variation in weaning weights is due to milk
production of the cow with a balance being accounted for by genetic ability of the calf to
make fast and efficient gains. It is therefore important to manage cows to produce adequate
quantity of milk for optimum calf growth
4.3.5 Indices or ratios
The actual masses of animals are not important but the indices/ratios calculated from these
masses are the ones which matters most. The index shows the weight of an animal at a
particular date, using its average daily gain. The ratios show the relative performance of an
individual compared with the average of its contemporaries.
[Link] 120 day ratio (~4 months)
A high 120 day index or ratio reflects high milk production potential of the dam. If the calf is
a heifer, it can also be a good milk producer.

20
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link] 205 day index/ratio (~6 months)

This shows the mothering ability of the dam and the potential for growth of the calf. The calf
will be utilising more of the feed provided or grazing and less milk. At 205 days, 25 % of the
nourishment will be from the dam and 75 % from the veld or feed provided.
Usually the 205 day mass should be the first mass recorded rather than the 120 day mass.

Example. Calculate 205 day index/ratio in Table 3-1 using provided information.

Table 4-4 Calculation of day indexes and ratios

Calf number Age when weighed (days) Mass (kg) 205 day index Ratio
A 210 220 215.60 97.90
B 204 215 215.88 98.02
C 190 215 229.21 104.08

Mean birth mass = 35 kg

205 day index = (ADG x 205) + birth mass
Average daily gain (ADG) = (mass – mean birth mass) / number of days.
205 day ratio = 205 index/mean index * 100
[Link] 365 day index/ratio
This reflects the individual animal’s true genetic potential for growth. A slow start followed
by a steady growth rate after weaning indicates poor milk production by the dam and a good
growth potential. A good ratio at 205 days followed by a decline at 365 days shows poor
growth potential and is undesirable. See Table 4.2.

Table 4-5 Changes in day ratios with age

Animal 120 day 205 day 365 day 550 day Comment
number ratio ratio ratio ratio

A 120 110 100 100 Poor growth potential

B 110 120 120 120 Good potential for growth

C 100 100 90 80 Poor growth potential

D 90 80 100 110 Good growth potential
E 80 90 110 110 Poor milk production by dam &
good growth potential of progeny

[Link] 550 day ratio

At ± 18 months of age, the ratio reflects the animal’s own growth potential.
4.3.6 Rate and efficiency of gain in feedlot (FCE)
This is an important trait in beef production and it is highly heritable, therefore it follows that
animals that make fast gains should sire offspring with the same quality. The trait is more

21
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

important in grain producing areas where feedlot is a common feature in the production
system.
4.3.7 Yearling weight
This is of high value in selection of both heifers and bulls for breeding. It has a medium to
high heritability so good progress is expected from selection. It is positively correlated to
weaning weight, growth rate, feed utilisation, meat yield and overall economic efficiency of
the herd.
4.3.8 Carcass quality
It’s the final criteria in the evaluation of beef animal. It deals with the quality of meat
produced at slaughter. It has a medium to high heritability value. The best way to improve the
trait is through cross breeding.
Other traits of economic importance are slaughter weight, bulling weight and birth weight.
4.4 Cattle Identification
Management depends on records of performance for individual animals. Identification of
animals is a pre-requisite of any recording system. There is need to have an identification
system of your animals so as to be able to keep production records. The identification system
must be permanent, easily applied and clean enough to read from a reasonable distance.
4.4.1 Numbering systems
[Link] Cows
When a farmer is starting with an existing unidentified cow herd, it is simple to number from
1 (one) in sequence as the cows come forward. The cows could be pre-fixed F for foundation
stock.
[Link] Calves
There are two sequences available for use by farmers. These are either order of birth or dam
number.
[Link].1 Order of birth calf numbering
All calves must be numbered consecutively as they are born. The calf number can be prefixed
with a single or double digits to indicate year of birth e.g. 96.1 will be the first 1996 calf; 03.8
will be the eighth 2003 calf. Use of two digits to indicate year ensures that there are no two
calves with the same number.
The number prefix can be replaced with a letter e.g. A = 1996, etc. Avoid use of letters I, O,
S, U, & V because they are used by some breeding societies for registered animals in
Zimbabwe.
Coloured tags may be used to differentiate between years.
[Link].2 Calf numbering using dam number
The number of the calf should correspond with their dam’s numbers plus a year prefix. For
example, foundation cow F63’s 1996 calf would be 96F63. A letter prefix is also possible.
This system has the advantage that cow and calves fall into the same numerical sequence and
cow families can be traced. The number given to each animal would be retained unchanged
throughout its life i.e. heifers entering the breeding herd should not be re-numbered.

22
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

4.4.2 Types of identification

[Link] Ownership identification
This is usually done using a hot iron brand that must be registered at the Registrar’ office.
Each individual cattle owner has to have this brand.
[Link] Individual animal identification mark
This can be done using numbers or letters. The information on the identification include year
of birth as a prefix, sire number and order of birth. This can be replaced by the Livestock
Identification Trust number, which is meant to make the products from the beef animals
traceable to the farm of origin, possible to trace using provincial brands & ownership marks.
[Link] Provincial identification
This is needed to control animal movement, control of FMD e.g. of provincial brands: H for
Mash. East; C for Mash. Central; T for Gutu district; J for Midlands; JC for Mberengwa.
These codes also help to track stock theft cases.
4.4.3 Methods of identifying/marking cattle
[Link] Branding
This is when the hair follicles are damaged so as to leave a mark on the skin of the animal.
This can be done using the hot iron branding irons which cauterise the skin area. You can
also use chemical branding or freeze branding. In freeze branding you take off the pigment of
the hair follicles so that the mark that remains is white.
[Link] Ear Notching
This involves punching the ears using different shapes and at different positions to represent
different numbers. The problem is that the numbers are limited. They are difficult to read
from a distance. The ears may get torn and that distorts the numbers. Also the system uses
uncommon codes. You use ear puncher to put the numbers.
[Link] Ear tags
These come in numerous designs and colours. The different colours can be used to
distinguish different breeds. All of them have the disadvantage that they are not permanent
and are difficult to read from afar. You need to have applicators. The metal tags are called the
Ketchum tags and there are so many versions of the plastic tags that include the LIT tags.
[Link] Tattooing
In this method one uses spiked applicators and ink to apply the tattoo on the ear or the lips of
an animal. They are permanent, but awkward to read. They are less suitable for pigmented
animals especially black animals. There is need to handle the animals before you can read
them. They are usually used in pedigree animals.
[Link] Naming
The method is used in communal areas where animal numbers are low.
4.5 Record keeping
The objective of keeping records is to increase efficiency of the beef enterprise and hence, the
profitability of the beef herd. There are three types of records kept to serve three purposes.

23
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

4.5.1 Accounting records

These aid in accounting systems like the stock register. It is a legal requirement in Zimbabwe,
in terms of Animal Health Regulations, to have a stock register if you own cattle. The stock
register/card shows:
 Corresponding number of animals that a farmer owns and description of the animals
e.g. cows, bulls, steers, calves.
 Dipping records i.e. dates of dipping, number and description of animals dipped.
 Any additions or losses with a reason e.g. birth, death, theft, sale, purchase, etc.
In addition to being a legal requirement, the stock register is the most essential record a beef
farmer should maintain and it represents the first level of recording. It provides a concise and
up-to-the minute picture of the beef enterprise on the farm.
4.5.2 Management records
These records are of specific value in management assessment. They show performance of
the beef herd. Examples include the following.
 Birth rates
 Conception rates
 Average weaning weight. This assess cow production and reflects on aspects of
management such as supplementation, especially for winter calves, and stocking rate
or veld management, especially for summer calves.
 End of winter weighing. This is recorded to assess growth rate during the winter after
weaning.
 End of summer weighing. This assess growth rate on summer grass and reflects on
veld management and stocking rate.
 Cow weighing to assess weight changes
Normally, management records are group performance records. A marked identical sample
can be used to assess progress of the whole group, minimum sample size should be 15 % of
the herd. Its labour intensive to weigh each animal, it’s also stressful to the animals thus there
is need to minimise handling.
Records of interest on management are fertility records and death rate records. Death rate
should not be more than 3 %. Fertility records are important because the more animals you
get the more animals you sell.
4.5.3 Individual records
These records are critical for genetic improvement of the herd. The records will aid in
selection and culling since you will be able to identify underperforming animals when
keeping individual records. Information recorded relates to performance in traits of economic
importance i.e. fertility and calf growth before and after weaning. Other records needed are:
 Cow mass. This is a guide to conception body weight. Undernourished, low weight
cows have been shown to exhibit low fertility.
 Calving easy and birth weight, especially where dystocia is a problem.
 Feed conversion efficiency
 Carcass characteristics
4.6 Selection of breeding stock
Selection refers to choosing stock for breeding. Selected animals will replace culled animals.
Replacement heifers are the ones selected to replace the culled cows. Culling is the practice
of removing specific individual animals from herds considered unsuitable for further
breeding (in case of cows) or for breeding (in case of heifers). Generally a 20 % replacement
rate and culling rate are recommended in commercial production systems.

24
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

The main reason for culling and selecting new animals is to maintain or improve the
productivity of the beef herd. Replacement animals must be selected bearing in mind that
selection primarily for growth traits, as widely practised, may also bring about correlated
increase in dystocia, cow size and cow feed requirements. These changes may be
uneconomic.
The genetic potential of a particular animal, or a breed, is almost never a limiting factor for
production. External factors such as climate, nutrition and management weigh far more
heavily. Zebu breeds do well in the tropics, and quite a few of them also have very good beef
production characteristics. It is only worth considering introducing improved non-Zebu
breeds where there are improved conditions.
Many people think that bigger breeds are better, but bigger animals need more feed for
maintenance. If the farmer cannot meet the demand for more or better quality feed, these
animals will do worse than the local or traditional breeds. Moreover, larger breeds generally
mature later and so they take longer to reach the optimal body condition for slaughter. In
some cases this requires an extra year of grazing, which reduces the number of breeding cows
on the farm or ranch.
Exotic breeds are stressed with hot and humid conditions. For example the Santa Gertrudis
bulls show very little libido and do not search actively for cows in heat.
Select against cows with big ‘bottle shaped’ teats. Calves will not be able to suckle such teats.
Select animals with a coloured patch of skin around the eyes as these animals are less likely
to develop eye cancer or pink eye. Pigmented skin is less susceptible to sunburn. Animals
with less pigment coupled with infected liver, e.g. by liver flukes are at risk of strong
sunlight.
Using artificial insemination is hardly ever worthwhile. First, most beef animals are not used
to being handled, they have to be tied up for insemination and the inseminator is an intrusion
into their body. The stress hormones that are released will suppress the reproductive
hormones and the chance of conception taking place will be low. Second, you need to think
about the value of using semen from a very high quality bull where conditions in the field,
and quality of feed and management are not very good.
When twin calves are born, and one is male and the other female, the female is almost always
a ‘freemartin’. Freemartins should be excluded from the breeding herd and fattened for sale.
4.6.1 Breeding stock selection considerations
[Link] Selection for fertility
The beef females are selected and culled for various reasons and fertility is the main one.
The heritability of fertility is not high and it is known that management particularly
nutritional factors have large influence on herd fertility. Cull heifers that fail to conceive or
calve following mating and cows that fail to produce a calf after two consecutive seasons.
Culling cows that calve down late in the calving season also improves the calving percentage.
It has been shown that females that conceive early in the bulling season produce more calves
in their lifetime than those conceiving late in the season. It is suggested that you retain heifers
in excess of requirement needs (a practice known as over mating) followed by selection of
those that conceive early in their breeding season.
A cow’s body condition also plays an important role in her fertility. Below a certain weight
cows are not fertile. A body condition score below 2 is generally an indication of low,
insufficient body condition.
Replacement heifers are selected before mating initially on weaning mass and subsequently
on body mass around 18 months (the long yearling mass). The fertility of the heifers is
known to be high with high body mass at first mating. So you should select those heifers that

25
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

will be heavier at attaining the bulling age. However, selection of body mass can result in
correlated increase in mature mass. This may not be desirable if the increase in birth mass is
proportionally greater than that of mature mass of dams or their pelvic opening.
The age at which a young cow enters puberty is closely related to the time of year at which it
was born. Calves born early in the breeding season often grow and develop faster, reaching
puberty as much as one year earlier than late-born calves. This is a lifelong effect and worth
taking into consideration when selecting heifers to replace others in the herd.
[Link] Selection for calf growth
Saving cows that produce heavy weaners, while cows producing light weaners are culled
together with their progeny, often carries out improvement of calf growth. Selection on
individual or progeny growth performance, if effective will increase both direct and indirect
maternal effects. The weaning mass of the first progeny predicts the cow’s producing ability
more accurately than do both the weaning and yearling masses of the dam. Therefore you
should use the calf’s weaning mass for ranking the cows.
[Link] Body conformation and structural soundness
Body confirmation is related to growth rate and cattle should show true beef type qualities.
Select heifers with wide muzzle and a wide rib cage. This will show that the animal has
organs in the chest big enough to support high production. Also consider strictly feminine
face with an intelligent face and meaty/lean neck. Feminity is important since calf bearing
is only carried out by females.
The withers and shoulders should be broad and flat or with a slight upward arch.
Conformation of the pelvis is important to movement and contributing to calving ease. The
greater the angle of the line drawn between hooks and the pins of the pelvis and the
horizontal, the greater will be the vertical diameter of the pelvis for the calf to get through
and therefore improved calving ease.
The animal should have good legs that will make walking easy. No sickle hocked legs and
other physical defects which can make walking difficult.
The udder should be soft, flexible with lots of skin folds. It must be set high and with four
teats placed evenly at the corners of the udder and with accessible teats. This will help to
select heifers for high milk production. The external genitalia should show reasonable
development for size of heifer i.e. the vulva & udder.
[Link] 120, 205, 365 & 550 day indices & ratios
These reflect the potential for growth and milk production. Animals with poor ratios should
be culled and those with ratios above 100 should form the pool of selection.
[Link] History of dam
This should also be considered when selecting heifers to use as other problems are heritable
i.e. passed on to offspring.
[Link] Temperament
This is important although animals can be trained. You should cull weaner heifers with bad
tempers.
4.6.2 Beef bull selection considerations
The farmer has to identify the breed(s) strengths and weaknesses of the cow herd then choose
bulls to correct problems in the herd. You must remember that the superiority of your herd
depends largely on the bulls used in the herd. Start basing your selection of a good herd bull
on whether you wish to do some crossbreeding or pure breeding. The weaknesses of your

26
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

cow herd is the second issue because you need to find a bull that will improve on these
weaknesses. Weaknesses include poor calving ease, mature weights, weaning/yearling
weights, poor conformation, fertility, feed efficiency, milking ability, etc. The farmer must
identify the type of bull he wish to have basing on its breed. Types of bulls a farmer has to
choose from are terminal, maternal and rotational bulls.
a) Terminal bulls: This is a bull that is used to increase weights and growth in calves.
This type of bull is only used when you wish to sell all of your calves as feeders.
b) Maternal bulls: this is a bull used for producing replacements. The qualities of this
type of bull should be less on increasing weights and growth whilst more on
improving the quality of your herd in terms of mothering ability, milking ability,
calving easy, and calf vigour.
c) Rotational bulls: this is a bull that is suitable both as one for maternal traits and for
producing calves for the meat market. The bull can also be used for cross-breeding
programmes.
It is best to buy a purebred bull instead of a crossbred one because you have a higher chance
of getting a more uniform calf herd than one that seems to be all over the map. The following
considerations should be made to come up with a better bull for the herd.
Select bulls that produce smaller calves to mate with heifers. These bulls are shown by
looking at their dam’s records of pregnancy duration. They should have less than 283 days of
pregnancy.
Prepuce prolapse, mainly found in Zebu breeds. It when the inner lining of prepuce is turned
outwards and hangs down outside the sheath of the penis. This increases the risk of infection
through spiky seeds and other foreign objects and dirt, particularly in rough grazing areas.
This problem results in a lower pregnancy rate and reduced fertility in cows. Because the
prepuce is infected, the penis itself becomes infected, which in turn infects the cow during
service. If a bull has a serious prepuce prolapse infection, he will not be willing or able to
serve the cows. This problem should be given serious attention when selecting a breeding
bull.
Bigger scrotum circumference is often associated with higher fertility. The other factor
associated with this is that, these bulls produce offspring that mature earlier, so these heifers
will reach puberty sooner.
When bulls are kept separately from the cows for a longer period, especially during a long
dry season, the bull’s hormone levels go down and their sperm production almost stops.
Moreover, the semen in the testicles ages and loses its ability to fertilise a cow’s ovum. To
get bulls back into sexual action they need to be kept near or alongside the cows, just before
the breeding season. Some ranchers introduce a group of well-developed heifers to the bulls
so that they will service them. The first services probably will not lead to pregnancies, but
bulls’ hormone levels and sperm production will be activated. After a short period the bulls
will be able to run with the cows and get them pregnant. This is called ‘warming-up’ and is a
good practice.
*If a bull has been seriously ill with a high fever, it will take at least 2.5 months to fully
restore his fertility. Fever has a disastrous effect on sperm development in the testicles, which
reduces fertility or stops it altogether.
[Link] Select bulls for fertility
You need to have his breeding soundness examination records. This will include an
assessment of his sex drive as well as semen test. This will not replace the need for the dam’s
record. The scrotal circumference is also an important indicator of his fertility. At 12 months
scrotal circumference should not be less than 30 cm. There is high correlation between scrotal
circumference and fertility.

27
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link] Milk production

Good milk production means heavy weaners, which usually translate to more profits. The
bull’s capacity for milk production is estimated by checking for his dam’s lifetime weaner
production record.
[Link] Growth rate
This trait is highly positively correlated to overall feed conversion efficiency and profitability
and therefore deserves your close attention. It is highly heritable so that if superior bulls are
used they may be expected to make large improvements in the growth rate of their calf crops.
The mass per day of age of the bull relative to other bulls in the breeders herd is the only
satisfactory measure available. You can also rely on the yearling mass ratio and the 550-day
mass ratio of the bulls for making your choices. Mature mass is not very important rather
you should have bulls that grow fast at a younger age as the most desirable scenario.
[Link] Muscling and functional efficiency
Conformation is very common criterion used for bull selection. It is readily available and
easiest to apply. The bull should be well muscled and should have high quality lean meat
cuts in the carcass. This proportion of high quality lean meat cut in carcass is referred to as
cutability. You must be able to distinguish between muscle and fat deposits in the animal.
Close attention should be paid to functional efficiency as it affects the length of time the bull
will be able to stay and perform his reproductive function.
The testes should be checked by palpation. There should be no signs of unnatural hardness,
swelling.
Legs are very important. They should be strong and free moving neither too straight in the
hock nor sickle hocked. There is increasing evidence to link increased straightness through
the hock and stifle with increased incidences of broken penis (rupture of major blood vessels
of the penis as a result of service injury) in young bulls particularly though older bulls may
also be affected. When there is too much slope in the hocks, fetlock or pastern the foot flight
follows a low arc with a tendency to overstep the front print.
Any abnormalities in any other parts of the body like, mouth, back or eyes must be sufficient
reason for rejection of a bull. Over fatness reduces fertility so you should discriminate
against over fat bulls.
Bulls must have symmetrical hooves with pasterns above ground, 2 cm.
4.7 Activity
1. Explain, using examples, the relevance of records in beef production.
2. Devise a numbering system for animals at your institution.
3. Practically put identification marks on cattle at your institution using branding irons.
4. List all the letters used to identify animals in each province in Zimbabwe.
5. Using available records at your institution, select best heifers and bulls to use in the
breeding programmes.

