PBOL 1202: INTRODUCTION TO

POLITICS
COMPREHENSIVE EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Department Governance, Peace and Security
University Mzuzu University, Malawi
Coverage Topics 1–6: Definitions to Constitutionalism
Format Full 20-Mark Essay Questions with Model Answers
Standard Distinction Level

HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE: Each topic contains: (1) Key definitions and explanations, (2) Critical
concepts with Malawian examples, (3) Comparison tables, and (4) Full 20-mark model essay
answers. Study the explanations first, then practise writing the essays from memory before checking
the model answers.
TOPIC 1: DEFINING POLITICS (Andrew Heywood)

1.1 What Is Politics?

Core Definition (Heywood): Politics is the activity through which people MAKE, PRESERVE and
AMEND the general rules under which they live. It involves both CONFLICT (from diversity and
scarcity) and COOPERATION (because people must work together to manage that conflict).

Politics exists because of two unavoidable features of human existence:

• Diversity — People are different. They want different things, believe different things, and have
competing needs. In Malawi, farmers want subsidies, workers want higher wages, and business
owners want lower taxes — creating inevitable disagreement.
• Scarcity — Resources are never enough for everyone. The government budget is limited. Land is
limited. Jobs are limited. When there is not enough for all, conflict arises over distribution.

Key Phrase: Politics is a SEARCH FOR CONFLICT RESOLUTION — not always a solution, but an
ongoing attempt to manage conflict without violence. Not all conflicts can be resolved, but politics is
the civilised attempt to try.

1.2 Two Problems in Defining Politics

Problem 1: The word 'politics' is a LOADED term — it carries negative connotations of corruption,
manipulation and dishonesty. Defining politics requires disentangling it from these associations.

Problem 2: Even respected authorities cannot agree on what politics is about. Politics is an
ESSENTIALLY CONTESTED CONCEPT — it has multiple acceptable and legitimate meanings, which is
why four different views exist.

1.3 The Four Views of Politics

VIEW WHERE IS POLITICS? KEY IDEA KEY THINKER WEAKNESS

1. Art of Government Government institutions onlyPolitics = governing the stateBismarck, Machiavelli Too restricted — excludes most of society

2. Public Affairs The public sphere Politics = managing public life

Aristotle, Arendt, Rousseau
Excludes private sphere — feminist critique

3. Compromise & Consensus

Wherever conflict is resolvedPolitics
peacefully
= negotiation and compromise
Bernard Crick, Stoker Assumes willingness to negotiate — ignores po

4. Politics as Power Everywhere in all social relations

Politics = power over scarceLeftwich,
resourcesMillett, Lenin Too broad — makes everything political

VIEW 1 — POLITICS AS THE ART OF GOVERNMENT

This is the oldest and most traditional view. Bismarck told the German parliament: 'Politics is not a science
but an art.' He meant the art of government — exercising control within society through making and
enforcing collective decisions. Politics is associated with the POLIS (Greek city-state) — in modern terms,
'what concerns the state.' It is practised in cabinet rooms, legislative chambers and government
departments by politicians, civil servants and lobbyists. This gives a HIGHLY RESTRICTED view — most
people, institutions and social activities are regarded as 'outside' politics. Machiavelli's The Prince (1531)
represents this view's darker side — describing political leadership through cunning, cruelty and
manipulation. Lord Acton warned: 'Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.' The
KEY CRITICISM: it ignores the increasingly important role of multinational corporations and international
influences on modern life.
VIEW 2 — POLITICS AS PUBLIC AFFAIRS
This broader view distinguishes between the PUBLIC sphere (political) and the PRIVATE sphere
(non-political). Aristotle declared 'man is by nature a political animal' — human beings can only live the
good life within a political community. Politics is an ETHICAL activity concerned with creating a just
society. TRADITIONAL DISTINCTION: Public = the State (government apparatus). Private = Civil Society
(businesses, families, trade unions). ALTERNATIVE DISTINCTION: Public = everything open to society
(politics, commerce, work, art). Private = only personal/domestic realm. Civil society consists of what
Edmund Burke called 'little platoons' — families, private businesses, clubs, community groups funded by
individuals. POSITIVE IMAGE: Hannah Arendt said politics is the most important human activity because it
involves free and equal citizens giving meaning to life. Rousseau added: only through direct citizen
participation can the state serve the general will. CRITICISM: Feminist thinkers argue this view still leaves
domestic life — where power operates through gender inequality — outside politics. Politics 'stops at the
front door.'

VIEW 3 — POLITICS AS COMPROMISE AND CONSENSUS

This view focuses on HOW politics works rather than WHERE it happens. Politics is a PARTICULAR
METHOD of resolving conflict — through compromise, conciliation and negotiation, rather than force and
naked power. This is what is meant by 'the art of the possible.' Bernard Crick defined politics as: 'The
activity by which differing interests within a given unit of rule are conciliated by giving them a share in
power in proportion to their importance to the welfare and survival of the whole community.' The key is
WIDE DISPERSAL OF POWER — no single group dominates completely. Compromise means
concessions are made by ALL sides, leaving no one perfectly satisfied — but it is preferable to the
alternatives: bloodshed and brutality. Politics is therefore a CIVILISED AND CIVILISING FORCE. Stoker
warned: 'Politics is designed to disappoint' — its outcomes are often messy, ambiguous and never final.
MALAWIAN EXAMPLE: The 2019/2020 constitutional crisis — resolved through courts and fresh elections
rather than military force. CRITICISM: Assumes all groups are willing and able to negotiate — ignores
unequal power relationships.