28
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

5 PEDIGREE CATTLE PRODUCTION

5.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter stresses the importance of pedigree cattle production in beef production. The
examples of key records required is also presented and the breeding time options are justified.
5.2 Introduction
A pedigree is a table or chart recording a line of ancestors as proof of superior qualities. The
major objective in pedigree beef production is to produce or supply top quality bulls or
heifers to other pedigree or commercial producers. Such bulls or heifers should have
desirable qualities e.g. good conformation, strong legs and above average performance.
5.3 Aims
 To practice selection and culling of stock so that only the best animals are retained for
breeding.
 To maintain records of all stock so that progress in breeding can be evaluated. Such
records are vital in selection and culling of stock.
 To strive to obtain top quality breeding stock/semen so that progress can be made in the
herd.
5.4 Pedigree records
The following records are important to pedigree breeders.
 Disease records
 Date of birth, dam number, sire & sex of calf, artificial insemination or bull used
 General conformation based on visual assessment
 Birth mass, 120, 205, 365, & 550 day ratios
5.4.1 Uses of records
 Evaluation of each animal’s performance and breeding potential
 Comparison of bulls, cows, calves performance
 Identification of each poor animal in the herd leading to subsequent culling
5.5 Calving times or breeding times
The highest weaning weights or 205 day indices in all beef cattle are achieved when calving
occurs in spring i.e. September to November. This period is related to rainfall pattern which
affects plane of nutrition and milk yields of cows.
With pedigree breeding, however, period of bull sales affects time to breed stock. The bulls
are sold in June to September and generally the market requires 2 year olds. If bulls are born
in September they will be about 1 year 10 months at sale and will be too young to attain high
prices. Breeding has therefore to be done in August/September so that calving occurs in
May/June or mid-winter. Such bulls will be 2¼ years old at sale time and will attain better
prices. The bulls can also be used by commercial producers during November-February
bulling period. Cows have, however, to be fed adequately since they will be suckling in
winter. Proper supplementary feeding infrastructure is therefore a must in all pedigree cattle
production.
5.6 Weaning times
This is usually done at 9/10 months i.e. if born in May wean January/February.

29
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

5.7 Activity
1) Discuss, using examples, the significance of pedigree records.
2) Explain the role of pedigree cattle production.

30
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

6 BREEDING PLANS/SYSTEMS

6.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter flash back on animal breeding course done during the first term. It introduces the
student to concepts of genetic improvement of beef animals on a farm. Tools used in genetic
improvement are explained. The systems available for use by farmers are discussed.
6.2 Introduction
Genetic improvement makes use of two principles/tools, namely selection and
mating/breeding plans. Selection is the process of choosing animals to be parents of the next
generation. Mating plans are the ways in which the chosen animals are combined in breeding
herds. It is always important to note that a good genotype can be spoiled by bad management
but a bad genotype cannot be improved by good management.
6.2.1 Breeding aims
Farmers carry out breeding of beef animals to achieve any of the following aims.
 Increase growth rate of animals
 Increase efficiency of feed use
 Improve adaptation to particular environments
 Shorten rate of maturity
 Improve fertility and regularity of calving
 Improve longevity in breeding stock
 Improve carcass quality
 Improve milking ability of dams or mothering ability
 Introduce new genes into the herd
There are two main systems of mating animals which are pure & cross breeding.
6.3 Pure breeding
This is genetic improvement through selection within a pure breed. This result in changed
additive genetic potential. However, rate of change for the trait of interest depends on
heritability, variability, and selection intensity and generation interval. These factors makes
progress due to selection a slow process. Types of pure breeding include inbreeding, line
breeding and line crossing.
6.3.1 Inbreeding
This refers to mating of animals with closely related parents for the purposes of producing
inbred animals with superior genes. In practice, inbreeding entails mating of animals with one
or more ancestors in common. Inbreeding decreases heterozygosity and increases
homozygosity regardless of whether they are good or bad.
Inbreeding when practised, has a number of setbacks which need to be thought of before the
system can be implemented. The setbacks include the following.
 Reduced reproduction
 Increased mortality
 Poor growth rate
 Occasional physical deformities in offspring e.g. undershot jaw, dwarfism, one
opening for urinary/reproductive & digestive system in female animals.
Reduced animal performance as a result of inbreeding is known as inbreeding depression. It
means gradual lowering in performance of traits and is seen especially in characters like
fertility, survival and size.

31
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

6.3.2 Line breeding

This system is like another form of inbreeding. It does not have the traditional fears
associated with inbreeding. It involves a deliberate concentration on a particular ancestor i.e.
retrospective breeding e.g. when the merit of an ancestor, now dead, has been realised, and
there is need to regain some of his genetic merit, the nearest of which would be that in his
sons or grandsons.
6.3.3 Line crossing
In this system of mating, animals of the same breed but of different lines are mated. A line is
a group of animals bred for years without mixing it with other genes e.g. we can have two
groups of Mashona breed kept & bred in different localities, these can be selected and mated.
6.4 Crossbreeding
This is a form of outbreeding or outcrossing. In this system, unrelated animals are mated.
Crossbreeding is carried out to achieve any of the three objectives:
i) Combining desired traits (breed complementarity)
ii) Exploit heterosis (hybrid vigour), &
iii) Upgrading of indigenous stock
The effect of breed difference is powerful but the choice of individuals within a breed is also
very important. Inorder to fully utilise the potential of a crossbreeding programme, the cows
themselves must be crossbred because crossbred cows have been shown to have better
mothering abilities.
6.4.1 Heterosis
It is the extent to which the progeny of a cross differ from the average of the parental types in
a given character. Heterosis occurs when different breeds mate. When different breeds are
mated, the crossbred progeny are less inbred than their parents. As a result of less inbred,
calves perform at a level above that of their parents thus heterosis. Heterosis in a sound
crossbreeding can increase productivity in the herd by 20-25 % over a comparable straight
breeding programme.
6.4.2 Breed complementarity
There is no one breed that excels in all relevant traits, thus all breeds have strengths and
weaknesses. Mating systems should exploit more of the strengths. Breed complementarity
occurs when desirable characteristics from different breeds are combined in a crossbred
animal (positive correlation of traits).
An example of complementarity will be mating a Charolais bull (good growth rate & retail
yield) to an Angus cross cow (produces more milk & is highly fertile). The resulting calf will
have more growth and retail yield.
6.4.3 Types of crossbreeding programmes
There are two broad categories of crossbreeding, namely terminal and rotational systems. In
terminal systems all the crossbred progeny in the final phase are sold and not used for
breeding. In rotational systems, crossbred heifers from each phase are used as replacement
breeding stock for the next phase.
[Link] Terminal crossbreeding systems
These can be two or three breed terminal systems in which 2 or 3 breeds are used in the
crossbreeding programme.

32
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link].1 Two breed terminal crossbreeding system

a) Single cross
Two breeding herds are required in this system. Straight bred females of one breed (A) are
crossed with straight bred bulls of a second breed (B) and all the first filial generation, F 1,
(AB) progeny are disposed off. Replacement heifers may be brought in or bred in a separate
pure-bred herd. The process can be depicted as below.

Herd
Figure 6-31:Two
Breed (B) bulls
breed x Breed
single cross (B) females
terminal systems
In this system, greatest productivity is obtained by maximising calf size compared to the size
of the cow. Therefore breed A bulls should be of a larger type compared to breed A cows.
However, care should be taken
Straightbred to replacement
(BB) avoid dystocia especially among heifers.
heifers
Inorder to maximise hybrid vigour, the breeds should be as diverse as possible, for example
Bos indicus and Bos taurus.
Sales will consist
Herd of cross
2: Breed AB steers
(A) bulls x and heifers,
Breed straightbred B steers, a few straightbred B
(B) females
cull heifers and straightbred B cull cows.

Advantages of two breed single cross system

 The system is simple to follow
All (AB) progeny
 Fairly good trait matching possibilities
 Straightbred can be maintained if preferred by commercial breeders

Disadvantages of two breed single cross system

 Low overall level of hybrid vigour
 Breeding cows will all be straightbred –this limits heterosis
 There will be limited scope of culling replacement heifers since the numbers will be
too small

b) Back-cross
This is an extension of the single cross system. In this system, crossbred heifers are retained
and mated to breed A or B bulls to produce ¾ bred progeny. Three breeding herds are
required as depicted below.

33
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Figure 6-4 Back-cross

Herd 1: Breed (B) bulls x Breed (B) females

Straightbred (BB) replacement heifers

Herd 2: Breed (A) bulls x Breed (B) females

AB replacement heifers

Herd 3: Breed (A/B) bulls x Crossbred (AB) females

All ¾ bred AB progeny

The proportion distribution of breeding females to maximise crossbreeding effect should be

as follows.
Herd 1: 25 %
Herd 2: 25 %
Herd 3: 50 %

34
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

A high calving rate is essential to maintain this balance. Breeds should be genetically diverse
and one breed should be Bos indicus.

Advantages of back-cross
 45-50 % of breeding females are crossbred
 Moderate level of hybrid vigour compared to single cross
 Bulls for both herds, 1 and 3, can be produced from one herd, 2.

Disadvantages
 Relatively complex
 Does not make maximum use of hybrid vigour or complementarity
 There is limited scope of culling replacement heifers as the numbers are small
[Link].2 Three breed terminal systems
This system requires three breeding herds. Crossbred females are used as replacements to be
mated to a third breed. This ensures maximum exploitation of heterosis associated with
reproduction, survival and maternal ability.

35
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Figure 6-5 Three breed terminal systems

Herd 1: Breed (B) bulls x Breed (B) females

Straightbred (BB) replacement heifers

Herd 2: Breed (A) bulls x Breed (B) females

Crossbred AB replacement heifers

Herd 3: Breed (C) bulls x Crossbred (AB) females

All triple-cross bred ½ C ¼A ¼B progeny sold

Inorder to maximise the crossbreeding effect, the distribution of females should be as

follows.
Herd 1: 25 %

36
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Herd 2: 25 %
Herd 3: 50 %
In this system a slightly higher proportion of cows in herd 1 (e.g. 30 %) may be advisable to
allow for heifer culling, while herd 2 remain at 25 % and herd 3 reduce to 45 %. The cow
herds (breed A & B) should be small or medium types with good maternal characteristics to
provide complementarity with the terminal sire breed (C). The terminal sire breed should be
large with fast growth rate, taking into consideration issues of dystocia.
Example: Cross Angus breed (A) with the Jersey (J) as the maternal line to produce AJ
crossbred replacement heifers. You then mate AJ females to larger exotic bulls (E). AJ
female cross is early maturing, has high milk yield, small mature size, desirable carcass
characteristics and the exotic bull supplies growth potential to the calf.

Advantages of three breed terminal systems

 45-50 % breeding females will be crossbred, thus higher chances of heterosis.
 There is higher level of hybrid vigour overall
 There is good possibility of complementarity for size
 There is fairly good trait matching
 Breeders can maintain straightbred herd

Disadvantages
 Moderately complex system
 A proportion of the herd (50 %) is not crossbred
 Limited scope for culling replacement heifers
[Link] Rotational crossbreeding systems
In rotational systems heifers are selected to be used as replacements. Two and three breed
systems can be used.
[Link].1 Two breed rotational system
Two breeding herds are required in this system, one mated to a different breed of bull.
Replacement heifers are exchanged between herds so that those sired by the first breed are
mated to bulls of the second breed and vice versa as depicted below.

37
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Figure 6-6 Two breed rotational crossbreeding system

Herd 1 Herd 2
Herd A bulls x Breed A females Herd B bulls x Breed B females

AA replacement heifers BB replacement heifers

(Replacement heifers are swapped between breeding herds)

Breed A bulls x BB replacement heifers Breed B bulls x AA replacement heifers

ABB progeny AAB progeny

Advantages of two breed rotational system

 It’s fairly easy to follow
 There is moderate level of hybrid vigour since some of the heifers will end up being
crossbreds
The main disadvantage is that there is no size complementarity.
[Link].2 Three breed criss-cross rotational systems
Three breeding herds are required in this system and each breeding herd is mated to a
different breed of bull as illustrated below.

38
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Figure 6-7 Three breed criss-cross rotational crossbreeding system

Breed A x Breed B

F1 (AB) replacement heifer x Breed A bull

F2 (ABA) x Breed B bull

F3 x Breed C bull

F4

Advantages of three breed criss-cross rotational systems

 All breeding females will be crossbreds thus there will be high level of heterosis
 There is good trait matching possibilities

Disadvantages
 The system is complex
 More paddocks are required to separate breeding herds
 Size complementarity matching may be difficult
6.4.4 Factors affecting success of crossbreeding programs
 Climate –it affects forage availability and thus feed availability is reduced hindering
the crossbred animals to fully express their genetic potential
 Diseases and parasites –this affects progeny response
 Adequate records –may influence selection process as less performing animals may
be selected

39
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 Technical knowhow
 Size complementarity
 Breed availability
 Heritability value of concerned traits
 Correlation of traits
6.5 Activity
1. Explain how climate affects success of crossbreeding programs.
2. Explain the meaning of breed complementarity.
3. What is the difference between terminal and rotational crossbreeding systems?
4. Explain key requirements for a successful breeding programme on a farm.

40
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

7 FEEDING OF BEEF ANIMALS

7.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter discusses feeding of beef animals using the veld as the main feed resource.
Concepts of supplementary feeding and types of supplementary feeds for beef animals are
discussed. The practice of fattening animals is also dealt with including management of the
animals being fattened.
7.2 Introduction
Feed contribute a major cost in producing beef, therefore using feeds effectively is of prime
importance in determining profit. Rations must meet the nutrient requirements of different
physiological states of animals e.g. growth, maintenance, reproduction and lactation. Nutrient
requirements are the amounts of nutrients an animal needs for a specific purpose. Nutrient
requirements of animals are influenced by factors like body size, sex of animal, stage of
production and the environment.
Feeding affects fertility of beef cows. Fertility is closely related to the condition of a given
animal. If a cow is bulled in poor body condition state, it may fail to conceive or if it
conceive it may abort. Poor feeding of animals result in silent heat expression.
7.3 Veld grazing
Natural grazing constitute the main feed resource for beef animals. The quality and quantity
of natural grazing available to the animal varies with seasons. For example, the protein
content in the high veld (sour veld) varies from a maximum of 100-150 g CP/kg DM in the
early growing season in November to below 30 g CP/kg DM in June-July in the middle of the
dry season. These changes are accompanied by a corresponding increase in fibre content and
bulk of forage. Some mineral and vitamins content drops as well due to leaching and
bleaching. This means that the beef animals would lose mass and body condition unless
supplementary feed is provided. The most critical and common is protein shortage. Protein is
high in early summer but bulk is low while in winter bulk is at maximum and protein content
is low. The digestibility of grass declines from 600 g/kg DM in January to less than 300 g/kg
DM in July. This is mainly due to the decline in protein intake, especially rumen degradable
protein, below the requirements of the rumen microorganisms resulting in low digestibility,
DM & energy intake. All this explains why animals relying on the natural veld lose weight
during the dry season.
Relationship between neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and crude protein (CP) explains the
challenges of grazing animals as shown in Figure 7.1.
As the lignin component increases, it forms cages which makes available carbohydrates
unavailable because rumen microbes cannot penetrate the cages. Increased cross-linking of
nitrogen, lignin and NDF components reduce availability of nitrogen to microbes resulting in
reduced microbial numbers, reduced fermentation, reduced rate of forage breakdown, slow
down of rates of passage through the digestive system. This will result in reduced feed intake
and decreased production. Therefore, it is vital to understand the growth of plants, seasonal
fluctuation in nutritive value of veld especially CP, fibre and energy.

41
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

CP
Quantity g/kg DM
65%

NDF

40 %
Decline in CP
Lignin component content in the grass
increases with advance ~ 2%
in season

D J F M A M J J
Time (months)
Figure 7-8 Basis for fundamental problems of grazing animals

7.4 Green grass loss

Green grass loss is the name given to the set of problems ruminants face when there is rapid
transition from the dry to the wet season. In the course of the dry season the quality of pasture
declines, making the animal’s feed more fibrous, and the bacteria (and other microorganisms)
in the animal’s rumen adapt themselves to this type and quality of feed. Depending on the
length and severity of the dry season, the animal’s weight gain will slow down and eventually
stop, and they may even lose weight.
In severe conditions, the animals may actually not just lose weight, they will also lose
condition, as the body tissues deplete. These animals are hardest hit by the changeover from
dry to the wet season. At the start of the rains, the new shoots of grass contain little fibre and
are highly nutritious. However, the bacteria in the digestive tract cannot yet digest this high
quality feed, which can cause the animal to have diarrhoea (scouring). The animal will lose
weight, it may eat a lot but cannot utilise the energy and nutrients from the grass.
The changeover period is a very serious threat to body condition (Figure 7.2), and weak
animals or those with health problems may not survive this period.
It takes about two weeks for the rumen bacteria to adapt to the new situation and good quality
feed. In fact, the whole bacteria population has to change.
Solutions to the process of green grass loss include reduced grazing time, to about 4 hours per
day. It helps if the animals get some coarse roughage, e.g. from standing hay, or maize or
sorghum stover, etc.