VIEW 4 — POLITICS AS POWER

The BROADEST and MOST RADICAL view. Rather than confining politics to any particular sphere,
Leftwich argued: 'Politics is at the heart of ALL collective social activity, formal and informal, public and
private, in ALL human groups, institutions and societies.' Politics is essentially POWER — the ability to
achieve a desired outcome through whatever means. Power is exercised whenever A gets B to do
something B would not otherwise have done. Harold Laswell captured this in his 1936 book title: Politics:
Who Gets What, When, How? FEMINISTS (Kate Millett): Politics consists of 'power-structured
relationships, arrangements whereby one group is controlled by another.' The personal is political —
gender inequality within families is political. MARXISTS (Lenin): 'Politics is the most concentrated form of
economics.' The economic IS political. Class struggle is the heart of politics. Both Marxists and Feminists
see politics as OPPRESSION but also as the means through which injustice can be CHALLENGED.
MALAWIAN EXAMPLE: When IMF conditions force Malawi to cut subsidies — that is power (View 4)
operating outside government.

1.4 The Three Faces (Dimensions) of Power

Power in politics is understood as a RELATIONSHIP — the ability to influence the behaviour of others in a
manner not of their choosing. Power is exercised whenever A gets B to do something B would not
otherwise have done. This can happen in three ways:
FACE TYPE HOW IT WORKS VISIBILITY MALAWI EXAMPLE

Face 1 Decision-Making Conscious actions that directly influence decisions.

VISIBLEKeith
— canBoulding:
be seenthe
Constitutional
and
Stick
challenged
(force),
Court
the Deal
annulling
(exchange),
2019 election
the K

Face 2 Agenda-Setting Preventing decisions from being made — 'non-decision-making.'

HIDDEN — harder toControlling
identify
Tobaccowhat
companies
gets discussed.
preventing
Private
land reform
busin

Face 3 Thought Control Shaping what people think, want and need through
INVISIBLE
ideology,
— mostpropaganda
powerful
Colonial
andindoctrination
psychologicalconvincing
conditioning.
Africans
'Soft

TOPIC 1 — EXAM QUESTIONS WITH 20-MARK MODEL ANSWERS

Q: Politics is best understood as the exercise of power rather than the art of government.
Discuss with reference to Malawi. (20 marks)

Model Answer: Introduction: This essay examines two contrasting definitions of politics — View 1
(politics as the art of government) and View 4 (politics as the exercise of power). While View 1
restricts politics to formal state institutions, View 4 locates politics in all social relationships. This essay
argues that View 4 offers a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of politics, particularly in
the Malawian context. View 1 — Politics as Art of Government: The traditional view, associated with
Chancellor Bismarck and Machiavelli, defines politics as the exercise of control within society through
the making and enforcement of collective decisions. Politics happens in cabinet rooms, legislative
chambers and government departments, practiced by politicians, civil servants and lobbyists. In
Malawi, this would confine politics to State House, the National Assembly in Lilongwe, and
government ministries. This view is appealing for its clarity and simplicity. Weakness of View 1:
However, Heywood rightly describes this as a 'highly restricted' view. It ignores the vast majority of
society and crucially fails to account for power operating outside government. In Malawi, when the
IMF attaches conditions to loans forcing cuts to agricultural subsidies, or when tobacco estate owners
maintain poverty wages through their influence over policy, significant political decisions are being
made entirely outside government institutions. View 4 — Politics as Power: Leftwich argued that
'politics is at the heart of ALL collective social activity, formal and informal, public and private, in all
human groups, institutions and societies.' Power — the ability to achieve a desired outcome through
whatever means — operates everywhere. Harold Laswell's 1936 question 'Who Gets What, When,
How?' captures this perfectly: politics is fundamentally about the production, distribution and use of
scarce resources. Feminist and Marxist Support: Kate Millett (feminist) defines politics as
'power-structured relationships whereby one group controls another' — making gender relations within
Malawian families political. Lenin (Marxist) argued 'politics is the most concentrated form of
economics' — making Malawi's tobacco industry relations between estate owners and farm workers
deeply political. Both perspectives reveal political dimensions invisible to View 1. The Three Faces of
Power: View 4 is further supported by the three faces framework. Face 1 (visible decision-making) is
what View 1 captures. But Face 2 (agenda-setting — preventing land reform from being debated in
Malawi's parliament) and Face 3 (thought control — colonial indoctrination that shaped Malawians'
self-perception for generations) are entirely missed by the art of government view. Conclusion: While
View 1 provides a useful starting point, it is ultimately inadequate for understanding modern political
realities. View 4's recognition that power — and therefore politics — operates in every corner of social
life provides a far more comprehensive framework. In Malawi specifically, where power operates
through donor conditionality, gender inequality, and economic exploitation as much as through
parliament and State House, the power view is indispensable for genuine political understanding.
TOPIC 2: APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL
SCIENCE
Core Definition: An APPROACH is a method of investigating political phenomena which explains the
causal relationships among political objects. There are two major families of approaches:
TRADITIONAL (dominant before World War II) and BEHAVIOURAL (emerged after World War II).

2.1 The Fundamental Distinction

TRADITIONAL APPROACH BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

What SHOULD politics be? (Normative) What IS politics in reality? (Empirical)

Focuses on ideals, values, institutions Focuses on actual human behaviour

Method: Philosophy, history, law Method: Science, data, statistics

Cannot be scientific — facts and values interlinked Aims to be value-free and scientific

Dominant before World War II Emerged and dominated after World War II

Key thinkers: Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli Key thinkers: David Easton, Leslie Lipson

2.2 Traditional Approaches (Four Sub-Types)

PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH
The OLDEST approach, traced to ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Leo Strauss argued:
'Philosophy is the quest for wisdom and political philosophy is the attempt truly to know about the nature of
political things and the right or good political order.' This approach firmly believes VALUES cannot be
separated from politics. Its main concern is judging what is GOOD OR BAD in political society. It is
normative, idealistic and ethical — concerned with citizenship, rights, duties, the nature of the state, and
what constitutes a just society. Political philosophy is closely linked to political ideologies. MALAWIAN
EXAMPLE: The framers of Malawi's 1994 Constitution were asking philosophical questions — what rights
should citizens have? What is the proper relationship between state and individual?