42
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Figure 7.9 illustration of severe weight loss at changeover to wet season

7.4.1 Is there need for supplementary feeding?

Yes. Because during the dry months grazing conditions do not provide sufficient nutrients to
maintain body condition of animals, let alone permit production. It is necessary to implement
a programme of supplementary feeding in order to make up for the deficiencies. The aim is to
make good the shortfall in nutrients available to the grazing animal in order to maintain a
satisfactory level of production.
7.5 Guidelines on feeding different classes of animals
7.5.1 Breeding mature cows
There is need to keep loss of body weight of the animals to a minimum by supplementation in
winter. A cow calving down in fair condition (2.5 on a scale of 1 to 5) must maintain her
post-calving weight throughout winter. Supplementary feeding should be increased after
calving, especially when calving occurs in spring before there is adequate grazing. Quantity
of feed given to an animal will depend on the stage of production. Stages of production in
cow’s life may be divided into four periods.
[Link] Period 1
This is the period when there is peak lactation, necessary for calf’s growth, uterine
involution, when the cow should start recycling and reconceive. This is the most critical
period, covering the first 80 days after calving. Poor feeding result in reduced milk
production, calf growth, conception rates and proportion of cows recycling, resulting in poor
calving rates in subsequent seasons. It is necessary to ensure adequate protein and energy in
this period so that animals are in good condition at re-conception.
[Link] Period 2
This period covers early pregnancy but the calf will still be suckling. The cow also need to
put on body weight in preparation for the winter months and spring calving. This period is

43
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

also the declining stage of milk production and nutrient requirements will be lower compared
to immediately post-calving. Level of nutrition at this stage will not affect the early
developing foetus but the calf on foot may experience retarded growth.
[Link] Period 3
This period covers gestation and is followed by weaning. The cow needs to maintain the
foetus. The cow will have lowest feed requirements in her production cycle. Cows can just be
offered feed for maintenance as they will be having low feed requirements. This is the time to
save and “rough” the cows on straw and low quality feeds if available. The cow can afford to
lose 10-15 % of its weight with no detrimental effects.
[Link] Period 4
This is the second most important period in terms of foetal growth (70-80 % of foetal growth
occurs during this period) and nutrient requirements. This may be as much as the equivalent
of 10 litres of milk a day or more.
The cow can be fed well enough to gain weight in these last 50 days, especially in thin cows
that have lost weight in winter. If the level of nutrition is not adequate during this period, calf
birth weight, viability and later growth may be compromised. Also a drop in subsequent milk
production and resultant decline in calf growth rate may occur. Level of nutrition at this stage
will also affect post-partum anoestrus period, which would increase the calving interval to
more than a year.
7.5.2 Feeding heifers and young cows up to 3rd parity
These animals are still growing and require extra nutrients above the level of maintenance
and milk production. The animals in this category should be supplemented to gain at least
0.35 kg/d in the dry season (10.5 kg per month). Young cows may be targeted to gain 0.25
kg/d (7.5 kg per month). In-calf heifers must be separated from young cows as they require
extra nutrients for their own growth in addition to maintenance and foetal growth. In-calf
heifers also require high proteins especially digestible undegradable dietary protein (UDP).
After calving, first calvers again need special attention. For post calving feeding, apart from
separation, you should use the same approach as for mature cows.
7.5.3 Young growing animals
The feeding of young stock should be such that they are not allowed to lose weight but gain
180-250 g/d i.e. 5.5-7.5 kg/month. It is not economical to feed for a greater gain as such
animals are known to exhibit compensatory growth once good quality grazing is available,
provided the feed restriction has not been too severe.
7.5.4 Bulls
These constitute the smallest group in the cow-calf herd. The beef bull should be kept in good
thrifty condition at all times i.e. not too lean and not too fat. His general health, physical
fitness and body condition all contribute towards his ability and willingness to function.
Bulls can be fed individually in troughs if numbers are low or as a group if many. Most bulls,
depending on breed, will continue to grow until they weigh 700 kg or more. These animals
should receive daily supplements containing 500 to 900 g digestible protein (DP) when
grazing normal sour veld in winter. At this feeding level, these bulls should continue to grow
at a rate of between 300 to 500 g per day. Mature bulls should need supplements containing
no more than 300 to 600 g DP per day.
NB. DP = 0.9 CP – 3 OR CP – 5. The latter formula works better for feeds that exceed 8 %
CP.

44
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

If bulls are worked in rotation, those being rested can be fed a supplement of 1-2 kg of bull
meal per day. Commercial stockfeed companies market suitable bull meals or cubes
containing 20-30 % DP. In most cases these contain no urea since it is felt that the high value
of bulls does not warrant the risk of accidents. Nevertheless, there is no other reason to
prevent the feeding of properly balanced urea-containing feeds to bulls, provided the rules for
urea feeding are followed.
Suitable farm mixtures can be made up using cottonseed cake and maize. Straight cottonseed
cake is about 34 % DP. Two parts cottonseed cake to one part crushed maize gives a 25 %
DP mixture while equal parts of each produces a 20 % DP mixture (Cattle Producers
Association, 1991).
7.6 Supplementary feeding
Whenever there is a shortage or deficiency of nutrients in the animal’s diet which is limiting
the productivity in one way or another, the feeding of a supplement is necessary. The block to
the expression of the animal’s full production potential is removed if a deficiency is made
good by the use of a suitable supplement. Judicious supplementary feeding will increase the
output of a beef enterprise by increasing rates of reproduction, growth or milk production,
above limitations imposed by the feeding value of the natural diet.
7.6.1 Winter supplementation
Research results indicate that winter supplementation is necessary to increase both fertility
and weaning mass. Grass bulk is adequate in winter on well managed veld but the protein
level is low. The supplementation regimes should be used as guidelines only as the
performance of the animals should be the final basis of deciding on the adequacy of any
feeding system.

Table 7-6 Recommended levels of supplementary protein in winter (g CP/day)

Class of stock Early winter Late winter

Young growing stock 150 200
Pregnant first calvers 225 275
Pregnant second calvers 300 450
Young cows with first calf 200 250
Young cows with second calf 250 400
Pregnant mature cows 175 225
Mature cow with calf 255 375

7.6.2 Priority for supplementation

Funds or farm produced feeds are rarely unlimited for supplementary feeding, therefore, it is
of paramount importance to allocate a priority rating to each class of stock to ensure the most
profitable use of feed resources. The severity or response to protein supplementation
decreases with age or parity. It is known that from third parity, the response to protein
supplementation is reduced. So the best is to employ the method of strategic supplementation.
In view of the accumulated evidence, the following general order of priority can be drawn up
for the breeding herd.
a. Pregnant heifers and immature cows in their 2nd & 3rd consecutive pregnancy

45
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

b. Mature cows pregnant consecutively raising weaners

c. Yearling heifers to be mated the following summer
d. 2.5 year old bullying heifers
e. Weaners
7.6.3 Types of supplementary feeds available in Zimbabwe
[Link] Energy supplements
These are mainly used for fattening cattle off the grass. Crushed maize is the main on-farm
energy supplement but farmers may buy cubes, e.g. 160 g CP/kg, which also have high
energy density. Animals are normally fed 2-3 kg per day, otherwise higher amounts would
depress intake of roughage through a substitution effect. Molasses may also be used but
availability is the problem.
Fats can be used as energy feeds as they have more energy per unit weight than do
carbohydrates. However, feeding more than 5 % of fat in diet reduces fibre digestion so there
is need to ration oil cakes if used.
[Link] Protein supplements
Supplementary protein feeds vary in quality according to the amount of urea, natural protein
and feed energy they provide. These can be grouped into two depending on form in which
they are found.
[Link].1 Rationed supplements
These include meals, oil cakes and cubes. Meals are generally home-made and are mainly a
mixture of natural protein, e.g. cakes, non-protein nitrogen (NPN), e.g. urea and maize fed in
troughs. Frequency of feeding should be daily preferably, especially with urea containing
supplements.
[Link].2 Non-rationed (adlibtum) supplements

a. Urea/salt blocks
These are the lowest quality protein supplements. They contain no natural protein and little or
no energy. For maximum utilisation of urea, there must be an abundance of readily available
energy. Urea/salt blocks are mainly of use at the end of summer and early winter when there
is abundant grass or stover for grazing. Urea/salt blocks are also better suited to mature, less
productive animals which have lower protein requirements. Therefore, there is need to group
animals according to their age.

b. Liquid urea-molasses licks/mixtures

These are considered as medium quality protein supplements. They are dispensed by means
of a wheel revolving in a drum mixture. Salt is used to control intake of the licks. As the
animal continues to lick, salt has a burning effect on the tongue which will cause the animal
to stop licking and by that time each animal will have consumed about 3 %. Other
supplements of this category include a source of natural protein like cotton seed cake.
These feeds are suited to mature cows and other low priority stock through winters,
particularly in good years and when there is adequate grazing. An example of urea/molasses
lick preparation is given in Table 7-2.

46
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Table 7-7 Louwrens liquid urea/molasses lick

Constituent Contribution (%)

Molasses 65

Urea 7

Salt 8

*Phosphoric acid 3

Water 17

Note. Research has shown that it is not generally necessary to feed a phosphate supplement in
winter. Phosphoric acid should therefore only be included if there is a known phosphorus
deficiency.
The above mixture will contain a CP of approximately 21 %. The suggested daily intake for
weaners is 500 g and for cows 1 kg.
NB. As a guide when mixing, one litre of molasses weighs approximately 1.5 kg while one
litre of water weighs approximately 1.0 kg.

c. Protein-urea-salt licks
These fall into the group of high quality protein supplements as they contain both natural
proteins and an energy source mainly starchy by nature. Commercially produced supplements
in this category usually contain up to 6 % of urea so as to keep the cost down. Examples of
such feeds include commercial cubes (between 20 & 50 % CP).
These high quality supplements usually cost more per unit of protein and in consequence are
sometimes fed only to high priority, high producing ranch stock. To ensure best results, it is
usually preferable to feed such high quality supplements at the end of most seasons when
veld bulk and quality reaches its lowest level and when the feed requirements of recently
calved cows are very high. Table 7-3 shows examples of mixtures.

Table 7-8 Two Successful Zimbabwean protein/urea/salt licks

Constituent Mixture 1 (%) Mixture 2 (%)

Urea 10 8
Maize 19 55
Cottonseed meal 28 10
Molasses 10 -
Salt 28 20
Monocalcium phosphate 5 3
Limestone flour - 4
CP 41 31

[Link] Blocks
These may be put out to pastures twice per week to reduce labour requirements. Intake is
limited by salt, but is unpredictable. Blocks may be home-made or bought-in. It is convenient

47
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

to move the feeding site around to prevent pasture/veld damage through trampling. Blocks
may have value in late summer after the grass has seeded and the protein level of the grazing
is declining, but has not yet reached the low levels of winter veld. The constituents of a
popular block are shown in Table 7.4.

Table 7-9 Home-made urea/salt block

Constituent Contribution (%)

Molasses 10
Urea 30
Salt 45
Monocalcium phosphate 5
Trace minerals 5
Water 5
CP 84.6

To make the block, urea is dissolved slowly in heated water (not boiled) over a slow fire. Add
salt, minerals and phosphate when all the urea is dissolved. Mix thoroughly, stir in the
molasses and tamp down about 50 kg of the mixture into a half 200 litre drum. Leave to
harden for a week or two before use. A mature cow on good grazing should consume
between 225 and 350 grams per day.

The Agritex block is a high quality block which was devised by Gammon. The constituents
are listed in table below.

Table 7-10 The Agritex block

Constituent Contribution (%)

Urea 8
Maize meal 38
Molasses 23
Cottonseed meal 10
Salt 14
Monocalcium phosphate 4
Water 3
CP 30.3

To make the Agritex block, mix the urea in as little hot water as is necessary to dissolve it
and then mix the solution into the molasses. The remaining dry ingredients are mixed
together separately and then stirred thoroughly into the liquid mixture. Finally tamp down
firmly in half drums and leave to set and dry for 2 or 3 days before use. Young stock should
be allowed approximately 500 grams of the lick per day and mature cows 1 kg per day.

48
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

7.6.4 Summer supplementation

Veld grazing in summer is palatable but in case of excess rains, phosphorus availability is
limited as it will be converted to a form which grasses cannot absorb from the soil hence
becoming deficient to the animals. Phosphorus supplementation can increase live mass gain
by up to 40 kg, increase weaning mass by up to 10 kg and increase calving percentage by
over 5 %.
Breeding cows require 10 g phosphorus per day whereas growing stock require 5 g per day.
Blocks or licks can be used to supplement proteins.
7.7 Watering cattle
Water requirements of animals are met from three sources:
i) Consumed voluntarily
ii) In fed, &
iii) Formed within the body from metabolic oxidation

Catabolism of one kilogram of fat, carbohydrates or protein produces about 1070, 500, or 400
ml of water, respectively.
Nature of feed and ambient temperature affects quantities of water taken by animals. There is
no advantage gained in restricting drinking water to cattle and also no problems encountered
when water is consumed in excess of apparent needs. Therefore, clean drinking water should
be provided adlib.
Watering points must be sited on well drained soils to facilitate infiltration of spilling water.
Watering points must be distributed within a paddock. More than one watering point avoids
animals from crowding on one place causing destruction of surrounding areas. Watering
points must be made of concrete to facilitate thorough cleaning. Water holding facilities can
be round or rectangle.
7.8 Creep feeding
A calf ‘creep’ is an enclosure with openings of a height and width that enable calves to move
in and out freely while the cows are kept out. A feed supplement can then be put in the
enclosure with the assurance that it will be available to the calves alone. Creep feed is feed
given to calves before they are weaned.
7.8.1 Aims of creep feeding
 Adapt the GIT of calves to solid feed
 Increase weaning weight of calves
 Minimize weight loss by the dam
The diet for creep feeding must be high in energy and protein. A calf creep can easily be
made by fencing off a corner of a field. Inside this, and free from interference by the cows,
calves can be fed 1-2 kg of calf rearing meal, or a suitable home mixed ration a day.
As autumn approaches, good quality hay should also be fed to the calves. This will help to
offset the decline in both milk yield and grass. Calves may be expected to gain 1 kg live-
weight per day.
7.9 Drought management and feeding of beef cattle
Drought is defined as a situation in which an area cannot carry its correctly stocked
compliment of animals with normal supplementation, due to abnormally low rainfall. The
management of the animals can aggravate the drought. It is affected further by the availability
of and cost of feed and the possibilities of selling animals.

49
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Drought must be taken as an integral part of the production environment since droughts are
endemic in Zimbabwe. Drought can fall into three categories:
i) Total drought. There will be little or no feed available. Under this situation allow
cattle to die, sell, relocate or adopt full hand feeding. Full hand feeding emphasize on
energy requirements e.g. grain and molasses. Only feed survival levels to susceptible
groups, except bulls, which should get more as they are expensive to replace, though
not vulnerable.
ii) Protein and partial energy drought. In this situation roughages will be limited and of
low protein. There is need to feed both protein and energy supplements.
iii) Protein drought. This has an annual occurrence due to seasonal variability. Urea-
molasses licks can be used to reduce body weight losses.
There is need to plan for drought in management systems. The following measures may be
important in a drought year.
 Situation assessment and planning
It is not easy. One has to use quadrants to estimate the drought carrying capacity or
can use visual assessment. One may have to settle for poorer animal performance. If
the estimated drought carrying capacity indicates that only mild de-stocking is needed,
the next step is to plan the stock disposal and secure required feed for the remaining
animals. If heavy de-stocking is required then the farmer has to investigate possible
sources and costs of alternative roughage including hired grazing, possible sources
and costs of concentrate feeds, markets for the different classes of animal on the farm.
Then you have to weigh up the economics of disposal of each class of stock against
the costs of feeding and keeping it.
 Disposal of surplus stock
Categorise the stock on the farm in detail and estimate the value of each category for the
present market value and the projected value after the drought (which can only be guessed).
Dispose animals in the following order:
i. Old thin empty cows they have no great appreciation in value and will be expensive to
carry through the drought.
ii. Heifers that have failed to conceive
iii. Steers should be fattened and sold if there is feed available but if there is no feed they
should take a low disposal priority as they would be cheap to keep and likely to show
a large increase in value.
iv. The same treatment should be given to yearling steers and well-grown weaners.
v. Old pregnant cows in fair condition assuming they are presently marketable at a
relatively high value. They will be costly to keep and there are good chances of losing
both cow and calf towards the end of the drought.
vi. Young thin empty cows have the same priority as the old pregnant cows.
vii. A proportion of the weaners.
These rankings will depend on the farm and circumstances. Therefore you need to judge the
situation and act accordingly.
 Supplementary feeding. This should be considered first but should depend on
classification of drought. Before you start to feed the animals in a drought year you
must do everything possible to minimise the amount of feed that will have to be
bought. Such activities include the following.
 Make use of the available veld, use areas with falling water first, make fireguards,
and avoid leaving the animals too long in a paddock.
 Move or dispose-off animals early to leave as much grazing as possible for the
remaining animals.
 Wean early to prevent cows from losing too much condition

50
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 Dose against internal parasites if there is a worm burden and ensure good tick
control.
 Minimise energy expenditure
 Sort animals carefully into different groups according to their feed requirement
and social dominance. This separation is done to enable preferential treatment
with regards to supplementation of feed.
 Feed to achieve specific targets and monitor performance by sample weighing.
 Improvement of low quality forages if available e.g. through ammoniation
 Predator control. There is need to be more vigilant against stock theft since drought
times are normally associated with shortage of human food too.
 Deciding on a breeding policy. There might be need to postpone the beginning of the
mating season or there may be need to cancel it altogether to ensure survival of
breeders if drought is severe.
 Buying in systems must be stopped. This gives chance of stretching farm area to cater
for breeding herd. This is only applicable if the two production systems (breeding &
buying-in) were all being used.
There is always need to stock feed, e.g. hay, crop residues, as a precautionary measure.
7.10 Fattening/Finishing cattle
Fattening is the practice of feeding cattle a high energy and protein diet or ration for a stated
or prescribed time period, usually ±100 days.
7.10.1 Reasons for fattening
 To increase the degree of finish or fatness in order to achieve higher grades at a
younger age.
 To add extra weight to stock at a younger age and increase turnover or offtake of
cattle.
 To take advantage of seasonally higher prices.
7.10.2 Fattening systems
There are two types of fattening systems that farmers can engage in:
i) Off the veld system. This means that it’s the veld that will take off the animals to the
market. There must be good grazing for this to be feasible.
ii) Pen fattening or Feedlot system. In this system animals are enclosed and feed is
supplied to the animals in pens.
[Link] Off the veld fattening system
This may be a worthwhile practice under the following situations.
a. Cattle not adapting to pen feeding
b. Abundant grazing but limited grain
c. Planted pastures available
The principle of fattening cattle off grass is to supplement grass with small amounts of
concentrate (high energy or protein) with the objective of finishing them at low cost. The
cattle should weigh between 350 & 500 kg body mass. Ideal animals should be about 400 kg
or more.
Concentrate feeding should be limited to 20 % of total dry matter (DM) intake of the animal
i.e. about 2-3 kg per day. Larger amounts will result in faster growth but less efficient
production when compared with conventional feeding system. The maximum amount of feed
per day should be 4 kg/steer.

51
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link].1 Mass gains on grass

Mass gain varies with whether it is the start, mid or end of summer period. In early summer
there will be high CP but less energy or bulk. Whereas in late summer CP will be less but
bulk will be high. The expected weight gains are indicated in table below.

Table 7-11 Expected weight gain on veld fattening

Time of season Live mass gain/animal (kg/day)

Early summer (October-November) 0.5-06

Mid-summer (December –January) 1.0-1.2

Late summer (February-May) 0.7-0.8

NB. As the cattle finishes, daily gains fall depending on condition.