HISTORICAL APPROACH
Politics can only be understood when HISTORICAL FACTORS — the age, place and situation in which it
evolved — are taken into consideration. Machiavelli, Sabine and Dunning believed politics and history are
intricately related. Every political thinker's ideology is shaped by their surrounding historical environment.
History provides chronological order to political events and enables future estimation. Without studying
past political events, it is impossible to analyse the present political scenario accurately. MALAWIAN
EXAMPLE: Understanding Malawi's current politics — strong presidency, ethnic voting, donor dependency
— requires understanding colonial legacy, Banda's 30-year dictatorship, and the 1993 democratic
transition.

INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH
This approach focuses on the FORMAL STRUCTURES of government — legislatures, executives,
judiciaries, political parties and interest groups. It asks: how are political institutions organised and how do
they work? Ancient thinker: Aristotle (studied 158 constitutions). Modern thinkers: James Bryce, Walter
Bagehot, Harold Laski. MALAWIAN EXAMPLE: Studying Malawi's National Assembly — how it is
structured, how bills become law, the committee system, the Speaker's powers — is the institutional
approach in action.

COMPARATIVE APPROACH
The best way to understand your own political system is to COMPARE it with others. Aristotle used this
method — he studied multiple political systems before developing his own theory. The comparative
approach seeks UNIVERSAL ELEMENTS common to all political systems, while also revealing why
different environments produce different systems. Political systems are conditional on the environment in
which they operate — different environments produce different systems. MALAWIAN EXAMPLE:
Comparing Malawi's electoral system with Zambia's reveals why similar post-colonial contexts produce
different political outcomes.

2.3 Behavioural Approach

Emerged after World War II when scholars grew frustrated that traditional approaches could not explain
why millions voted for Hitler or predict election outcomes. The behavioural approach shifts from studying
institutions and ideals to studying ACTUAL HUMAN BEHAVIOUR. Leslie Lipson: 'The behavioural method
records the details of what men do seeking to explain why they do.' It aims to study politics
SCIENTIFICALLY — free from personal values and moral judgments (VALUE NEUTRALITY).

David Easton's Eight Characteristics of Behaviouralism:

CHARACTERISTIC MEANING MALAWI EXAMPLE

1. Regularities Human political behaviour follows discoverable patterns

Regional
expressible
voting patterns
as general
— theories
North supports certain parties consistently

2. Verification Claims must be testable with empirical evidence — unverifiable

Surveying voters
claimsacross
are invalid
income levels to verify poverty-voting links

3. Techniques Proper tools for data collection and analysis must beMEC
usedconducting voter surveys; researcher interviews on political attitudes

4. Quantification Findings must be measured and expressed in numbers

'67%using
of surveyed
statistical
Malawians
methods distrust their MPs' rather than 'many distrust'

5. Value Free Researcher's personal values must be separated from

Studying
scientific
corruption
analysiswithout morally condemning it in the research paper

6. Systematization Research must be systematic — theory and research

Building
closelyknowledge
connected systematically from evidence toward larger theories

7. Pure Science Application of knowledge as important as theory — link

Research
theory on
to practice
low youth voter turnout should inform party training programm

8. Integration Political science should connect with economics, sociology,

Understanding
psychology
Malawi's democracy needs economics + sociology + history

2.4 Criticisms of the Behavioural Approach

• Not everything can be measured: Fear, loyalty, ideology and culture cannot always be captured in
surveys or statistics. Behaviouralism misses important unmeasurable political realities.
• Value neutrality is impossible: Even choosing what to study is a value judgment. No researcher can
be completely value-free. Behaviouralism pretends to be neutral while hiding its own assumptions.
• Ignores institutions: By focusing on individuals, behaviouralism overlooks how institutions shape
and constrain behaviour. You cannot understand Malawian political behaviour without understanding
the constitutional framework.

TOPIC 2 — EXAM QUESTIONS WITH 20-MARK MODEL ANSWERS

Q: 'The behavioural approach is superior to traditional approaches in the study of political
science.' Discuss. (20 marks)
Model Answer: Introduction: This essay evaluates the claim that the behavioural approach
supersedes traditional approaches in political science. While behaviouralism offers important scientific
rigour, traditional approaches retain indispensable value. This essay argues that neither approach is
absolutely superior — each has strengths the other lacks, and both are committed to understanding
and improving political systems. Traditional Approaches — Strengths: Traditional approaches
dominated political science from ancient Greece to World War II. They include the philosophical
(asking what the ideal state should be — Plato, Aristotle), historical (understanding politics through its
historical development — Machiavelli, Sabine), institutional (studying formal government structures —
Bryce, Laski), and comparative (comparing political systems across nations — Aristotle). Their great
strength is that they address the fundamental normative questions that politics cannot avoid: What is
justice? What makes government legitimate? What rights do citizens have? Malawi's 1994
Constitution — arguably the country's greatest democratic achievement — was built on philosophical
and historical foundations. Traditional Approaches — Weaknesses: However, traditional approaches
are largely normative and idealistic. They made very little attempt to relate theory to empirical
research. They believed political science could never be scientific because facts and values are so
closely interlinked. This limited their ability to explain actual political behaviour — they could not
predict why millions voted for Hitler, or forecast election outcomes in Malawi. Behavioural Approach —
Strengths: Emerging after World War II, behaviouralism shifted focus to actual human political
behaviour, studied through empirical and scientific methods. David Easton identified eight
characteristics: regularities, verification, techniques, quantification, value neutrality, systematization,
pure science and integration. These characteristics enable political scientists to discover patterns in
voting behaviour, measure public opinion accurately, and build predictive theories. In Malawi,
behavioural research revealing that poverty correlates with low voter turnout among youth can directly
inform electoral policy. Behavioural Approach — Weaknesses: However, three major criticisms
undermine behavouralism's claim to superiority. First, not all political behaviour can be observed and
measured — fear, loyalty and ideological conviction resist quantification. Second, value neutrality is
practically impossible — even choosing which behaviour to study involves value judgments. Third, by
focusing on individuals, behaviouralism neglects the institutional structures that shape political
behaviour — in Malawi, understanding why politicians behave corruptly requires understanding weak
institutional constraints, not just individual psychology. Conclusion: Both approaches are committed to
understanding and improving political systems — they simply disagree about how. Traditional
approaches answer the essential 'what should be' questions that behaviouralism ignores;
behaviouralism provides the empirical rigour that traditional approaches lack. The most
comprehensive political science integrates both — using philosophical foundations to identify what
matters and behavioural methods to study how it actually works. Neither is superior; both are
necessary.
TOPIC 3: THE STATE — DEFINITION, ELEMENTS AND ROLE
Core Definition: A STATE is a political entity with a defined TERRITORY, a PERMANENT
POPULATION, a GOVERNMENT, and SOVEREIGNTY. It is the foundation of political organisation,
ensuring law enforcement, governance and stability. The state is PERMANENT and ABSTRACT —
governments change but the state endures.

KEY DIAGRAM — The Nested Structure:

SOCIETY (outermost — largest sphere — all human activity)

POLITICS (sits within society — manages collective decisions)

STATE (sits within politics — formal political organisation)

GOVERNMENT (innermost — the machinery that runs the state day-to-day)

3.1 The Four Essential Elements of a State

ELEMENT DEFINITION KEY THINKER MALAWI EXAMPLE

1. PEOPLE (Population)
The permanent population — citizens
Rousseau
and residents
(1762)who
— general
contribute
willto
Malawi's
ofthe
thestate's
people
~20social,
million
is the economic
source
citizensofofand
political
diverse
political
authority
ethnicities
structures.
(Chewa,
Must Tb

2. TERRITORY A defined geographical area under state

Johncontrol,
Locke (1689)
including
— state
land, legitimacy
waterMalawi's
and depends
airspace,
118,484on
with
km²
protecting
recognised
including
territorial
Lake
international
Malawi
integrity
(disputed
borders. with T

3. GOVERNMENT The institution responsible for creating

Maxand
Weber
enforcing
(1919)
laws,
— monopoly
maintaining
Malawi's
onorder
the legitimate
and
threerepresenting
arms:
useExecutive
of physical
the state.
(President/Cabinet),
force
Weber: holds monopoly
Legislat

4. SOVEREIGNTY The supreme power of a state to govern

Jeanitself
Bodinwithout
(1576)external
— sovereignty
interference.
Internal:
as absolute
TWO
Constitutional
DIMENSIONS:
and perpetual
Court power
Internal
annulling
of(supreme
the
2019
state
election.
within Extern
border

3.2 State vs Government vs Nation vs Society

STATE GOVERNMENT NATION SOCIETY

Definition Political entity with territory, people,

Institution
govt
through
& sovereignty
which state
Cultural
exercises
community
authority
sharing language,
All individuals,
history
families,
& identity
groups & institutions

Nature Abstract and invisible Concrete and visible Cultural/psychological Social organisation

Duration Permanent — continues forever

Temporary — comes and goes
Can exist without a state Prior to and wider than the state

Power Has original sovereign powers

Powers derived from the state
No formal power to enforce laws
No formal enforcement power

Malawi Example Republic of Malawi (since 1964)

Chakwera administration (2020–)
Chewa people (across Malawi,
All Malawian
Zambia, Mozambique)
communities, families, organisatio

3.3 The Four Roles of the State in Society

ROLE EXPLANATION KEY THINKER MALAWI EXAMPLE

1. Law and Order Enforcing laws and maintaining social order

Maxthrough
Weber (1919)
judicial and law Malawi
enforcement
Policeinstitutions.
Service, MDF,Weber:
courts
state
from
holds
magistrate
'monopoly
level
ontoth

2. Public Services Providing essential services that improveJohn

citizens'
Rawlsquality
(1971)of —
lifestate
— healthcare,
must
Kamuzu
ensure
Central
education,
social
Hospital,
justice
infrastructure,
Chancellor
and equitable
water.
College,
accessrural primary s

3. Economic Regulation
Regulating economic activities to ensureKarl
stability,
Polanyigrowth
(1944)
and—fairness
state Reserve
must
in resource
intervene
Bankdistribution.
oftoMalawi,
preventMalawi
economic
Revenue
disparities
Authority, Compe

4. National Security Protecting citizens from external threats Thomas

(foreign invasion)
Hobbes (1651)
and internal
— without
Malawi
threats
strong
Defence
(insurgency,
state,
Force
society
(external),
crime).
descends
Police
into(internal),
chaos and UNviolenc
peace