The target live mass should be between 400 & 500 kg but could vary with age, sex and breed
of cattle. For best CSC slaughter grade, cold dressed mass (CDM) of 220 kg is ideal. This is
equivalent to a LM of 400-410 kg.
[Link].2 Early summer fattening
Select the cattle for early summer fattening in April-May at the beginning of winter. At the
beginning of the rains i.e. October- November the animals can be fed 2 kg/day of 21% CP
cubes. This is changed in January- February period to 2 kg/day of a 13% CP cubes. At this
rate 11 kg of feed is required to get 1 kg gain in carcass. In addition the animals must get a
phosphorus supplement. Also ensure that the protein supplement given does not completely
substitute grass intake. If the substitution occurs the feeding becomes inefficient. You can
feed small amounts of supplement with a higher percentage of protein used. About a kg of
feed of a 30 % CP feed is offered once per day in the early morning. This gives a feed
conversion of 6 kg of supplement per kg gain in live mass. But this scheme will only succeed
where the animals are well grown in relatively good condition.
[Link].3 Feed quality
Best results have been obtained from a 16 % CP meal (160 g CP/kg) which should also
contain adequate amounts of Ca and other minerals. Diets high in energy with 13 % CP have
also yielded better results. Frequency of feeding is daily preferably in the morning.
Water must be available within 2 km in the pastures.
[Link].4 Advantages of summer fattening
 No cost in construction of conventional pen fattening pens
 Cheaper than pen fattening since the practice is aimed at supplementing summer
grazing
[Link].5 Disadvantages of summer fattening
 Weight gain depends on quality of grasses in the veld
 Requires proper management of the veld e.g. fertilisation of the pastures
[Link] Classes of animals that can be successfully veld finished
a. 3.5 year olds off veld (sell in April - May)
Target induction mass of 450 kg mass and slaughter mass 500 kg.

52
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

In February feed 2 kg per day of 13 % CP cubes.

March- April feed 2 kg per day of 21 % CP cubes
b. 3.25 year olds (to sell January-February)
Target induction mass of 400kg mass and slaughter mass 475kg.
October- November feed 2 kg per day of a 21 % CP cubes
January –February feed 2 kg per day of 13 % CP cubes
c. 2.5 year olds (to sell in May)
Target induction Mass 380 kg and slaughter mass 450 kg
In February feed 2 kg per day of 13 % CP cubes.
March- April feed 2 kg per day of 21 % CP cubes.
d. Cull cows
After weaning in May-June. The aim will be to take cows to slaughter in December-January.
Feed maintenance in winter and then veld finish for the last 2-3 months. Without winter
maintenance, cows will probably only finish in April-May.
[Link].1 Factors affecting productivity of summer fattening enterprises
 Parasites and diseases
 Palatability of grass species
 Sex of the animal
 Genetic potential of the animal
 Climatic factors e.g. rainfall, temperature
 Age of the animal
 Health status of the animal
 Management of pastures and also animals
[Link] Pen fattening/feedlot system/conventional feeding system
A feedlot is a type of a confined animal feeding operation which is used for finishing
livestock notably beef cattle prior to slaughter. Normally animals are confined for a period
between 3-4 months (~ 90-120 days) fed on high-energy diet and adequate protein.
Confinement is done to prevent loss of energy through movement.
Pen fattening enables the animals to express fully their genetic potential for growth. It also
enables the profitability of beef production to be maximised, provided the beef price to feed
cost ratio is favourable. Thus when profit margins are sub-economic, pen fattening cannot
take place since the motive behind fattening is making increased profits.
[Link].1 The principle of pen fattening
Energy consumed in excess of maintenance requirements is used for tissue synthesis (beef
production) and the efficiency of use of the energy above maintenance for tissue synthesis
remains constant. Thus, the greater the intake of energy above maintenance the smaller the
maintenance cost per unit gain and the cheaper the gain. Generally as the digestibility of feed
increases, so does the voluntary feed intake up to certain limits. The combined effects of high
digestibility and high intake, together with higher net efficiency, means the efficiency of use
of energy will be greater if cattle are fed ad lib with diets of high digestibility or a high level
of metabolisable energy (ME).
The most important considerations in pen fattening are the feed, its composition and cost, the
feed conversion ratio, the type of animal and its cost, seasonal slaughter prices, management
and the optimum length of the feeding period.
[Link].2 Feeds
a. Energy feedstuffs

53
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

The energy level of the diet should be as high as is economically possible. Ideally it must be
in the range of 70 to 80 % Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) (10.5 to 12 MJME/kg on dry
matter basis. Maize is the most commonly used source of energy in Zimbabwe. For
convenience and to provide roughage, it is fed in the form of snap corn containing 75 to 83 %
grain. Generally, the performance of animals on diets containing different energy feeds will
be closely related to the energy content of the diets assuming it is correctly balanced in other
respects.
Sorghum can be used and it provides 89 % maize value. The white varieties are better than
the red ones. The choice of the feed should be dictated by performance in relation to cost. For
some feeds the quantities to be included in the diet must be restricted. Feeds containing high
levels of oils such as cottonseed, sunflower and germ meal need to be restricted so that the oil
content of the diet does not exceed 7%.
Feed grade wheat should not exceed 50% of the diet to avoid digestive disorders and
reduction in intake. Malt culms, being rather unpalatable, should not exceed 20% of the diet.
Molasses, which can improve the palatability and stability of the mixtures, should not exceed
about 55% of the diet. It is usually included at 30 % of the diet.
The value of silage in fattening diets is largely determined by the amount of grain in the
silage.

b. Roughage levels and sources

Although efficiency of energy use increases with increasing energy concentration, digestive
disorders occur and efficiency declines if the diet contains inadequate roughage. A minimum
of 15 to 20 % roughage should be included in the diet. This equates to 7 to 14 % crude fibre
depending on types of concentrates and roughage used. Animals should be adapted gradually
to such diets. For animals prone to laminitis or bloat the diet should contain 30 to 35 %
roughage. This also applies to older stock.
Diets containing about 50% roughage or more require less grain to produce a given gain, but
they require longer feeding periods and use more protein and roughage, and the total cost is
usually higher than for diets with less roughage.
A wide range of roughages are suitable for inclusion in high-energy diets. These include
maize sheath, cobs and stover, silage, grass and legume hay, cottonseed hulls groundnut
hulls and sunflower hulls. While less important than the concentrate portion of the diet, the
palatability and nutritive value of the roughage can affect feed intake, rate of gain and
efficiency of feed utilization. Cottonseed hulls, groundnut hulls and sunflower hulls and
roughage substitutes such as sawdust and paper products generally give below average
results. Jack beans and soyabeans hays contain the enzyme called urease, which quickly
break down urea to its products and results in urea poisoning.
Roughage is mainly needed for structural purposes to maintain ruminal activity rather for its
nutritive value. Higher roughages may be necessary for laminitis prone animals.

c. Protein content and sources

The protein content should be 12 to 13 % crude protein (CP). This level supplies in excess
of normal tabulated values, but it is desirable in order to promote maximum feed intake and
efficiency. The protein can be divided into natural protein and non-protein nitrogen
(NPN). Generally the two are mixed for economic reasons. The natural protein concentrates
used in Zimbabwe are cottonseed meal/cake, soyabean seed cake/meal, sunflower seed
meal/cake, groundnut meal/cake, blood meal, meat-bone meal and fishmeal. The
majority of pen fattening rations use urea at an inclusion level of 2 % of the total ration.

54
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

d. Other nutrients

i) Calcium
The diet should have 0.45% calcium on DM basis, assuming phosphorus is present at
correct levels. Diets based on most energy feeds other than molasses will be deficient of
calcium and limestone flour needs to be included at a level of 0.5 % (or other source of
calcium can be used).

ii) Phosphorus
The diet must contain about 0.35 % phosphorus on DM basis. Excessive amount of P can
adversely affect the use of other minerals and increase incidences of urinary calculi. It should
not exceed 1% of the total diet. Diets containing 70 % or more of grain or grain by-products
usually contain adequate P and there is no need to add more. But if such feedstuffs like
molasses or silage or orange pulp make up a large proportion of the diet, additional P, in form
of MCP or bone meal, will be need.
Ruminants can tolerate a wide range of Ca: P ratio than monogastrics but extremes result in
reduced performance. The ratio less than 1:1 or more than 7:1 should be avoided.
Undesirably low levels are most likely in diets based on grains and grain by-products and it
may be necessary to increase calcium levels well above requirements to improve the ration.

iii) Other minerals

Table 7-12 Other minerals required in beef pen fattening diets

Mineral Level on DM basis

Salt 0.5
K 0.5
Mg 0.1
S 0.15
Cu 10 ppm
Co 0.1 ppm
Fe 30 ppm
Mn 30 ppm
Zn 30 ppm
Se 0.1 ppm
I 0.2 ppm
Of these only zinc, copper, cobalt and iodine are added to high-energy diets.

iv) Vitamins
Diets with no sources of vitamin A should have an additional 3 million I.U of vitamin A
added per tonne. No other added vitamins should be necessary in Zimbabwe.

v) Fats
Fats can be added to increase the energy content of the diets and to reduce dustiness. The
total fat in the diet should not exceed 5 % otherwise feed intake may be depressed. If
protected fats are used, the fat content may be increased to 10 % (Not unsaturated fats).

55
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link].3 The physical form of the diet

Maize is usually coarsely milled in order to produce a consistent mixture with the protein
concentrate. Whole maize can be fed without loss in efficiency provided the protein
concentrate is pelleted or molasses based to prevent separation. When whole maize is fed,
roughage is fed separately unless it is incorporated in the pellets. With a period of adaptation
the roughage can be reduced to very low levels or even removed completely. Small grains
like sorghum are best coarsely milled or cracked. Roughage can be fed un-milled when it is
fed free choice but it has to be milled for inclusion in complete diets. In this case particle size
should be about 10 to 20 mm, which usually requires a screen size of 12 to 25 mm, depending
on the mill design and speed.
[Link].4 Feed additives and implants
Research has proved that certain exogenous compounds with hormonal activity increase the
rate of protein deposition in farm animals and enhance growth rate. Various additives and
implants have been shown to improve the efficiency of feed conversion and can be used to
improve the economics of pen fattening. These include:
Implants (e.g. Zeranol). These usually are administered as slow release implanted pellets
behind the ear. They have hormonal activity leading to increased growth rate and protein
content in the carcass and improved feed conversion ratio. A minimum period between
implanting and slaughter is prescribed.
Antibiotics (e.g. Zinc bacitracin, Avoparcin). These have selective antibiotic effects leading
to increased gain or improved feed efficiency and some may reduce the incidences of liver
abscesses, foot rot, diarrhoea and acidosis.
Ionophores. These are derived from the fermentative activity of the Streptomyces bacterium.
They act at cellular level and cause changes in the permeability to cations, mostly sodium and
potassium. The effect on ruminants is to change the pattern of rumen fermentation, with a
reduction in the hydrogen loss and a shift in the molar proportions of volatile fatty acids
produced. In general these products increases production of propionate, largely at the expense
of acetate. This leads to a more efficient digestive pattern. Examples include monensin,
lasolocid, naracin and salinomycin. Ionophores improve efficiency of feed use by up to 10
% and reduce incidences of acidosis and bloat.
[Link] Feed intake
This is the most important factor affecting the rate of gain and efficiency of feed conversion.
Intake varies with the mass of the animal, the type of diet and the stage of the feeding period.
On low energy diets intake is controlled by gut fill and is usually of the order of 2.5% of the
body mass or less.
As energy increases with decreasing roughage levels, intake increases reaching a peak with
diets of about 20 to 30% roughage. With further increases in energy concentration, intake
decreases tending to be controlled to a constant energy intake. The average DMI over a
feeding period for yearlings on a standard 20% roughage maize based diet is 2.8%. This
figure may increase to about 3.3% if the ration is particularly palatable or if maize is replaced
with an energy source with less energy. Intake usually starts at relatively low level, increases
for a while and then levels off or slowly declines. Yearlings and 2.5 year olds on a 20 %
roughage usually consume 2.5% of their body mass initially increasing to about 3.2 to 3.5%
at 6 to 8 weeks, thereafter declining slowly or remaining fairly constant in absolute terms.
Weaners take longer to reach peak intake (about 12 weeks) and show less decline thereafter.

56
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link] The rate of gain and feed conversion ratio

The rate of gain of pen-fattened animals is dependent on the amount of intake and the energy
concentration of the diet assuming it is correctly balanced in other nutrients. Gains on high
energy diets of standard roughage content of 20 % have been recorded at 1.2 to 1.6 kg per
day and the feed conversion ratio (FCR) has a range of 7:1 to 8.5: 1 (Live mass) and
11.2: 1 to carcass mass. As the feeding period progresses the rate of gain decreases and the
FCR deteriorates and a stage is reached where feeding costs equal and then exceed the value
of gains.
[Link] Type of animal
The age, sex, mass type and cost of animal are important considerations in pen fattening.
Young animals usually convert more efficiently than older animals. But there is probably
greater variation within an age group, according to type and condition, than between age
groups. Animals in lean condition with good conformation are usually the most efficient and
the price per kg is critical consideration in the economics of fattening. The maximum price
payable must be carefully calculated. It is easy to make a financial loss before fattening even
starts by paying too much for the animals. The following are recommended induction
(starting) masses in order to achieve certain target slaughter mass for steers for a medium
sized breed.

Table 7-13 Minimum induction weights for different age groups

Age at induction Minimum induction mass (Kg)

Weaners 240
Yearlings 250
2 year olds 275
3 year olds 300
Cull cows 400-500
Bulls ±450

Heifers consume slightly less feed than steers and are about 7 % less efficient. They finish
sooner and their corresponding minimum mass should be approximately 10% less than for
steers.
Bulls and short scrotum bulls grow faster, more efficient and grade better than steers. This is
provided they are sold at milk tooth. Breeds differ more in their daily VFI than in their
inherent efficiency of feed conversion.
[Link] Characteristics of a good feeder
The animal should have sound conformation and on slaughter they give high yields of carcass
with good development in the highly priced cuts. The general conformation of a ruminant
should be that of a rectangular block. It must be broad at the back and loin, have a deep wide
chest and well sprung rib cage. It must have well developed thigh and shoulder muscles.
Essentially a good feeder has high degree of muscle development. In assessing the animal
you should be at a distance of 3 to 5 m from the side, rear and front in that order. A typical
non-feeder is found within all breeds. It does not adapt to intensive feeding and show more
development in the forequarters than in the hindquarters and tend to be slab sided.

57
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link].1 The side view

The animal should be trim in the middle and neat along the underline with rear flanks tucked
up. The rear legs should be straight, strong and placed at the corners of the body with shanks
showing width and substance of the bone. The tail setting should be slightly plain which is
associated with muscle structure of heavy muscled animals. It must have a long straight top-
line characteristic of strength of the top.
[Link].2 Rear view
The rear legs should be pushed apart. Thus a good feeder has a wide stance. This also
indicates good muscling in other parts of the body as well as between the legs and the rest of
the skeleton. The rump should be rounded rather than flat. Only the hindquarter and not the
gut should be visible from the rear. It should be widest in the stifle region than any other
point when viewed from the back.
[Link].3 Front view
The animal must be clean free of excessive skin in the throat area. It must have a broad and
trim brisket and little dewlap (breed differences). It should show thickness over and above the
forearm bones, no smoothness over the shoulders. The shoulders should be broad and the
forelegs should be pushed apart. It must have a well-sprung rib cage indicative of the volume
of feed that can be taken to sustain growth and development.
[Link] Management of the fattening animals
[Link].1 Pre-fattening treatment
a. Supplementary feeding should have been done to maintain weight of animals in the
past dry period. This is only economical if profits can be achieved at the end.
b. Weigh animals to determine induction weights
c. Dip the animals the day they are moved into the pens.
d. Dose for internal parasites, mainly roundworms and liver-flukes
e. Group the cattle according to sex, size and type.
f. Implant a growth stimulant if this is to be used.
g. Give Vitamin A injection, also vit. E, D & K –for regulation of metabolism.
[Link].2 Adaptation of the animals to the diet
It is important to adapt animals gradually to the high-energy diets over a period of at least 10
days to avoid digestive disturbances. There are two methods, which can be used;
a. Rationing the diet
In this method the diet is rationed at about 45% of the total intake for two days each
subsequent two days the ration is increased by 1 kg until about the 11 th day when the diet is
fed ad lib. The following is an example of an adaptation programme for yearlings weighing
about 300 kg on a 20% roughage diet:

58
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Table 7-14 Adaptation programme to high energy diets

Day AM amounts (Kg) PM amounts (Kg)

1&2 2 2
3& 4 2.5 2.5
5&6 3 3
7&8 3.5 3.5
9 & 10 4 4
11 and onwards Ad lib

b. Varying the diet or extra roughage in the diet

An ad libitum diet high in roughage during the first few days in the feed pen prevents an
excessive intake of concentrate and reduces the risk of digestive disturbances. The high
roughage level is obtained by substituting two or three parts of snapped corn in the standard
high-energy diet with milled roughage. The extra roughage should be progressively replaced
with snapped corn over a period of ten days until the mixture is back to strength.
Initially a diet containing 40 to 50 % roughage is fed. This is gradually reduced until the final
diet is arrived at. E.g. with a 9 : 1 snap corn based diet a suitable programme would be as
given in the Table 6.10 below.

Table 7-15 Adapting animals to a diet through variation

Day % composition
Snap corn Milled hay Protein
concentrate
1 to 3 60 30 10
4 to 6 70 20 10
7 to 10 80 10 10
11 and on wards 90 0 10

There is need to clean the water trough daily and provide clean water and ensure that there is
no fouling. Prevent accumulation of spoilt feed by cleaning out feed troughs regularly, and
ensure that the quantities of feed distributed to each pen and of spoilt feed removed are
recorded. Shelter should be provided over and around the feed troughs.

c. Separate source of roughage

Roughage separately available, for example bedding or hay, in addition to the standard diet
based on snapped corn, will tend to reduce the incidence of digestive disturbances. However,
individual cases of over-eating may still occur. Better quality roughage will reduce the
incidence of over-eating.

59
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link].3 Fly control at feedlot

This is necessary and is best done by breaking the breeding cycle of flies through removal of
materials suitable for breeding and treating wet areas around troughs with insecticides. Fly
traps may be used. Bait and contact insecticides may also be used.
[Link] Common problems in feed pens
[Link].1 Acidosis
This is a condition of low pH (4-4.8) in the rumen caused by overconsumption of grain
during the adaptation period. Signs include loss of appetite, restlessness and diarrhoea.
Treatment of acidosis involves drenching the animal using sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3) 50
g/steer or 100 g of veterinary milk of magnesia. If no improvement is noticed, the treatment
should be repeated after 4 hours. Bicarbonate of soda (1 % inclusion in the diet) is very
effective where acidosis is suspected.
Adapting animals to the fattening diet helps to prevent occurrence of acidosis. Mixing the
diet with roughage feeds also helps in prevention.
NB. Do not treat with vinegar if acidosis is suspected as this could cause death of animals due
to exacerbation of the acidic condition in the rumen.
[Link].2 Rumenstasis
This is a condition in which the rumen ceases to function due to lack of feed or roughage
intake. This is a common problem with shy feeders.
Signs of the condition include absence of rumination activity, signs of constipation on
defaecation, and absence of feeding. Some animals appear uncomfortable and often observed
with arched back.
Treatment involves drenching affected animals with 750 ml of a 50:50 vinegar and molasses
mixture. Molasses in this mixture provides energy to kick-start rumen microbes’ activity and
also eliminates the burning test of vinegar. Brown sugar may be used in place of molasses.
There is need to make sure that roughage is adequately provided in the diet of animals.
[Link].3 Urea poisoning
This is only suspected if animals are given urea in excess. Urea is converted to ammonia in
the rumen. Ammonia is alkaline thus the pH of fluids is affected resulting in altered enzyme
operating environments.
Notable signs of urea toxicity include excessive salivation, animal stops eating, grinding of
teeth, bloat, muscular twitching/tremors, increased respiration rate, & possible death.
Treatment of urea toxicity involves giving plenty of water (25-50 litres) to the animal as
neutralises the alkaline conditions created in the animal’s system. Vinegar, 750 ml drenched
with equivalent amount of water and molasses, can also be used.
[Link].4 Laminitis
This is a condition in which the sensitive tissues (lamina) between the hooves, especially of
the front feet, become inflamed. The condition occurs as a result of eating high energy
feedstuffs e.g. maize grain, without adaptation. Feeding of high energy diets lead to
production of acids in the rumen i.e. acidosis. This in turn promote the growth of bacteria
which favours low pH conditions. The bacteria produce toxins which enter the blood stream.
The toxins have a special predilection of the lamina/tissues of the hoof which are thereby
inflamed. Laminitis is prevalent in indigenous cattle and is a reaction to intake of high energy
diets.

60
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Laminitis is characterised by lameness in pen fattened cattle, dullness, inappetence, inflamed

hooves, and fever. When moving, the animal pushes its front legs far forward and tucks the
hindlegs under the body.
Anti-inflammatory drugs, such as tamanol, helps in prevention of laminitis. Careful feeding
of animals is important with regards to adaptation of animals to the diets and adequate
roughages in the diets.
Treatment is similar to acidosis i.e. drenching with sodium bicarbonate.
[Link].5 Bloat
This is a condition in which the rumen and reticulum becomes distended as a result of gas
accumulation. Gas accumulates in the rumen if eructation mechanisms fail. Extension of the
rumen from accumulating gases cause the oesophagus to bent preventing emission of gases.
Signs of bloat include dyspnoea and protrusion of the tongue.
Control measures involve walking the animal and leaving it on a raised ground level facing
the upward direction. This is believed to cause stretching of the oesophagus if it was just a
simple bent on it. Animals must be moved out of the feed source on which bloat occurred.
Field practices with other farmers suggest use of coke as it has a belching effect. However,
quantities required are not documented. A trocar & cannula may be used as a last resort if
other means fails.
[Link] Feedlot design and layout
When siting the feedlot you should consider the drainage, proximity to the feed storage
facilities and water supply. The area should have well drained soils with a slope of about 2%.
There should be some windbreak to avoid water pollution. The pens should be close to
handling facilities. For large animals you should allow 11 to 14 m 2, which can be reduced to
7.5 m2 for large groups and small animals the floor space should be 9 m 2. You can put a roof
over the feed trough. The design of the troughs depends on the permanency, mode of feeding
and size of operation and method of feed supply. Feeding space of 30 cm per head should be
used. You also need to supply adequate water of about 50 litres per head per day and some
reserve for 2 to 3 days. The water trough should allow for ease of cleaning and as far as
possible from the feed troughs to avoid fouling. It is better to have several pens drinking from
one trough to save on materials.
[Link] Feedlot budgeting and economics
Information required in order to compute profit is listed below.
Assumptions
Induction mass
Final mass and the dressing out %
Average daily gain
Feeding period
Feed conversion ratio 7.25:1 Live mass
Total feed consumption
Feed cost
Maize cost (producer price, less levy, less transport)
Snap corn cost (assuming 78% grain). Add milling cost
Cost of concentrate (plus transport cost)
Plus mixing cost
Feed cost allowing 2% wastage
Steer cost
Interest on steer cost

61
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Feed consumed
Interest on feed cost
Tractor and machinery
Veterinary costs
Labour
Total variable costs
Returns
………kg @ 52 %
Less levy and insurance
Less 0.5 % mortality
Gross margin
An example of feedlot calculations is shown in Appendix 1.
The price margin is the difference between the value of the animal at induction and the price
realised on original mass after fattening.
The feeding margin is the difference between the value of the carcass gain and the cost of
producing that gain (feed cost plus other pen costs). Carcass gain is 65 % of live mass gain.

When the feeding margin is positive and the price margin is negative or close to neutral,
profits are maximised by: long feeding periods, continuing until the feed conversion ratio
drops to the point where costs equal the value of carcass gain. By using late maturing breeds
which are slow to fatten and using relatively light induction masses.
When the price margin is positive and feeding margin is negative or close to neutral, profits
are maximised by; using short feeding periods, only just long enough to reach the optimum
grade, use early maturing breeds which, quickly fatten and use relatively heavy induction
masses.
7.11 Activity
1. Explain the principles behind loss of weight observed in grazing ruminants relying on
the natural veld.
2. Discuss the factors that affect performance of cattle in feedlot.
3. Explain the importance of five named considerations in feedlot siting.
4. Discuss use of a named rumen active digestion modifier.
5. Discuss the importance of roughage to ruminant animals.
6. Justify advice given to farmers to ensure survival of their beef animals.

INTRODUCTION TO GRASS MORPHOLOGY

Introduction
The range is the natural forage bank for livestock. Livestock feed on a wide range of plants.
Two families important in livestock production are grasses and sedges (Poaceae gramineae)
and legumes (Fabaceae leguminosae). The grass family consist of about 10 000species and
the legume family has about 5 000 species.
It is important to know plant structure (morphology) in order to understand defoliation and
regeneration of grasses. This is the information you will need when you want to establish the
grazing management systems which is the backbone livestock production.
Unit objectives

62
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe different parts of grasses
 classifying grasses based on the inflorescence
 understand the effects of defoliation on plants

Basic structure of the grass plant and functions

A grass plant (Figure 2.1.) consist of
 root system
 Stems are called culms if growing above ground for example Hyparrhenia
filipendula, Erasgrostis curvula and rhizomes if growing below ground and shooting
from the nodes for example Pennisetum clandestinum and Acroceras macrum.
 leaves which arise from stems and have parallel veins
 Flowers/ inflorescence have flowering shoots with a central (stem) axis off which the
flowers grow often in bunches or clusters.

63
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

The roots
The roots of grasses are always fibrous with most of their mass found in the top 20cm of the
soil. They are continuous and often branching without nodes. At the junction of the roots and
shoots is the crown region. At the crown region, there is a meristematic tissue (growing
cells) from which the roots and shoots arise. Roots are used to anchor the plant, absorb water
and nutrients and act as nutrient reserves.
The stem

64
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

The stem is divided into sections by the nodes and the section between the nodes is known as
the inter-node. Stems are called culms if they grow above the ground in an upright or prostate
manner for example Hyperrrhenia species. Culms bear leaves and develop flowers
(inflorescence). They transport water and nutrients to different parts of the plant. Grasses
with this type of growth are known as tufted grasses.
Stolons refer to stems growing along the soil surface (running habit) and rooting at the node
and growing along the soil surface (running habit) and rooting at the node for example couch
grass. Stems are called rhizomes when they are growing below ground level and shooting
from the node at some points for example Pennisetum clandestinum.
Figure 2.2: Stolons

Figure 2.3. Rhizomes

2.3.3 The leaf

The leaf arises from the base of each node. There is an auxiliary bud between the leaf and
node. An auxiliary bud is a swelling on the stem and it’s a region of the meristemic tissue. A
leaf consists of a leaf blade and a leaf sheath. The leaf blade is the leaf surface, which traps
sunlight and responsible for photosynthesis
The leaf blade is the upper portion of the leaf free from the stem. It is mostly long and
narrow but there are great variations in length, shape, and size of the leaf-blades. Sometimes
the blade is very small or can be absent. At the junction between the leaf sheath and the leaf
blade is an area known as the collar (this is also a meristematic region). At the rim around the

65
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

base of the blade may or may not be a little outgrowth called a ligule. It is usually described
as the membrane or fringe of hairs (found on the upper surface of the collar). The shape of
the leaf blade, the base of the leaf blade, and the tip of the leaf blade are characteristic of
individual grass species.
Figure 2.5. Grass plants showing the ligules, auricles, collars and leave buds

2.3.4. The Flower (Inflorescence)

Flowers are formed at the top of the stems usually well above the leaf blades. The flowering
head of the grass plant is known as a florescence and it bears flowering units called spikelets.
Inflorescence is classified according to the arrangement of the floral stalk for example
panicle, raceme and spike arrangement.
Panicle arrangement
It comprises of a central axis which branches into primary and secondary branches. Spikelets
are attached either on the pedicel. Pedicel are short stalks attaching spikelets to the branch.
Fig 2.6. The panicle arrangement

66
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Raceme
Raceme arrangement consist of a central axis of which spikelets are subtended on short stalks
known as pedicels for example Heteropogon contortus and Hyperthelia dissoluta.
Figure 2.7. Raceme arrangement

Spike arrangement
Figure 2.7. Spike arrangement

67
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

The spikelets consist of one or more florets. Spikelet is a cluster of florets within special
bracks. The spikelet is like a miniature shoot contracted into a crowded unit. The small
leaves called bracks, are attached to the minute rig-rag stem called the rhachilla in the same
siternate (flower head/ inflorescence) and ranked as the main plant with individual florets in
the axis of special bracks. The two modified leaf-like structures at the base of the spikelet are
called the lower glume and upper glume. On the outside of the florets are two other modified
leaf-life structures called the palea and lemma.
.Within the florets itself are the reproductive organs consisting of the three stamens each
consisting of the anther (pollen sac) and filament, two pistils each consisting of a stigma and
a style, and one ovary (containing a ovum) and a lodicules (at the base of the ovary and
which swells to force the palea and lemma apart thereby expressing the anther and stigmas
allowing wind pollination. The whole unit is enclosed in two bracks known as glumes, which
may be small or large enough to enclose the whole spikelet.
Within the glumes, the florets are attached to the rhachilla, in the axil of the bract, the
lemma, or above that to another bract, the palea. Usually spikelets have two or more florets,
not all of them being fertile.
Awns are a bristle-like outgrowth of the glume, lemma or rarely palea, which can vary
greatly in size, shape and appearance in different species. A callus a hard, sharp projection at
the base of the floret or spikelet which occurs in the same grasses.

Activity 1
1. Collect at least 20 common veld grasses. When you collect the grasses, try always to
include the whole plant that is samples of the roots, stems, leaves, inflorescence and pod.
Preserve the samples. Identify each of these plants and record the following in each case:
 Latin name(genus and species)
 Common names (English, Shona and Ndebele)
 Place where you find it
 Description of the site (soil type, position on the landscape), altitude and rainfall.
Aspects of the slope (north or south), altitude and rainfall.
 Nutritional Value as grazing or browsing

2. What features can assist in the identification of grass plants

Grass seed

68
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

The radicle or coleorhizae is produced from the seed and forms the seminal root system. The
plumule or coleoptile emerges and grow towards the soil surface. A bud may be produced
and this rise to be the shoot and several inter nodes. Buds located at the nodes and crown
regions give rise to primary and secondary tillers. Each tiller is a replica of the original plant
with its own growing points, leaves and roots. In this way tillering enables grass to spread
sideways to produce a thick carpet/sward of grass covering the entire soil surface.
Reproduction
In grasses, reproduction is either by seed or vegetative propagation. Inflorescence arises from
the apical meristems. When the reproductive stage is reached, vegetative growth ceases and
only flowers are produced. Flowers are followed by seed setting and seed production, and the
tiller will die. New tillers will begin to grow from the basal part of the stem.
Regeneration of Grasses following defoliation
Defoliation (removal of leaf during the growing season until the grass has died) results in the
reduction in nutrient reserves in the plant, reduction in root development and a loss of vigour.
The degree of these effects depends on the frequency of defoliation and severity (height) of
defoliation↔ intensity of defoliation (combined effects of the two).
Grass plants are similar to a factory in that they require raw materials to manufacture
products; a task accomplished through photosynthesis. The levels of defoliation are classified
as light, moderate and severe. Leaves are replaced following defoliation by:
 Expansion of the grazed leaves: In light defoliation, the meristemic tissues between
the leaf sheath and the leaf blade (lamina) divide to give rise to new growth.
 Production of leaves by auxiliary buds: this occurs under light to moderate
defoliation. Apical meristems are normally protected or covered by a layer of
emerging leaves.
 Production of leaves by the auxiliary buds: this is accomplished through the
production of tillers. This normally occurs in case of moderate to severe defoliation eg
overgrazing where the apical meristems are taken away as well as most of the collar
meristems.

Factors determining the rate of re-growth following defoliation

 Type and amount of meristematic tissue remaining.
 Residual leaf area- affects area of leaf left for photosynthesis.
 Healthiness of the plant. A diseased plant will have a lower growth rate compared to a
health plant

69
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 Carbohydrate reserves in the root and root base

 Favourable growing conditions (temperature, humidity, soil moisture and soil
fertility)

The pattern of grass growth and development

Initial growth of the grass at the start of the season depends on the reserves in the roots and
stem base. Later the process of photosynthesis takes over after the initial leaves have been
produced.
Chlorophyll, which develop rapidly in young plants, give the plants the ability to carry out
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction by which green plants manufacture
carbohydrates using carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight.
Early herbage is of high feed value, high palatability and high digestibility. The crude
protein at this stage is about 80% and the crude fibre is about 30%. Grasses are also rich in
minerals especially in minerals and vitamins especially vitamins A. At this stage there is also,
a high leaf to stem ratio (ideal time to cut herbage for conservation). Later in the season the
proportion of stem to leave ratio increases, rising the crude fibre content and reducing
palatability and digestibility which in turn reduce animal intake of those grasses.
Bacteria in the rumen will take a longer time to digest the high fiber grasses coupled with a
decline in crude protein level. The animal’s appetite will be reduced, and animals tend to lose
mass unless supplementary feed is provided for example protein blocks.
Towards the end of the vegetative phase the all perennial grass species translocate food
nutrients to leaves to stems in the crown and the roots (March to April for most grasses). An
annual grass plant grows from seed mostly and die after one season (one year).
Figure Pattern of grass growth and development

Effect of defoliation on herbage yield, quality and vigour

Frequent and light defoliation results in low dry matter yield/ha but the herbage is of good
quality due to high leaf to stem ratio. Infrequent heavy defoliations result in high dry matter
yield/ha but of a lower quality. It takes about three weeks for most grasses to replenish their
food reserves and thus minimum rest period for paddocks following grazing should be at least
three weeks.
Implications

70
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

- For high herbage production, have several paddocks so that light, frequent
defoliations may be possible. Few paddocks per herd means less utilization of
nutritious herbage.
- Frequent and heavy defoliations lead to the reduction of feed reserves in the
roots and thus reduce grass vigour. Regrowth depends on adequate food
reserves, therefore a rest period is recommended following defoliation.

Selective grazing and its implications

This is when animals prefer certain grass species when more than one species are on offer. It
can be seasonal or it may vary according to different types of animals. The only advantage is
that the animal’s weight gain is high because the animal will be taking palatable grasses only
(production of the herd increases). Cattle are generally grazers and prefer grasses that are 20-
25cm in height for maximum intake. When the grasses are abundant, cattle tend to graze for 8
to 10 hours per day. Goats and some game animals prefer to browse. Buffaloes prefer course
grasses. The major reason for selective grazing is under stocking.
The major problem of selective grazing is total reduction in the numbers of the species
concerned and if unchecked can result in local extinction of these species.

Solutions to selective grazing

 Paddock size should be in such a way that livestock are forced to eat all grass species
available.
 Use of licks and supplementary feed in under grazed areas.
 Make sure all parts of the paddocks are within a 2km radius from the water points
(centralised water points) since the cattle tend to graze near the water points. Beyond
2km, the cattle tend to graze less.
 Mixing of different animal species that have different feeding habits.
 Spraying salt water in under grazed areas.

Classification of grasses on the basis of grazing tolerance

Type 1 grasses

There are tolerant to heavy grazing. Inter-node elongation only takes place after flowering is
complete. Apical meristems are therefore protected for a greater part of the growing season
for example Themeda triandra (Rooi grass)

71
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Type 2 grasses

Internodes elongation take place early in the season and these grasses are generally
susceptible to heavy grazing for example Hyperrrhenia species

Activity

1. Describe the effect of defoliation on plant growth.

2. State and explain the features of plant morphology that have an effect on tolerance to
defoliation.

72
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

8 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF COWS

8.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter covers management of a beef cow herd. The management covers body condition
scoring, bullying management, factors affecting conception rate, calving rates, and herd
health programme.
8.2 Introduction
Management refers to the action taken by stockman (What? How? & When?) in order to
promote the productivity of his cattle. Management can produce marked differences in output
even with the same levels of material inputs.
The main problem in extensive and low-input systems is that the cows tend to have a long
calving interval. One reason is because cows suckle their calves.
The highest conception rates occur about one to two months after the rains have started, when
lots of good feed is available, so chose breeding season wisely. Climatic temperature also
influences a cow’s condition. The higher the outside temperature, the lower the animal’s
appetite becomes. Digestion produces heat in the body and when outside temperatures are
high, it is difficult for the cow to get rid of the surplus heat. Shade from large trees can help
here.
*Reducing excessive heat stress is more important than cutting down trees in paddocks to
increase the amount of grass available for feed.
8.3 Breeding management
8.3.1 Optimum breeding season and calving time
Season should be adjusted to make optimum use of the cheapest source of high quality feed
in summer. Calving should occur 6-8 weeks before adequate summer grazing can be expected
because the calf’s rumen will be more functional after at least 8 weeks of life. Calves born
later than this, period 6-8 weeks, will be physiologically too small to utilise grasses in early
summer. Late calves are too small, susceptible to scouring, sweating sickness and parasites.
As soon as the cow calves, the rumen will start to increase in size, and its growth is
stimulated by eating coarse high-fibre roughage. This enables the cow to eat more and
produce more milk for the calf once in the rainy season. Increased rumen size and good
quality pasture benefit the cow in two ways: her milk production will increase and she will
start to regain lost condition.
Cows should conceive within three months of calving if a high calving percentage is to be
achieved each year. Cows will not have enough time for uterine involution if they calve later
than 6-8 weeks. In-order for the cows to reconceive that early, the cow should attain a certain
body mass and level of body condition. This requires a good period of grazing on green grass.
As a guide, the following seasons are recommended in Zimbabwe.