TOPIC 3 — EXAM QUESTIONS WITH 20-MARK MODEL ANSWERS

Q: 'The state is the cornerstone of political organisation.' Discuss with reference to Malawi. (20
marks)
Model Answer: Introduction: This essay examines the claim that the state is the cornerstone of
political organisation. Drawing on scholarly perspectives and Malawian examples, it argues that while
the state is indeed indispensable to organised political life, its effectiveness depends on the quality of
its institutions, the strength of its sovereignty, and its ability to fulfil its core social roles. Definition and
Elements of the State: A state is a political entity with four essential elements: people, territory,
government and sovereignty. Max Weber defined the state as the entity holding a 'monopoly on the
legitimate use of physical force' within a defined territory. Malawi as a state has existed since
independence in 1964, comprising approximately 20 million people within 118,484 square kilometres,
governed through three constitutional arms of government, and recognised internationally as a
sovereign state. The State as Foundation of Order: Thomas Hobbes argued in Leviathan (1651) that
without a strong state, human life would be 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.' The state prevents
the 'war of all against all' by enforcing laws and maintaining social order. In Malawi, the state's law
enforcement through the Malawi Police Service, courts and judiciary prevents the breakdown of social
order that would make economic activity, education and community life impossible. The State's
Essential Social Roles: Beyond order, the state fulfils roles that no other institution can adequately
perform. John Rawls (1971) emphasised the state's responsibility for social justice and equitable
access to public services — in Malawi this means hospitals, schools and rural infrastructure. Karl
Polanyi (1944) argued that state economic regulation prevents market failures and extreme inequality
— in Malawi, the Reserve Bank and MRA perform this function. Challenges to Malawi's State:
However, the state's effectiveness as a cornerstone depends on institutional strength. Malawi's state
faces serious challenges: the 2013 Cashgate scandal revealed MK24 billion stolen from public
accounts, directly undermining the state's ability to provide public services. Heavy donor dependency
— where the IMF and World Bank conditions significantly influence domestic policy — raises serious
questions about the completeness of Malawi's sovereignty. When external actors can effectively
dictate economic policy, the state's claim to supreme authority within its territory is diminished. State
vs Government: A crucial distinction is that the state is permanent while governments are temporary.
The Republic of Malawi has endured through five presidential administrations since 1994, maintaining
constitutional continuity despite political changes. The 2020 constitutional crisis demonstrated this —
the state's judiciary functioned independently to annul and then supervise fresh elections, preserving
state continuity even as the government changed. Conclusion: The state is indeed the cornerstone of
political organisation — without it, collective decisions cannot be made, rights cannot be protected,
and development cannot be planned. However, a state is only as strong as its institutions, its
sovereignty and its commitment to serving all citizens. Malawi possesses a legitimate state
framework; the challenge is building the institutional capacity and genuine sovereignty to make that
framework fully effective.
TOPIC 4: NATIONALISM AND NATIONAL IDENTITY
Core Definitions: A NATION is a community of people sharing common culture, language, history
and collective identity. NATIONALISM is the political doctrine that nations should be self-governing
and that national identity is the natural and legitimate basis for political organisation. NATIONAL
IDENTITY is the sense of belonging to a particular national community, expressed through shared
symbols, history, culture and values.

4.1 Ingredients of Nationhood

Different nations emphasise different combinations of these six foundations:

INGREDIENT EXPLANATION MALAWI EXAMPLE

Common Language A shared language creates bonds of communication Chichewa

and cultural
unites
expression
many Malawians across ethnic lines as nation

Common History Shared historical experiences — especially of struggle

Shared
— create
colonial
national
experience
consciousness
and independence struggle (1964)

Common Culture Shared customs, traditions, music, food and values Nsima culture, gule wamkulu, communal values

Common Territory Attachment to a specific homeland Malawi as 'The Warm Heart of Africa'

Common Religion Shared faith as a bond of nationhood More relevant in some nations — e.g. Islam in Arab nations

Shared Political Values Belief in common political ideals — especially in civicShared

nationscommitment to multiparty democracy since 1994

4.2 Five Types of Nationalism

TYPE CORE IDEA KEY THINKER EXAMPLE

1. Liberal Nationalism Every nation has the right to self-determination.

John Stuart
All nations
Mill equalAfrican
in dignity
decolonisation
and deserving
movements
independence.
— the right of Africans to go

2. Conservative Nationalism
Nationalism as social cohesion, stability Edmund
and patriotism
Burke within existing
'We arestate.
all Malawians
Preserve national
first, regardless
identity and
of tribe
tradition.
or region' — unit

3. Expansionist/ Chauvinistic
One nation superior to others. Superiority
Mussolini,
justifies expansion,
Hitler domination
German Nazism
or aggression
— mosttoward
extreme
others.
and dangerous form — led to

4. Anti-Colonial Use of national consciousness to resist and

Frantz
overthrow
Fanon foreign colonial
Nyasaland
rule. African
Unites diverse
Congress → MCP
ethnic groups
under
around
Banda
shared
fighting
colonia
Brit

5. Post-Colonial Building national identity after independence

Juliusamong
Nyerere
populationsTeaching
more loyal
Chichewa,
to ethnic groups
creatingthan
national
new state.
symbols, building institut

4.3 Benedict Anderson — Imagined Communities

Benedict Anderson (1983) — Imagined Communities: A nation is an IMAGINED COMMUNITY
because members will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them,
yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion. Nations are SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED
— created through shared imagination, symbols, narratives and institutions rather than biological or
natural bonds. MALAWI EXAMPLE: A Malawian in Chitipa has never met a Malawian in Nsanje, but
both feel they belong to the same nation — connected through shared history (independence
struggle), shared symbols (flag, anthem), shared language (Chichewa) and shared institutions
(constitution, courts, parliament).