Table 8-16 Bullying seasons in Zimbabwe

Location Bullying Calving

Highveld Nov 15 - Feb 15 Aug – Oct

Lowveld Dec 15 – Mar 15 Sept – Nov

73
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

NB. This is an assumption of controlled breeding. There are variations and periods vary
depending on management skills and level. In the highveld where farmers can use cereal one
can go for winter calving. But there is need for supplementation of lactating cows.
Location, i.e. high or low veld, determine the veld type or grasses most likely found in the
area. Nutrition is the major factor governing ideal calving season. Heifers should be bulled 4-
6 weeks earlier than the rest of the breeding herd. The benefits of this early mating practice
include:
 Heifers are being introduced into the breeding herd for the first time, so you want to
improve on conception rate through re-mating those which fail to conceive with the
first mating.
 If mating of heifers occurs 4-6 weeks earlier, it means these animals will calve down
earlier than the rest of the breeding herd, therefore, they will have enough time to rest
before re-mating.
 Furthermore, if first time calvers calve early, they can be given particular care during
calving without competition from other enterprises or older cows. Cases of calf denial
will be minimised.
Why do farmers choose a breeding season?
Farmer’s choice of the breeding season is intended to achieve either of the following reasons.
 To match the cow’s nutrient requirements for gestation and lactation with seasonal
changes in the nutritive value of grazing. Thus it enables breeding and calving to take
advantage of the most favourable environment for the production cycle.
 It facilitates optimum management control for routines such as branding, weaning,
castration, culling, and selective feeding.
 It facilitates marketing by having the sale stock ready to coincide with the best
marketing time.
 To reduce competition for labour among different enterprises
8.4 Bullying systems
There are two systems that farmers can use depending on factors like extent of farm
development and technical knowhow of the farmer. The systems are controlled and
uncontrolled breeding.
8.4.1 Controlled bullying system
This is when the farmer limits the breeding period. Mating is planned in such a way that
calving takes place at the start of the expected flush in feed supply i.e. period of wet summer
season.
[Link] Advantages of controlled bullying system
 Cows calve down at the optimal time of the year, which leads to increased production.
 It produces a uniform crop of calves, which fetch higher prices at sales especially if
they are sold through auctions.
 It simplifies routine management operations like dehorning, vaccinations etc.
 It simplifies culling of cows and replacement females.
 It makes feeding easier as separate groups are going to be fed separately according to
their status
 It is possible to identify sub-fertile animals as pregnancy diagnosis is done and empty
cows removed.
 There are high chances of good semen quality and high libido in bulls.
 There is maximum ovarian function among the breeding cows as there will be
abundant of grasses of good quality during the breeding season to stimulate the cows.

74
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 Herd fertility can be improved as it will be easy to cull sub-fertile animals when
pregnancy diagnosis is done.
[Link] Disadvantages of controlled breeding
o It is expensive to install paddocks and other requirements to fully control animal
movement.
o It requires knowledge on the farmer’s side
o The method is labour intensive as it requires carrying out pregnancy diagnosis
o Limited breeding period might disadvantage other cows
o Bulls may injure people as they will be kept captive
o More losses may occur due to variability and unpredictable conditions which might
wipe away the whole uniform young generation, e.g. in case of disease outbreaks.
8.4.2 Uncontrolled bullying system
This can also be termed continuous bullying or open bullying system or all-year-round
bulling system. Despite the sound arguments for choosing a particular breeding/calving
season, there are times when you may find open season breeding desirable and even
unavoidable. For example:
 Where fencing does not exist there is no option but to allow continuous mating e.g. in
the communal areas.
 Conditions are variable and unpredictable so that huge losses could be sustained
through low conception rates at any one particular time of mating. Open mating
systems spread the risk and are more natural.
[Link] Advantages of uncontrolled bullying systems
 Less expensive as it can be run without too many paddocks.
 Risk is spread by having calves dropped all year round.
[Link] Disadvantages of uncontrolled bullying systems
 It is difficult to monitor fertility of the cows/bulls. In controlled bullying it is known
that which cows are given to which bulls therefore, sub-fertility cases can be picked
from either the bull or cow side. This is not possible in uncontrolled breeding.
 There is expensive use of winter supplements since infertile animals will also be
given feed. This occurs only in scenarios where farmers supplement their animals.
 It makes routine practices very difficult, e.g. dehorning & castration, because there
will be variation in dropping of calves compared to controlled breeding where the
farmer know exactly that after three months you will be castrating or dehorning
calves.
 Reduced productivity. Continuous running of bulls with cows has been found to
reduce libido in bulls.
8.5 Bulling management
Before the bulls are introduced to the cows they need to be examined for breeding soundness.
The role of the bull must not be seen for granted as it is 50 % of the herd in terms of
reproduction. Evaluation of bulls for fertility, bullying soundness examination, is done to
ensure that the bulls do not undo farmer’s efforts of improving the productivity of the cows.
Serving ability of bulls is done by examining physical appearance of the bulls. Bulls must be
free from injuries, walking freely, and the prepuce & penis must be free from inflammations
or abnormalities.

75
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

The farmer can also evaluate bulls based on their desire to mate (libido estimations). This is
based on a yard test i.e. the number of services a bull can achieve in a given time using a
heifer tied to a post. Normally three mountings in 40 minutes is considered satisfactory.
8.5.1 Single sire system
Any bull in a ‘single sire system’ will disregard about 15% of the cows, regardless of whether
they are very much in heat or cows present themselves for service. In order to get the ignored
cows served, the bull should be changed about 14-17 days to another herd. The next bull will
have its own preferences. It is important to have one bull or a few bulls in reserve, in case the
main bull becomes less fertile, starts limping, has recently been ill with a high fever, or is
overworked.
8.5.2 Multiple sire system
On large ranches, it is very convenient to have herds of 200-250 animals altogether for easy
management. Here, the ‘multiple sire system’ is best, where 4-10% of the herd is made up of
bulls (depending on the terrain), which will serve the cows. In this system, cows disregarded
by one bull will be served by another, so it is not necessary to change bulls frequently.
Bulls that are too young, and do not yet have good body development, may be rejected and
chased out of the herd by the old and leading cows.
It is generally best not to use bulls younger than 3 years as they would not have enough
development and reached adequate size. Bulls aged 3-5 years are generally effective as they
would not have developed specific behaviour and will serve the cows without too much
fighting or competence problems. Bulls over the age of 5 years, develop ‘harem behaviour’.
This means a bull tries to keep as big a herd of cows as possible together. This causes a lot of
unrest in the herd as the bull tries to fight off the other bulls and other bulls try to get in.
There is also no time for the bull and cow to develop the courtship behaviour that leads to
good service. When bulls are this age, even if there are only a few, there are continuous
disturbances and fighting, and this affects the whole herd. Most services in large herds are
quick copulations because of the constant risk of disturbance, and the result is a low rate of
pregnancy per service. By the time bulls are 6 or 7, they cause more unrest and trouble than
pregnancies.
Bulls over the age of 8 develop ‘territorial behaviour’, which means that they fight, conquer
and defend a territory for themselves. They sometimes run with the herd, but rarely serve, and
most of the time they do not run with the herd and are busy defending their territory.
8.5.3 Bulling rate
Bullying rate refers to the number of bulls per given number of cows. The recommended
bulling rate ranges from 2-4 % that is 1 bull to 50 cows or 1 bull to 25 cows. Under more
extensive systems the bulling rate is much higher. In multiple sire herds one should use an
odd number of bulls.
Use of more bulls than needed to breed cows is an unnecessary expense. Factors which
determine bullying ratio include the following.
 Libido
 environmental conditions in which the bull is expected to work e.g. high temperatures
reduce libido
 age of the animal, either bulls or heifers
 physical appearance of the bulls
 size of paddocks
 vegetation in the paddocks

76
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

8.5.4 Bulling Duration (the length of the bulling period)

The bulling duration should be as short as possible without lowering the calving rate. In
general, it is recommended to have a period equal to at least 3 oestrus/heat cycles so that each
cow get three chances to conceive. The average bulling period on ranches is 75 to 90days
with some as short as 45 days especially with bulling of heifers. The advantage of a short
bulling period is that it gives a concentrated calving. Shorter bulling period is recommended
where calving rates are 90 % and above, management skills are high and late calvers are
culled. The introduction of a short bulling period must be done gradually over 3-5 years.
8.5.5 Mating management
Research has shown that 90% of cows come on heat between 12 midnight and 9 am. But this
varies with temperature. The cow accepts the bull for short periods (10-12 hours), therefore,
bullying rate and paddock size are critical. It is advised to put cows in small paddocks at least
at night. When extensive system is used, it might be advantageous to kraal animals in the first
few weeks of the bullying season, alternatively the farmer may have to use a higher bulling
rate. Bull combination is very important to avoid or reduce fighting.
[Link] Use of teasers and vasectomised bulls
Teaser bulls are sterile male animals which show bull behaviour. This practice helps to bring
animals onto heat and enhance fertility. Teasers are put four weeks before the beginning of
the bullying season. If teasers are not used then strong and active bulls are necessary. The
teasers must be checked constantly for venereal diseases, such as vibriosis, before use.
Bauer (1995) recommended running teaser bulls with heifers from the age of one year to
enhance their growth.
8.5.6 Bulling of heifers
The recommendation is that heifers must be bulled at 67% (2/3) mature mass of the particular
breed to calve down at 85 to 90 % of mature body mass: 235 kg for Mashona breed, 350 kg
for Hereford, etc. It is not the chronological age which matters, but the physiological age as
depicted by weight of the animal. If bulled below this age, they will have problems in re-
conceiving, unless extra feeding is done since the animals will still be growing. Small bulls
should be used to bull heifers to open up the heifers.
8.5.7 Factors affecting conception
A number of factors may affect breeding animals in a number of ways and as such farmers
must pay attention to them in order to achieve higher calving rates. The factors include the
following.
 Age at first calving
 Body mass (Heifers should be bred at 67 % of their mature mass.)
 Body condition
 Nutrition
 Mating ratio
 Length of breeding season
 Selection of breeding season
 Suckling
Suckling effect. The frequent suckling of the calf induces the release of oxytocin and this in
turn inhibits the release of the LH. The LH is required for stimulating, maturing and releasing
the ovum for the next pregnancy. If from the age of about 8 weeks onwards the calves are
allowed to suckle only one hour per day, the oxytocin effect will decrease so much that cows
whose condition is improving will come back on heat within a few weeks and can then be

77
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

served. Once the cows have re-established a regular oestrus cycle, the calves can return to run
with the cows full time, because the cycling will continue.
8.6 Calving
The average length of a pregnancy of a cow is around 278 days. In younger animals it is a
little shorter and in older animals a little longer. However, some heavy breeds like Charolais
and Brown Swiss, have an average pregnancy of 288 days, with a little variation on either
side.
*The length of the pregnancy of the mother of the breeding bull determines the length of the
pregnancies he causes. So if the breeding bull is of a large breed, or a crossbred with a large-
breed sire, then longer pregnancies can be expected.
The longer a pregnancy is, the heavier the calf is likely to be, which may cause problems at
calving. The calf grows fast, up to 1 kg a day, during the last few days of a pregnancy, which
is why heavier calves are born at the end of longer pregnancies. When heifers are to be
serviced, it is advisable to use bulls that are known to produce shorter pregnancies and
smaller calves. Female calves are usually born a few days earlier than bull calves and tend to
be a little lighter.
Animals with a slightly sloping pelvis calve a little more easily than cows with a straight
back.
8.6.1 Late calving
When cows calve down in the rainy season they undergo more nutritional stress, as the last
part of their pregnancy takes place during the changeover from the dry to the wet season.
These cows are more seriously affected by ‘green grass losses’. A pregnant cow’s rumen
capacity is reduced, so she cannot eat much, but at the same time the nutrient demand of the
unborn calf increases. Then a cow cannot fully benefit from the high quality of the pasture at
the start of the rains. And after calving it takes more time for the cow’s rumen to reach its
maximum size, because lush grass is less fibrous. Cows that calve down before the rains
regain more rumen capacity than cows that calve down during the wet season. Moreover,
well into the wet season the grass is no longer of top quality and the cow, suckling her calf,
will have more difficulty recovering her lost body condition and starting to grow again. This
may prolong the post-partum anoestrus and therefore increase her calving interval. As long as
the cow is not in a positive energy balance and does not gain weight (even a little) her
reproductive cycle will not start again. This combined with the ‘oxytocin effect’ of suckling a
calf, will increase the calving interval further. Moreover, the calf also misses the best quality
pasture and this may slow down its growth and rumen development a little.
8.7 Prophylactic herd health programme for a Zimbabwean beef herd
8.7.1 Tick control
Ticks reproduces at a faster rate during summer when temperatures will be high accompanied
with high moisture. Therefore, frequency of acaricides use must be shortened or use those
with a longer residual effect to deal with the ticks and other external parasites. All animals
must be dipped at weekly intervals in summer and fortnightly the rest of the year.
8.7.2 Essential vaccinations
For the diseases listed in this section, students should refer to animal health module for more
details. Only the time when the vaccination is supposed to be done is emphasized in this
section.

78
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link] Quarter evil (Black leg)

All young stock must be vaccinated at weaning or 6 months of age or earlier but not less than
three months. The vaccine should be repeated at 18 months of age. All animals dying from
black leg should be destroyed by burning to prevent spread of the bacteria.
Signs of the disease include: limping, inflammation of hind/front limb, gas crepitation on
inflamed area, animals off-feed usually with fever.
[Link] Contagious abortion (Brucellosis)
All female stock between 4 & 10 months should be vaccinated using strain-19 (S-19)
brucellosis vaccine. Adult cows which had never been vaccinated before, vaccine strain 45/20
should be used annually.
[Link] Campylobacteriosis (Vibriosis)
This is a venereal disease transmitted either naturally or during artificial insemination. All
breeding cows must be vaccinated 2 weeks post-calving or 6 weeks before bullying annually.
Bulls must be vaccinated 8 weeks and again 4 weeks before bullying.
Key signs of vibriosis include a higher number failing to conceive after being mated by a
particular bull and increased mucus secretions in cows mated by infected bulls.
8.7.3 Occasional vaccinations
[Link] Red water
Farmers in areas with epidemics of the disease should vaccinate all 6-9 month old stock and
repeat the vaccine a year later for pedigree bulls before selling to protect the buyer.
[Link] Anthrax
All animals in infected areas must be vaccinated annually.
[Link] Paratyphoid
Vaccinate 7-10 day old calves twice at weekly interval on infected premises. Repeat annually
for three years but check with your veterinarian.
[Link] Colibacillosis
If a problem with calves, vaccinate cows for Escherichia coli in the last 6 weeks of
pregnancy.
[Link] Rota and corona viruses
Vaccinate cows 6 weeks and 3 weeks before calving and oral treatment of newly born calves.
[Link] Botulism
Of importance in Matabeleland and where poultry litter is fed to animals. At first the animals
must be vaccinated twice a primary vaccination and a booster seven weeks later. After this
the vaccine is repeated annually. The vaccine is a mixed toxoid.
8.7.4 Vaccinations during epidemics
[Link] Lumpy skin
On infected herds or contagious premises, all stock above 6 months of age should be
vaccinated.

79
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link] Rift valley fever

All stock above 6 months of age should be vaccinated. Pregnant animals should not be
vaccinated because they may abort.
[Link] Foot and Mouth Disease
This is a notifiable disease of cloven hooved animals. Its control is the responsibility of the
veterinary department.
8.7.5 Administration of vaccine
Vaccines are administered subcutaneously i.e. under the skin. This may be done anywhere on
the body, but areas of loose skin which are easily accessible when the animal is standing in
the race are preferable. The neck and the area behind the shoulders are suitable sites as they
have more loose skin. To minimise possible transmission of infectious disease, equipment
should be heat-sterilised and needles changed as frequently as practically possible.
8.7.6 Control of internal parasites
Roundworms, tapeworms and liver flukes can be controlled by strategic dosing with
anthelmintics and proper management of animals to break parasite’s life cycle.
[Link] Management
 Keep young cattle away from wet areas
 Provide clean drinking water, preferably piped
 Avoid overstocking and practise rotational grazing to cut life cycle of parasites, i.e.
deprive them of hosts.
[Link] Drenching/Dosing
All calves must be drenched at weaning and 2 weeks later against roundworms and
flatworms.
All animals must be drenched before beginning of the rain season (October/November), 2
weeks before calving for cows. The dosing remedy will be targeting adult worms in the
intestines of the animal so that worms cannot contaminate the environment after being passed
out in dung. Broad spectrum de-wormers kill most of the adult worms and immature stages.
A second dosing is done mid rain season (January/February) targeting some larval stages and
some adult worms.
The last dosing program must be implemented at the end of the rainy season, (May/June).
This targets adult worms in the gastro-intestinal tract of animals to avoid contamination of the
environment with eggs which will hatch in the next rainy season.
All pen fattening stock must be drenched before they get into the pens or begin an
experiment.
NB. As drugs are expensive it may be advisable for the farmers to do regular worm egg
counts to get a correct profile of parasite infestation in their herd. If the incidence is too low
or sub-economic, then there may be no need to dose animals.
8.8 Cow-calf management
8.8.1 Routine management practices
These are practices which are done over and over again e.g. dehorning. During the calving
season the breeding herd should be checked regularly for dystocia, retained afterbirth
(placenta), swollen udders and to ensure that calves are accepted by their dams, especially in
the case of first calvers.