4.4 Challenges to National Identity in Malawi

• Ethnic and regional loyalties often override national identity — Northern, Central and Southern
regional identities compete with Malawian nationhood, most visible in regional voting patterns.
• Colonial border legacy — Malawi's borders were drawn at the Berlin Conference (1884-85) with no
regard for existing ethnic communities, creating a multi-nation state from the start.
 • Poverty and patronage — when survival depends on ethnic networks and patron-client
relationships, national identity weakens relative to ethnic identity.
• Positive counter-example — the 2020 election crisis showed Malawians of all regions uniting to
defend the constitution, expressing a genuine civic national identity transcending ethnicity.

TOPIC 4 — EXAM QUESTIONS WITH 20-MARK MODEL ANSWERS

Q: Examine the challenges of building national identity in post-colonial Malawi. (20 marks)

Model Answer: Introduction: Building national identity in post-colonial Malawi has been a complex
and unfinished project. This essay examines the major challenges — colonial legacy, ethnic diversity,
poverty and political manipulation — while acknowledging the significant achievements in national
identity construction since independence in 1964. The Colonial Legacy Challenge: The different
chiefdoms and ethnic communities that became Malawi were united by colonial borders drawn at the
Berlin Conference of 1884-85 with no regard for existing cultural boundaries. As Benedict Anderson
(1983) argued, nations are imagined communities — but the colonial state had not created the
conditions for Malawians to imagine themselves as one community. The colonial 1902 constitution
was imposed without consent, creating a political framework that many communities never fully
internalised. Post-colonial leaders therefore had to build national identity almost from scratch among
populations whose primary loyalties remained ethnic and local. Ethnic Diversity: Malawi contains
multiple distinct nations — Chewa, Tumbuka, Yao, Lomwe, Ngoni — each with their own languages,
histories and cultural identities. This means Malawi is not a nation-state (where one nation and one
state coincide, as in Japan) but a multi-nation state. Regional voting patterns demonstrate the
persistence of ethnic loyalty over national identity — the North, Centre and South consistently support
different political parties based partly on regional-ethnic affiliation rather than national policy
considerations. Poverty and Patronage: Widespread poverty makes citizens dependent on
patron-client networks based on ethnic and regional ties rather than national solidarity. When survival
depends on access to a powerful patron's resources, ethnic loyalty often takes precedence over
national identity. The Cashgate scandal (2013) demonstrated how state resources were used for
patronage rather than national development, further weakening the state's ability to foster national
identity through public services and institutions. Political Manipulation of Identity: Both Banda and
successive leaders have sometimes exploited ethnic divisions for political purposes rather than
building genuine national unity. The 'big man' political culture that Malawi inherited has sometimes
prioritised the identity of the ruling party over national identity. Achievements in Nation-Building:
Despite these challenges, significant progress has been made. Chichewa as a national language
bridges many ethnic divides. National institutions — the constitution, parliament, courts — provide a
framework of civic national identity. The 2020 constitutional crisis was a powerful moment of national
identity expression — Malawians across all regions and ethnicities united to defend constitutional
democracy, demonstrating that a civic national identity transcending ethnicity is possible and real.
Conclusion: Building national identity in post-colonial Malawi faces genuine structural challenges
rooted in colonial history, ethnic diversity and poverty. However, Anderson's concept of imagined
communities reminds us that national identity is always constructed — it can be built through shared
institutions, symbols and narratives. Malawi's greatest nation-building opportunity lies in deepening
commitment to the civic values of the 1994 Constitution — democracy, human rights and the rule of
law — as the foundation of a truly inclusive Malawian national identity.
TOPIC 5: GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN MALAWI
Overview: Malawi is a UNITARY PRESIDENTIAL REPUBLIC governed under the 1994 Constitution.
It has three arms of government (Executive, Legislature, Judiciary), operates a multiparty democratic
system, and has experienced both democratic progress and significant challenges since its
democratic transition in 1994.

5.1 Constitutional Framework

Malawi's system is characterised by:

• Unitary state — power centralised in Lilongwe, not shared between regions as in a federal system
• Presidential republic — President is both Head of State AND Head of Government
• Multiparty democracy — since the 1994 democratic transition
• Constitutional supremacy — the 1994 Constitution is the supreme law; no person or institution can
act contrary to it
• Separation of powers with checks and balances — each arm limits the others

5.2 The Three Arms of Government

ARM HEAD COMPOSITION KEY POWERS CHECK ON OTHERS

EXECUTIVE President (directly elected,President,

max 2 five-year
Vice-President,
terms) Cabinet
MakesMinisters,
policy, implements
Civil Service
laws, commands
Appoints judges
MDF, signs/vetoes
(checks judiciary);
legislation,
can veto
appoints
parlia

LEGISLATURE Speaker of National Assembly

193 MPs elected from single-member
Makes laws,
constituencies
approves national budget,
Can impeach
ratifies treaties,
President;
holds
overrides
executive
presidential
accountable
vet

JUDICIARY Chief Justice (Supreme Court)

Supreme Court of Appeal, High
Interprets
Court (including
constitution,
Constitutional
declares laws/actions
Court),
Can declare
Magistrate
unconstitutional,
presidential
Courts actions
protects
unconstitutional;
rights

5.3 Malawi's Constitutional History Timeline

YEAR CONSTITUTION KEY FEATURES SIGNIFICANCE

1891 Colonial Protectorate British rule imposed — no African participation

Foundation
or consent
of unequal power — colonial interests above African welfar

1964 Independence Constitution

Universal franchise; Bill of Rights; MultipartyFirst
Parliament
democratic constitution — genuine popular sovereignty attempted

1966 Banda's Constitution One-party state (MCP only); Life-presidency;Democratic

No politicalreversal
opposition
— constitution used as tool of authoritarian contro

1993 Referendum Malawians voted for multiparty democracy Popular mandate for democratic reform — the people's will expressed

1994 Democratic ConstitutionPeople's trust as basis of power; Accountability;

Malawi's
Transparency;
most democratic
Humanconstitution
rights; Term—limits;
still inIndependent
force today judiciary

2020 Constitutional Court Ruling

Annulled 2019 presidential election — first inLandmark
Africa enforcement of constitutionalism — judiciary as guardian of

5.4 Key Challenges Facing Malawi's Democracy

CHALLENGE EXPLANATION POLITICAL SCIENCE CONNECTION

Corruption Cashgate (2013) — MK24 billion stolen. Systemic corruption

Weakens
undermines
state's role
stateincapacity
public services;
and public
violates
trust. constitutionalism

Poverty & Donor Dependency

One of world's poorest countries. IMF/World Bank conditions
Challenges
effectively
external
influence
sovereignty
domestic
— policy.
'power without genuine right'

Ethnic/Regional Voting Political competition follows regional lines rather than policy.
Weakens
North,national
Centre,identity;
South support
prevents
different
truly national
[Link] movements

Weak Institutions Despite good constitution, police underfunded, courts slow,

Gapparliament
between constitution
executive-dominated.
(document) and constitutionalism (practice)

Gender Inequality Women significantly underrepresented in parliament andViolates

cabinet View
despite
4 politics
being majority
— powerofinequality
population.
operating in political sphere

Personality Politics Parties form around individual leaders not ideologies. Voters
Undermines
follow persons
stable democratic
not [Link]; weakens party institutional
TOPIC 5 — EXAM QUESTIONS WITH 20-MARK MODEL ANSWERS
Q: 'The 2020 Constitutional Court ruling demonstrates that Malawi's democracy is maturing.'
Discuss. (20 marks)

Model Answer: Introduction: The February 2020 ruling by Malawi's Constitutional Court annulling the
May 2019 presidential election — the first such ruling in African history — was a landmark moment in
Malawi's democratic development. This essay argues that while the ruling does demonstrate
significant democratic maturation, a comprehensive assessment requires examining both the
progress it represents and the ongoing challenges that remain. The Ruling and Its Significance: The
Constitutional Court found that irregularities in the 2019 election — including tippex on result sheets,
duplicated forms and premature announcements — were so widespread that they undermined the
integrity of the outcome. The court ordered a fresh election, held in June 2020, in which Lazarus
Chakwera and Saulos Chilima defeated incumbent Peter Mutharika. Power transferred peacefully.
Evidence of Democratic Maturation: The ruling demonstrates maturation in several ways. First, it
shows JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE — courts acted autonomously without executive interference,
fulfilling their constitutional role as a check on the executive branch. This directly illustrates checks
and balances working as intended by the 1994 Constitution. Second, it demonstrates
CONSTITUTIONAL SUPREMACY — the constitution was upheld even against the most powerful
person in the country, proving that Malawi has moved toward genuine constitutionalism, not just
possession of a constitution. Third, it reflects the PEACEFUL TRANSFER OF POWER — Mutharika's
acceptance of the ruling, while contested, ultimately resulted in a peaceful democratic transition
without military intervention. This contrasts favourably with many African precedents. Connection to
Political Theory: Using Bernard Crick's view of politics as compromise and consensus, the 2020
process exemplifies political conflict resolved through legal and peaceful means rather than force.
Using our three faces of power framework, Face 1 power (the court's visible decision) checked the
executive's attempt to use Face 2 power (controlling the agenda by claiming victory). This is
democratic maturation in action. Remaining Challenges: However, caution is warranted. Malawi's
democratic challenges remain substantial. Corruption — exemplified by Cashgate — continues to
undermine state capacity. Ethnic and regional voting patterns persist. Institutions remain weak relative
to constitutional ideals. The 2019 election irregularities themselves demonstrated serious weaknesses
in electoral administration. One landmark ruling does not transform a democratic culture overnight.
Conclusion: The 2020 Constitutional Court ruling is a genuine and significant indicator of democratic
maturation — particularly in judicial independence and constitutional supremacy. However,
democracy is not a destination but a process. Malawi has demonstrated it possesses the institutional
capacity for democratic self-correction; the ongoing challenge is deepening that capacity across all
institutions and throughout political culture, so that the values expressed in the 2020 ruling become
the everyday norm rather than the exceptional achievement.
TOPIC 6: CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
Core Definitions: A CONSTITUTION is a body of fundamental rules regulating the structure of the
state, allocating power and governing relationships between citizens and state organs.
CONSTITUTIONALISM (Kanyongolo, 2007) means exercising power within the limits of the
constitution — nobody is above the law, no matter how highly placed. Thomas Paine: 'A government
without a constitution is power without right.'