80
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Inspections are greatly facilitated by small paddocks in which cows close to parturition are
put and observed from a distance. Paddocks should be close to holding facilities.
After calving the movement of the breeding herd should be such that they move to the next
paddock. The herds should not be changed paddocks on dipping days.
8.8.2 Dipping
On dipping days, either leave very young calves behind in especially made pens or group
them together at the dip while the dams go to the dip. There is need for a calf pen at the dip
tank. The stockman has to make sure the calves re-join their dams at some grouping point e.g.
watering point. Cows with small calves should be dipped in small groups of about ten
animals at a time.
The farmer might need to avoid dipping calves until they are 3-6 months old to give them
some immunity to tick problems.
In Zimbabwe, cattle are dipped once every week in summer and once per fortnight in winter.
Ways used to apply acaricides include use of pour-ons; plunge pool; spray race and knapsack
spraying for smaller herds.
In order to effectively control ticks, an acaricide of correct strength must be applied.
Acaricides need to be alternated in use to minimise resistance to the acaricide by ticks.
8.8.3 Dehorning
The presence or absence of horns is a genetic trait. The principle is to cauterise the horn bud
and the surrounding skin i.e. burning of blood vessels that supply blood to the horn. If this is
not properly done you get scar or deformed horns.
[Link] When to dehorn animals?
Generally, it is done within a few months after birth or when the horn buds can be felt to
about 5 mm long. In order to minimise handling of animals it can be done at weaning time.
[Link] Methods of Dehorning
[Link].1 Hot iron method
The iron is heated by gas, fire or electricity. The electricity and gas are preferred as they
produce a constant heat. The iron is heat to a dull glow and then apply it to the horn bud. It is
applied with circular motion for 3-5 seconds (not twisting motion) to ensure complete
cauterisation of the surrounding skin. Irons should not be overheated, otherwise they may
cause brain damage and subsequent mortality. Guillotine dehorner (debudder) can be used
first if the base of the horn is too wide for the iron. For fully-grown horns a surgical wire or
saw and local anaesthesia are used. To reduce bleeding you can use hydrogen peroxide and
try to do it in winter. If done in summer you are likely to have more cases of screwworm
infection from flies. Stockholm tar can be put on dehorned sites to prevent screwworm
infection. The dehorning wounds should be checked regularly.
[Link].2 Chemical Dehorning
This is done using caustic stick/sodium dioxide, collodion paste or some branding liquid.
This is done within 2 days of birth. First you have to clip all the hair around the horn zone.
The effect of the chemical is to burn the blood vessels and prevent blood supply to the horn.
This method is not commonly used because animals are likely to rub off the liquid on to other
parts of the body and cause skin burns.

81
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link].3 Knife + hot iron dehorning

This method depends on growth stage of the horns. A knife is used to cut the horn bud first
then a hot iron is used to cauterise the blood vessels and stop bleeding. The horn bud must
only be cut when the hot irons are ready to be used otherwise excessive bleeding might occur.
The operation is painful to the animal since it creates an open wound. Stockholm tar can be
used to keep away flies on the cauterised horn bud. Wound sprays can also be used on the
horn bud.
This method imposes danger to the operator since the animals will be grown up. The method
is recommended in winter when flies will not be breeding. Hydrogen peroxide can also be
used to reduce bleeding.

Advantages of dehorning animals

a. Dehorned animals are easier and safer to work with than horned animals.
b. There is reduced damage inflicted with horns to the skin and udders.
c. Dehorned animals require less space in terms of feeding space, transport space in the
truck and floor space.
d. Risk of curved horns growing onto face/eyes is removed
e. Dehorning also creates a uniform crop of animals
8.8.4 Castration
Castration is the process of rendering a male animal sterile. Intact male calves grow faster
than castrates but this advantage is offset by the greater shock animals experience when
castrated at a later stage.
[Link] Reasons for castration
 This is the means of culling or preventing inferior male animals from breeding thus male
& female animals can be mixed in paddocks without the danger of unwanted pregnancies.
 It is done to induce docility in male animals
 Castrates are easy to feed; there is no fighting in pens hence they spend more time feeding
than fighting
 They (castrates) tend to produce tender and fatter meat at mature age
 It is also done to prevent the strong flavour in meat, which may not be desirable
[Link] When to castrate animals?
One would benefit if one delays castration because the longer before castration the higher the
weaning mass and subsequent gains. This is best illustrated in Table 8.2.

Table 8-17 Effect of castration age on weaning mass of calves

Castration age number Birth mass Weaning mass Gain

Birth 22 32 170 138
3 months 23 33.2 174 140.8
6 months 19 32.6 186 153.4

But as the animal gets older the more traumatic castration becomes. Castration is generally
done at the same time as dehorning when handling animals will be easy.
[Link] Castration methods
The method of castration will depend on age of the animal.

82
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link].1 Burdizzo’s forceps method

This castration method is done by pulling down the testes and holding the spermatic cords
between the jaws of the forceps. The jaws are then closed and then give a jerk to completely
sever the cords. Each spermatic cord should be cut individually and the two cuts should not
be aligned to prevent skin breaking or open wound. Cuts made should be about 2-2.5 cm
apart. When cutting the spermatic cords, it is advised to start with the inner cut and finish
with the outer cut.
The burdizzo forceps must be checked for efficiency of operation. They should cut string
covered by sheet of paper without damaging paper, otherwise it will be fault.
The burdizzo castration method is the most suitable method for beef; it is fast and bloodless
and requires some skill. It can be done at the same time as dehorning or 2-3 months of age or
at weaning.
[Link].2 Knife method
This is done by incising the bottom of the scrotum and pulling out the testes; then rubbing the
knife against the spermatic cords until they break. One will be completely sure that he has
made an animal sterile because the testicles are completely removed.
This method can be used at any stage. But it is illegal to castrate any animal that is more than
12 months old without the use of anaesthesia. The animal is firmly restrained on the ground
and the scrotum, hands of operator and instruments used are washed with a disinfectant to
reduce chances of infection. This method requires some skills. It also requires the use of
chemicals to treat the opened wounds.
The method cannot be used during the fly season.
[Link].3 Elastrator Ring method
This is slow and should be done within the first week of life. It is more painful and chronic
resulting in setback to growth. It involves putting a rubber ring (elastrator ring) using an
elastrator or ring applicator such that the testes are below the ring. This stops blood flowing
to the testes that eventually die and drop in about 2 weeks. The rings must be close to the
base of the scrotum with the testicles at the distal end.
8.8.5 Weaning
Weaning is the separation of calves from their dams. Weaning helps to facilitate management
such as:
 Strategic supplementation of animals e.g. weaner supplements, pregnant cow
supplements
 Veld management by controlling the herd size
 Removal of drain of lactation on body reserves thus giving a chance for udder tissue
to be restored before calving. Udder tissue restoration requires about 6 to 8 weeks.
[Link] When to wean calves?
In general weaning is done at 6-9 months of age. But in situations where possible late
weaning especially in the low veld it has been found to be beneficial in terms of calf growth.
[Link] Weaning methods
Whatever method used, the aim is to minimize trauma to the calves.
[Link].1 Stockade method
In this method calves are penned next to their dams paddock for 2 weeks or more. Whilst in
the stockade area the calves are trained to take supplementary feed. This method is

83
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

considered expensive because hay and supplementary feed must be provided. It takes long
before the calves and cows settle down. It is traumatic to the calves and is used on large
ranches.
[Link].2 Complete separation
In this method the cows are left in the original paddock but the calves are taken to a distant
paddock. It’s the cows which will remain in the original paddocks so as to minimise stress on
them. If stressed they may go on silent heat. Also weaners are moved since they require new
fresh paddocks with less pathogenic microorganisms. They may be mixed with older heifers,
which will train them to take supplementary feed.
[Link].3 Exchange of calf-cow herds
This involves exchanging cows and calves from different herds. But there are problems in
that some cows with strong maternal instincts may foster the calves however, it is less
traumatic.
[Link].4 Use of nose plates
A specially constructed plate is fitted on the calf’s nose to prevent it from suckling. This
allows the cows and calves to remain together for some time to be separated later. This
method is less traumatic. The plates are removed after 7 to 14 days. The weaners may be put
into followers. The problem with this method is that some calves learn to suckle with the
plates on. This method is thought to be about 90 percent efficient.
[Link] Early weaning of beef calves
Normally weaning takes place around 6-8 months, but there is also a possibility of weaning
earlier. Weaning calves earlier than the normal 6-8 months of age is a management practice
that should be considered when pastures are in short supply or are of poor quality. Calves
have been successfully weaned at less than 2 months of age. However, normal rumen
functioning will not yet be fully developed. Research has demonstrated that calves older than
90 days have satisfactory gains without being put on milk replacers.
First calf cows, if their calves are weaned early, can grow quickly to mature mass and return
to ovarian cyclical activity earlier. In practice in most cases it is not economical as a whole
unit. This is because the calves will have to be fed heavily with creep feed. In some cases it
may be necessary to feed both the cows and the calves.
[Link].1 Advantages of early weaning
 It lowers nutrient requirements of cows to more closely match forage quality and
quantity thereby reducing weight loss and body condition –this improves conception
rate of the herd.
 It increases the carrying capacity of pastures by decreasing cow’s forage intake
 It improves efficiency of gain for early weaned calves because they adapt early to dry
feeds.
 It allows first calvers to grow to mature weight quickly and reconceive early.
 Culled old cows can be fattened off grass and sold off early to release space for new
breeding animals.
[Link].2 Disadvantages of early weaning
o It requires more labour and is expensive because you need to supply supplements
o It requires facilities for early weaned calves

84
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

o It increases susceptibility of early weaned calves to stress and subsequent health

problems
o Early weaned calves may have lower carcass weights or become fat at lighter weights
which reduces the grade of their carcass.
[Link].3 Considerations for early weaning
 Castrate, dehorn and brand at least 14 days before weaning
 Complete vaccination of calves against clostridial and viral infections
 Consider adapting calves to creep feed
8.8.6 Cattle weighing
It is a useful management tool with the mass information used to make decisions like
 When to bull heifers
 Selection of breeding heifers
 When to start supplementary feeding
Always keep weighing to a minimum and only weigh about 10 percent of the herd or 30 head
always at the same time. You need to weigh animals at the same time so as to avoid
variations due to gut fill. Some important weights to keep are:
 Calf birth mass
 205 day ratio
 End of weaners’ first winter mass, yearling mass
 End of following summer i.e. 18th month mass
 Sample weighing of different classes of stock at start of growing season and 2-3
weeks interval towards end of summer to monitor summer gains and decide when to
offer supplementary feeding
 During the dry season, sample weigh at 2-3 weeks interval to monitor adequacy of
supplementary feeding
 Weigh heifers for final selection for bullying or matching bulls to heifers.
[Link] Methods of weighing cattle
The farmer can use either method depending on expertise and availability of the materials.
 Digital scale
 Use of weighing belt: [Weight = (heart girth)2 x body length/300]
 Estimate weight using body condition score, on a scale of 1-5. This technique is
difficult for someone who does not weigh animals often.
8.8.7 Pregnancy diagnosis (PD)
PD is a routine management task carried out at the end of the breeding season (8-12 weeks)
to find if cows are pregnant or not after removing the bull (end of bulling period). It is
possible to do pregnancy diagnosis using palpation from day 35 of pregnancy.
PD is done as a management tool for the following reasons.
 It enables culling and selection of empty cows which are then fattened and sold thereby
reducing grazing pressure and the money gained from the cull cows can be used to buy
winter feed of the ones pregnant and also covering pregnancy diagnosis tests.
 It enables selective feeding of the breeding cows according to pregnancy status.
 It enables the farmer to detect and eliminate infertility problems or reproductive diseases
in cows and those that can be traced back to the bull.
 It can be used to identify physical abnormalities in the females’ gonads.
 It also helps to prevent slaughter of pregnant cows.

85
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

 It leads to an increase in future calving rates, which, means that you get an increase in
herd fertility over time.
 It shortens the calving season if the breeding season was long and late bred cows are
culled.
 Timing and preparation for calving can also be done at correct dates following
confirmation of pregnancy.

A veterinary doctor does the PD or someone well experienced. A large discrepancy between
PD results and calving rates point to problems like CA.
[Link] Methods of doing pregnancy diagnosis
Three methods can be used by farmers depending on resources available. The methods are:
i. Rectal palpation –method commonly used
ii. Milk plasma progesterone test or urine test or hormonal assay
iii. Ultrasonography

86
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

8.8.8 Summary of routine management practices

The routine management practices are summarised in Table 8.3.

Table 8-18 Summary of routine management practices

Month SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG
Vit. ADE & selenium
vaccinate against fertility diseases bulling PDs injection; deworm 10
BREEDING

cows 30-60 days before breeding days before calving

calving
bulling calving
heifers
calving
wean @ 6-8
avoid navel infection, ensure calves receive colostrum months
control CA
calves dehorn, drench calves
internal vaccination vaccinate against QE, control internal parasites
castrate, tagging over 3 months
parasites heifer calves
Treat diarrhoeal conditions
MANAGEMENT

vaccinate against
bulls vaccinate against infertility diseases
infertility diseases
dosing annually roundworms liverflukes roundworms
Supplementary feeding: crude pen fattening (1.5 year old)
protein.
nutrition lactating first calvers: 500 g/day; Phosphate supplementation in North region Dry season supplementation: Crude Protein.
lactating cows: 350 g/day; young lactating first calvers: 500 g/day; lactating cows: 350
stock: 150 g/day g/day; young stock: 150 g/day
dipping winter dipping interval: 10-14 days summer dipping interval: every 7 days winter dipping interval: 10-14 days

87
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

8.8.9 Cattle handling facilities

Why is it important to know how to handle cattle?
It is difficult to estimate the damage done by poor handling of cattle in ranching. However,
we can use dairy cows as an example. After putting a dairy herd through a spray race, the
milk production easily drops by about 5 % for that day through noisy and also rough handling
of cows in the milking parlour. In Zimbabwe where frequent dipping is compulsory, we lose
thousands of dollars’ worth of beef annually as a result of frequent handling and the long
distances cattle have to walk to the dip tanks and watering areas. We should therefore handle
our cattle as sympathetically as possible to minimise losses.
Cattle handling facilities are needed for operations/activities like treatment of animals,
dosing, holding facilities prior to dipping cattle, and holding pens on animal loading bays.
Cattle handling facilities must ensure that animals and the handler are safe.
Cattle handling requires efficient equipment which facilitates smooth flow and easier of
operations, should minimise stress to animals, prevent harm or injury to the animals or
handlers.
[Link] Important considerations

a. Site
The selected site should have a slope that will ensure surface drainage. Well drained soil type
is needed. Adequate shading and nearby water supply is crucial.

b. Location
Each livestock unit (LU) requires about 0.5 kg total digestible nutrients (TDN) per kilometre
walked. Therefore, there is need to minimise distance travelled to reduce wastage of
nutrients. Facilities should be located as near equidistance as possible to all areas to be served
as excessive distances reduce efficiency.

c. Design
This should allow for a well organised flow of animals with least disturbance and minimum
possibility of injuries. The design should include a dip by-pass to the working race. The pens
should have funnel shaped forcing areas at the entrance to the dip and race.

d. Dimensions
Area allocated per head varies depending on use of the holding facilities and age group of
animals to use the structures. Holding pens should have an allowance of 2.5 m 2/head while
forcing pens should have 1.5 m2/head. Calf pens should have an allowance of 0.6 m 2/head.
Handling facilities for varying herd sizes can be constructed with these dimensions.

e. Specifications
Gates should be at least 2 metres wide, fences 1.7 m high, uprights 2.75 m apart with 0.75 m
planting depth.

f. Quality of materials
Materials must be strong and durable. Wooden poles must be creosote treated to avoid
termites.
[Link] Water supply
Clean water is as essential as thirsty animals do not eat as much as well-watered animals. The
practice of watering animals once per day from dams, rivers or pans is poor management. It

88
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

also increases the risk of liver fluke infestation. Water should be provided from troughs,
which can be kept clean, and water can be regulated. When installing water troughs careful
consideration must be given to their siting. For economic reasons a water trough must supply
2 to 4 paddocks. This can be achieved by using the “wagon wheel” layout of paddocks,
Figure 7-1.

Figure 8-10 Wagon wheel paddock design

Practical experience shows that the grazing potential is most effectively used when all
grazing is within about 1500 metres of water. The water trough should be made at a site
where there is good drainage. Accumulation of water around the trough predisposes animals
to foot rot among other diseases. The trough should have an apron extending about 2 m
around the trough. Where possible there must be some shade around the watering points as
cattle spend some time at these points. The troughs can be metal or cement and bricks
(concrete) made. The concrete troughs should be built on 150 mm footing with 150 mm thick
walls. They should have a chamber to protect the ball valve from stock and vandalism. Metal
troughs should either be galvanised or painted to prevent rusting. Lead paints are poisonous
to stock. The water troughs should have a drainage facility at the bottom to enable cleaning.
The height of the troughs is also important. If it is too high the animals will have trouble to
reach the water. If too low the animals will walk in the trough or foul it with faeces or urine.
The recommendations are as follows:

Table 8-19 Water troughs measurements guidelines

Class of animal Average daily intake (L/day) Trough Height in mm

Mature animals 32-36 610
Yearlings 25-40 500
Calves 15-25 460

Cattle drink as a herd so demand is likely to be high when the herd is drinking. Depletion of
the trough is prevented by use of large bore pipes from the supply tank (25-50 mm) the

89
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

piping can be PVC which make the water reticulation much cheaper. Automatic valves to
prevent low levels must control both the troughs and the tanks and overflowing. The troughs
should be checked regularly for adequate water and cleanliness.
[Link] Feeding facilities
There is need to supplement animals with silage, hay or meals at sometimes especially in
winter. The objective is to provide animals with high quality feed in such a manner that all
animals have an equal chance at the feed and wastage is minimised. Giving enough space
along the trough or rack provides the equal chance to get feed. If animals are self-fed or ad
lib, the length can be reduced somewhat but by no more than 1/3 of that required for all stock.
The figures for group feeding are given in Table 8.5.

Table 8-20 Feed troughs specifications for group feeding

Class on animals Feeding space per animal (mm) Trough height (mm)

Mature animals 660-760 560-610

Yearlings 560-660 510
Calves 460-560 405-460

Losses are minimised by properly designing the feeding unit. For concentrate, the trough
should be at such a height that when the animal is eating, its neck is level. The sides should
be high such that the animal has to lift its head to remove its mouth from the trough (excess
mouthful will fall back into the trough and not to the ground).

For hay feeding the rack should be positioned such that the animal must pull downwards to
get a mouthful. A ledge under the rack will reduce loss from the excess falling on to the
ground. The feed troughs and hayracks should be strong because animals do a lot of pushing
and moving when feeding. Timber units are better bolted and not nailed. The troughs should
be on well-drained soils and concrete aprons should be built, or you can have movable unit. If
feeding is to be done in the rainy season a roof is needed over the troughs.

[Link] Calf creeps

These are enclosures with openings too small for the mature large animals but allow free
access to young calves. The size of the openings should be 45 cm wide and 90 cm high
(Figure 7-2). The actual design and construction of the creep depends on individual
circumstances. It must be strong as mature animals will try to enter. It should be sited where
animals rest which could be at a shade or watering points. It may be an enclosed area of an
existing structure, a small shed or a specially designed feeder, which can be moved.

90
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Figure 8-11 Calf creep feeder design

[Link] Corals or enclosures of cattle

There is need for facilities for confinement and handling for such operations as dipping,
sorting, castration, vaccinations and others. These facilities are known by various names
including corals, yards, kraals, pens, folds, etc. Depending on the complexity of the system it
may include some or all of the following pens of various types crush (chute), dip, sorting
gates or shredder, loading rump, scale and bail.
[Link].1 Pens
Four types of pens normally encountered in a coral system.

a. The handling pen

This is merely a large pen for confining groups of cattle for variable lengths of time. They
should have about 1.3 m2 for each 275 kg animal 1.6m 2 for each 550kg animal. They may
have water, shade and feed if animals are to be confined for long time. Rectangular pens will
reduce fighting and upset among the animals that are held for some time. This is because
animals like to lie on perimeter of the pens.

b. The forcing pens

This is used to force stock into a race or crush. They should never be constructed as V shapes.
Such a configuration results in a whirlpool of stock at the entrance to the crush, and interferes
with smooth movement. They should have a Y- configuration as in (A) and (B) below.

91
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

Figure 8-12 Forcing pens design

The (B) configuration with a double constriction is better than a single one. The key is that
there must be a straight wall along which the cattle can be moved into the race. When filling
the forcing pen it should not be tightly packed.

c. Crush or Race
This is a long narrow passageway through which the stock moves one at a time. It should be
10-12 m long to hold 10-12 animals at a time. Stock can be confined in the race by placing
poles in front or the rear of the animals. This only allows carrying out of many practices,
which do not need close confinement of stock. Races are built with sort of curve or angle
because animals are easier to drive when they cannot see where they are going. Curved races

92
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

with solid side provide a more smooth flow of stock though this is no longer being done
because of the cost involved.

Figure 8-13 Structure of a race

A curved race is more convenient when the heads of the animals are required to be on one
side. Wood is preferred to metal as it is quieter and does not rust and frighten animals. The
walls of the race can be vertical or angled. The vertical races are cheaper and easier to build
and there is less tendency for animals to get their legs stack through the sides. It is also easier
to get to the top of the animals on vertical race than angled. Their disadvantage is that calves
and other small stock may turn around unless extra spacers are provided. On the other hand a
race with angled sides is self-adjusting as the smaller animals are in the lower and narrower
portions.
The suggested dimensions for the vertical and angled races of cattle are given in Table 8.6.
Type Height (mm) Width (mm)
Vertical 1200 610-680
Angled 1200 350 at bottom
910 at top

Table 8-21 Race specifications

d. The sorting gates

It is necessary to separate specific animals of the herd from time to time. This is done using
the sorting gates.

B
D A
C

Figure 8-14 Sorting gates layout

93
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

In Figure 8-5, as animals move down race A they may be diverted into race C or B at point D
depending on the position of the gate. Instead of races B and C one may have pens. The gate
must be at least 3m long with a solid fence. The length is needed for animals to see the race
they are to enter. Race A should be 6 to 8 animal lengths long so that the operator of the gate
has ample time to decide which way the animal should go. The gate should have a handle to
it.
[Link] The scale
This is the devise used to weigh animals. The position of the scale in a race is important but it
depends on the type of scale. Ideally it should be positioned such that animals do not always
pass through it every time animal enter the race. This is so as not to damage the weighing
mechanism. However, now there are scales whose mechanism can be disconnected so that
animals can go through without damaging the system. The scale must provide for ease
handling of cattle, accurate weighing and ease of maintenance, adjustments and repair. It is
normally a part of the race system. The floor should be such that animals do not slip. The
principle is that the mass of the animal is balanced through a series of levers to a readout
device. The levers are mounted on ball bearings. The readout device can be a spring dial or
the modern digital scale. The accuracy of the scale can be checked periodically by placing
known mass on it. The scale should be mounted on level foundation of brick or concrete.
The bail is a specific area in the race where one animal can be confined. This is normally a
section about the length of a beast, which can be blocked on either ends.

Figure 8-15 Structure of a bail

These days this is combined in the scale. It must have a head gate designed to catch the
animal by the neck: with a self –locking mechanism at the closed position. The head gate can
be formed of two vertical sides, which closed either side of the neck (the preferred form) or
the guillotine type with closures that come from top and bottom. When releasing the animal

94
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

always open the gate slowly as the animals tend to fight the head gate if opened rapidly. It
should also have a veterinarian’ gate which should be about 560 mm wide and positioned at
the back of the bail. The area should also be provided with a table and chair.
[Link] Loading Ramp

Figure 8-16 Cattle loading ramp

This serves as an entrance or exit for transported animals. It must be strongly built of wood or
concrete. The ramp should be 1.25 m high at the roadside, 1.9 to 2.5m wide with a forcing
pen of 6.25m long.
The slope should not be more than 20 % or 1: 5.
When loading cattle on to a truck, a halter trained cow may be used to lead the first batch of
cattle on to the truck and then led off the truck once the first batch make it.
[Link].1 Transportation of cattle
There is need to leave at least 10 % of the truck space empty to enable fallen animals to get
up again. Big trucks should be sub-divided into compartments containing up to 12 mature
cattle. This is done to avoid cattle crushing onto each other on sloppy roads.
The truck must be fitted with a non-slippery floor surface (sand can save the purpose) while
the bottom 0.8 m of the sides should completely be closed to prevent animal legs from getting
caught in the horizontal rails. Rails should be 20 cm apart, with a vertical pillar every 1.5 m.
The sides should be 1.7 m high and should be braced across the top every 2 m to prevent the
sides from opening up at the top under pressure from the cattle.
[Link] Dipping facilities
These should be at the hub of the paddock arrangement. For extensive systems, there must be
a dip every 2500 hectares. Under intensive systems there must be a dip for every 500 head.
One can use a plunge or spray race for dipping animals.
[Link].1 A spray race
It is a complex equipment, which include physical buildings and fences, a pump, motor,
nozzles and pipes. It is better to use manufactured spray races rather than try and design one
from individual components. The race must be built such that when animals enter they walk
away from the sun. The spray race should be built across the direction of the prevailing winds
so that the winds do not blow through the race. It should never be built near or under trees as
falling leaves and seeds may block the sieves and nozzles. It must be built at least 100 m

95
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

from the dairy so that the dipping compounds do not contaminate the milk. The nozzles
should be adjusted to deliver known litres per minute at a given pressure e.g. 700l/minute at
1.4bars. There must be two foot baths each 3m long to ensure adequate foot washing. The
floors should have corrugations to open the digits. A spray race is more expensive to install
and operate but if done properly give better parasite control because one uses a fresh dip
every time. It reduces injuries to animals.
[Link].2 Plunge dips
The standard plunge dip tank diagrams are available from AREX. They can hold 10000 to
15000 litres of dip wash. They have a narrow passageway at the entrance, which will be 550
mm wide, which will enable quick movement of animals. There must be a foot bath 3.0 to 4.5
m long and about 20 cm deep to clean the feet and reduce contamination of the dip. The floor
of the footbath should have longitudinal ridges. These spread hooves as the animals walk
through. The walls should be solid and 1.8 to 2 m high to reduce wash losses due to splashing
as the animals jump into the bath and also facilitate movement of the animals through the
bath. Some baths are designed with a sheer drop at the point of entrance; others have 3 to 4
broad steps leading into the bath. These force the animals to jump into the bath with head
downwards, thus wetting the head and ears. There must be a roof over the entire bath. At 2.5
to 3 m from the point at which animals enter the dip a series of steps should start from the
bottom of the dip. The steps should be 0.4 m wide with a rose of 0.15 m to provide a firm
footing for the animals to get out of the dip. The draining pens must have two holes. One
leads back into the dip bath to take back the excess wash which drains when the animals are
in the holding pens. The other is the storm drain to take away rain water to prevent dilution of
the dip wash. The former is opened during dipping and the other is closed. After dipping the
reverse is done.
[Link] Paddock size and layout
The first step is to calculate the number of herds. Then according to recommendations
allocate 5-8 paddocks per herd. This gives the total number of paddocks required on the farm.
Try as much as possible to avoid including crop fields in paddocks. Ensure that as much of
different veld types are put into different paddocks as possible as different types have
different grazing capacities. Always include small areas of sand veld with large red soil areas,
and small areas of vlei with top land, and not the reverse. The optimum paddock size depends
on cattle management, veld type, veld management and herd size. The suggested paddock
sizes based on natural regions are as follows:

Table 8-22 Paddock size for beef herds in different regions

Natural region Size in hectares

I and II 60-120

III and IV 120-200

V 300-600

The paddock layout, which is most economic in terms of fencing and water reticulation, is the
Wagon wheel also called the cartwheel layout but it is not always possible.

96
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

8.9 Activity
1. Describe the wagon wheel layout of paddocks for a beef cattle herd.
2. Giving examples, justify the need to weigh animals on a farm.
3. Describe nature of ideal forcing pens for cattle.
4. Explain why pregnancy diagnosis is regarded as a management tool in beef
production.
5. Why is it advantageous to the farmer to choose a calving season?
6. What might be the possible causes of low conception rates on a farm? Suggest
measures that can be taken to improve conception rate of the breeding herd on a farm.
7. Describe how the stockade method of calf weaning operates.
8. Discuss knife plus hot iron dehorning method of beef calves.
9. Outline four advantages of early weaning system of beef calves.
10. Design a drenching programme for a beef herd under the extensive system.
11. What are the challenges associated with late calving in controlled bullying systems?

97
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

9 BEEF CATTLE MARKETING AND GRADING

9.1 Chapter objectives

This chapter covers the various marketing channels of breeding stock and slaughter stock.
The criterion for grading the carcass will also be discussed. General recommendations so as
to fetch highly priced grades will be discussed.
9.2 Introduction
The development of the beef industry in Zimbabwe over the past years has been based on
organised marketing and guaranteed producer price by the Cold Storage Company (CSC). On
grading of carcasses, a lot of measurements are taken on the animal to come up with the final
grade. Some of the aspects are visually assessed which makes the exercise subjective.
9.3 Marketing of beef cattle
9.3.1 Growing immature and breeding stock
These are non-slaughter stock which can be marketed through auctions, private treaty or
through out of hand sales.
[Link] Auctions
The sellers of animals comprise of farmers, speculators (those who buy & sale animals for
profit), or auctioning companies with the same people acting as buyers. The producer/farmer
incurs transport costs to auctions, feed costs, commission (usually pegged at 5 %) and pen
costs.
As the animals are to be used for either breeding or as feeders, the prices realised at these
auctions are very much related to how the market views the future of the beef industry despite
its long term nature and on the supply and demand situation.
[Link] Private treaty
In this marketing arrangement two individuals negotiate and agree on a price. Financing may
be private or arranged through one of the financing institutions such as banks. A good
example is that of private abattoirs who will be having sales representatives in rural areas
buying animals. The price achieved by the farmer will depend on how well informed s/he is
about market trends.
[Link] Out-of-hand sales
In this system cattle are placed in the hands of an auctioneer or agent but seller retains the use
of the cattle until they are bought. The cost incurred by the seller is the agent’s commission.
New technological innovations can be used such as video sales which can be conducted in the
luxury of a hotel while the cattle are still on the farm.
[Link] Contract
In this system a farmer is given animals and other drugs to use in return s/he sales slaughter
stock to that company which has provided him/her with animals. This system is common
with poultry (broilers) than other livestock species. Some pass-on programs of NGOs?
9.3.2 Marketing of slaughter stock
Slaughter stock can be marketed to Cold Storage Company, private abattoirs, auctioning or
direct farmer-butcher sales.

98
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link] Private abattoirs

Farmers may sell direct to private abattoirs. Cattle are delivered by prior arrangement, to the
private abattoir with public health facilities and grading for sale in pre-scribed areas.
[Link] Cold Storage Company
In the past, the CSC system used differential and seasonal prices to even out supply from the
farmers. Nowadays prices offered to producers are now market related and have to consider
the competition posed by many private abattoirs present.
[Link] Auctioning
This operates the same way as with marketing of breeding stock. Prices obtained by the
farmer are not predictable and subject to vary from time to time.
9.4 Classification and grading of cattle carcasses
Beef carcasses must be classified first before they are graded. After travelling, animals
intended for slaughter are recommended to have a 24 hour rest to restore their lost glycogen
reserves. Glycogen affects meat quality in terms of colour, juiciness and taste.
9.4.1 Classification of beef carcasses
The beef classification system, administered by Meat Grading Branch, DR & SS, is based on
four carcass characteristics:
 Age
 Flesh development (fleshing)
 Fat cover and
 Sex of the animal
[Link] Age
Is based on dentition and spinal ossification in older full mouth animals. Dentition is whereby
age of the animal is estimated from the number of tooth that has erupted. This is so because
tooth erupt at approximately known ages. Spinal ossification refers to the degree of hardness
of the spinous processes from calcium deposition with aging. Age estimation based on tooth
emergence is as follows.

Table 9-23 Age estimation using dentition

Number of tooth Age estimate (years)

2 <1.5
4 1.5-2.5
6 2.5-3.5

8 3.5 & above

Young animals produce tender meat which will be of high quality and thus fetch high grades
& prices. It therefore pays to sale young animals well finished.

99
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

[Link] Fleshing
This is assessed using the relationship between carcass length and weight. Quarters must be
full. Filling of quarters is measured by examining the gap left in-between a straight object
placed from the tarsus to the pin bone, Figure 9-1.

Measuring
metal object

Figure 9-17 Measuring degree of finish in beef carcasses

The length is measured from the pubic symphysis to the 7 th cervical bone using a sliding
calliper. This is on the premise that the heavier carcasses will yield more flesh on de-boning
than lighter carcasses of the same length. This is true but it includes the intra and
intermuscular fat and therefore it is not a precise measure of saleable, trimmed meat.
[Link] Fat cover
This is measured using a ruler. Minor changes were introduced in the original 5 flesh classes
(A through to E). These are split to A+ through E-.
The fat is measured over the eye muscle between the 10 th and 11th ribs, 5 cm from the
midline. Fat cover can also be visually assessed by the meat inspector. Classes used are 1-2
regarded as ok; 3 means no fat; 9 means too fat.
[Link] Sex
Sex is important for bulls or males which were castrated after development of secondary sex
characteristics. These animals will have developed muscles (triceps). The muscles become
strong as a result of the need to mount females and also running around during mating. This
affects tenderness of the meat. *The carcasses of male animals showing marked secondary
sex characteristics shall, irrespective of age, conformation or fat cover, be graded only as
commercial, economy or manufacturing beef (Agricultural Products Marketing Act chapter
18:22, 2000).
Cows don’t produce good meat after calving as they develop a higher bone to muscle ratio at
the pelvic region. This reduces the amount of flesh, class and grade of the carcass.

100
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

9.4.2 The grading system

Following classification, the carcasses can now be graded into either of the five grades
available. These traits are then used to come up with grades as below:

Table 9-24 Grades of beef

GRADES AGE CLASSES

Super 0-6 FM FA
A 2:3
B 2:3
C(+) 2:3
Choice A1:4 A 2:3
B1:4 B 2 :3
C(-)2:3 C 2:3
C(+) 4
Commercial A5 A1:4 A 1: 2: 3: 4
B5 B1:4 B 2 :3 :4
C1 C(+) 4 C 2 :3: 4
D 2:3
Economy A 5
B5
C5 C1:5
D 1: 4: 5 D1 : 2: 3: 4: 5
E1: 2 :3: 4 : 5
Manufacturing

There are also veal grades as below.

a) Super veal
b) Choice veal
c) Veal veal
9.5 Activity
1. Discuss the classification system of beef carcasses used in Zimbabwe.
2. Explain what beef farmers need to do, in view of the classification system used, to get
better returns from selling beef animals.

101
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

REFERENCES

Agriculture Research Council. 1980. The Nutrient Requirements of Ruminant Livestock.

CAB: Slough.

Cattle Producers’ Association. 1998. Beef Production Manual. Cattle Producers Association:
Harare.

Central Statistical Office. 2012. Livestock on Large Scale Commercial and Small Scale
Farms. Central Statistical Office. Government of Zimbabwe: Harare.

Elliot, R. C. and O’Donovan. 1972. Henderson Research Station, Stock and Crops, Volume 3
No. 1.

Fowler, N. G. 1968. Beef and Dairy Management and Production: New York.

Gova, M., Chimowa, M., and Zawe, C. Eds. 2011. Farm Management Handbook. Ministry of
Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development: Harare.

Hertog G. 2016. Beef production. Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen.

Holness, D. H. (Ed). 1996. Beef Production Manual. Cattle Producers Association: Harare.

Lloyd Phillips, 2006. Brahman South African. [Link]

102
Beef production mortifa@[Link]

APPENDIX 1
FEEDLOT CALCULATIONS
It’s not just about final average weights. It’s to do with a lot of factors or variables at every
step of the process.

1. Initial weight and purchase price.

Let us assume you bought a 400 kg steer at $1.2/kg. The smaller the $/kg price the higher
your profit will be. So purchase cost in this case is $480.
Note that this price/kg is seasonal and depends on breed, age, condition of teeth and BCS.
2. Initial body condition score
Give your animal a BCS using either 1 to 9 scale or the 1 to 5 scale where 1 is very thin and 5
or 9 is too fat.
In 90 days, you can only improve an animal by a maximum of 2 BCS points. So if you buy it
at BCS 1, your maximum will be BCS 3. To improve grade means feed and feed costs. So the
higher the initial BCS the cheaper it will be to attain a better carcass grade.
Final market BCS should be either 4 (on the 5 scale) or 8 (on the 9 scale).
3. Average Daily Weight Gain (ADWG) and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)
To make profit on the $480 that you invested in the 400 kg steer, you must do two things.
First, we need to increase the BCS and carcass grade. The condition of the animal, and
quality and quantity of feed determines this.
FCR is affected by a lot of factors which include breed, sex, age, teeth, nutritional balance of
feed, feed palatability, feed digestibility, feedlot stress, worms, flukes, diseases, etc.
Second, we must increase its weight on a daily basis by target ADWG (e.g. 1.6 kg/day). That
is not easy to do because it depends on your animal’s ability to convert feed into weight (i.e.
FCR). So over 90 days the total weight gain is 90d x 1.6 kg/d =144 kg.
3. Feed consumption and costs
Besides cost of buying the animal, feed is the biggest cost during the process of converting
feed to weight gain.
Feed consumed by steer (DM basis) is around 3% of live mass so = 3/100 x 400 kg = 12
kg/day DM. Total feed over 90 days = 90d x 12 kg/d = 1080 kg. The cost of this has to be
deducted from final sale price. Cost depends on cost of ingredients and their proportion in the
mixed ration. For simplicity let’s assume $260.
4. Other production costs.
One must also deduct variable production and market costs such as vet clearance, purchase
transport, sales transport, labour, dewormers, vaccines and medication. There are also the
fixed costs of building the pen and infrastructure and equipment.
5. Carcass grading and sale price.
By the time you get here, its game over. It’s no longer in your hands. The animal will be
slaughtered and graded (manufacturing, economy, commercial, choice or super). The price
per kg that you will be offered is seasonal.
Let us assume we hit the jackpot and got into super grade at $4.20/kg. Let us use cold dressed
mass (CDM) of 55% of live weight.
So we will be paid for (400 + 144) x 55/100 = 544 x 55/100 = 299.2 kg at $4.20 = $1256.64.
This is the rosy picture!
6. Profit
Gross profit = $1256.64 - $480 - $ 260 – other costs = $ 516 – other costs.

103