6.1 Seven Purposes of a Constitution

PURPOSE EXPLANATION MALAWI EXAMPLE

1. Ensure Stability Provides predictability — elections on schedule, 1994

peaceful
Constitution
transfersestablished
of power, courts
two five-year
operating
presidential
independently
term limits — preventin

2. Confer Legitimacy Gives government domestically accepted right to1994

rule Constitution
AND international
immediately
recognition
restored
as sovereign
donor relations
state and international recogn

3. Operate With ConsentGrounds government authority in the will of the people

1993 referendum
— not force—alone
Malawians voted for multiparty democracy — giving 1994

4. Establish Structures Creates and defines all major institutions — presidency,

Chapter parliament,
VII (Nationaljudiciary,
Assembly),
electoral
Chapter
commission
VIII (Executive), Chapter IX (Judiciar

5. Define How Rules Operate

Specifies how laws are made, enforced and disputed
Bills must pass three National Assembly readings, receive presidential assent b

6. Delimit and Control Power

Prevents accumulation of unlimited power — draws
Presidential
boundariesterm
around
limits;what
parliamentary
government
budget
can/cannot
approval;
do judicial review of presid

7. Ensure Constitutionalism
Embeds a culture of constitutional governance where
2020 Constitutional
all — includingCourt
the powerful
annulment
— are
of presidential
bound by lawelection — enforcing const

6.2 Six Types of Constitution — Compared

TYPE DEFINITION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES EXAMPLES

Written All fundamental laws in ONE single

Easy reference;
document citizens knowFrequent
rights; political
litigation;
stability;
rigid; removes
not easily
USA,ambiguity
adaptable;
Nigeria, India,
interpretation
Ghana, MALAWI
problems

Unwritten Rules spread across multiple sources

Flexible;—
evolves
statutes,
withjudgments,
society; Government
represents
conventions
people's
may amend
culture;
at will;
easy
Britain,
citizens
to amend
Newstruggle
Zealand
to know rights; can encourage dicta

Rigid Very difficult to amend — requires

Protects
special
against
super-majority
self-servingprocedures
amendments;
Cumbersomepolitical
amendment;
stability;
expensive;
USA,
protects
Nigeria
unsuitable
minorities for emergencies; delays reform

Flexible Can be amended through relatively

Easy tosimple
update;
procedures
quick decisions
Prone
in emergencies;
to dictatorship;
reduces
unplanned
conflicts
Britain,
amendments;
Italy, Newfrequent
Zealand changes undermine stability

Federal Power shared between centralRegional

and regional/state
autonomy;governments
protects minorities;
Expensive
— bothwider
duplication;
constitutionally
representation;
political
protected
USA,
rivalry;
unites
Nigeria,
emphasises
diverse
India
peoples
differences; wealth distribution di

Unitary All power concentrated in one Less

central
expensive;
government
flexible;
— regions
promotes
Hasty
existnationalism;
amendments;
at central government's
quick
government
emergency
Britain,
discretion
distant
decisions
France,
from people;
Ghana, limited
MALAWI representation; unsuita

Malawi's Constitution Type: WRITTEN + RELATIVELY RIGID + UNITARY. This combination was
deliberately chosen after the Banda experience. A written, relatively rigid constitution makes it harder
for any future leader to rewrite the constitution for personal ambition — as Banda did in 1966 when he
legally used the amendment process to create a one-party life-presidency.

6.3 Four Principles of Constitutionalism

PRINCIPLE MEANING MALAWI EXAMPLE

1. Equality Before the Law Every person — rich or poor, powerful or ordinaryFormer
— is subject
President
to the
Muluzi
samearrested
laws andand
entitled
charged
to same
with corruption
legal prote

2. Universal Suffrage Every adult citizen has the right to vote AND be voted
All Malawian
for regardless
citizens
of18+
race,
can
gender,
vote. First
religion,
introduced
wealth or
in the
social
1964
st

3. Fundamental Rights Guaranteed

Constitution protects basic rights no government can
Chapter
legitimately
IV (Bill of
remove
Rights)
—Sections
life, expression,
15-46 ofassembly,
Malawi's 1994
fair trial
Con

4. Government Through Rule of

AllLaw
government actions must be authorised by lawGovernment
— no arbitrary
cannot
exercise
seizeofprivate
powerland without legal process: no

6.4 Constitutionalism in Malawi — The Honest Assessment

 The Central Problem: Malawi has had GOOD CONSTITUTIONS but WEAK CONSTITUTIONALISM.
Having a constitution and practising constitutionalism are two completely different things. A country
can have a beautifully written constitution and completely ignore it — as Banda demonstrated.

Five Reasons for Weak Constitutionalism in Malawi:

1. Colonial Origins Without Consent — Constitutional system imposed without local people's
consent. Many communities never fully internalised constitutional principles.
2. Elite Control — Small group of political elites have always decided constitutional content without
meaningful citizen participation.
3. The 'Big Man' Problem — Power repeatedly concentrates in a dominant leader. Patronage systems
distribute state resources for political loyalty rather than constitutional service. Presidents donate
government-funded ambulances as 'personal gifts' — blurring state, party and personal resources.
4. Selective Constitutionalism — Stronger compliance in financial matters (donor pressure) than in
social and political matters. Governments choose which constitutional provisions to respect.
5. Poverty and Patronage — Widespread poverty makes citizens tolerate constitutional violations by
leaders who provide material benefits. Short-term survival overcomes long-term constitutional
governance.

The Way Forward — Transformative Constitutionalism: Using the constitution as an active tool for
social transformation toward justice and equality, enforced by an INDEPENDENT, INNOVATIVE AND
BOLD JUDICIARY. The 2020 Constitutional Court ruling is the best recent example — a judiciary bold
enough to enforce the constitution against the most powerful person in the country.

TOPIC 6 — EXAM QUESTIONS WITH 20-MARK MODEL ANSWERS

Q: 'Malawi has a good constitution but weak constitutionalism.' Discuss. (20 marks)
Model Answer: Introduction: This essay examines the distinction between possessing a constitution
and practising constitutionalism in Malawi. Kanyongolo (2007) defines constitutionalism as exercising
power within the limits of the constitution — nobody above the law. This essay argues that while
Malawi's 1994 Constitution is genuinely democratic and comprehensive, its translation into consistent
constitutional practice has been hampered by colonial legacies, elite politics, poverty and patronage
— though recent developments, particularly the 2020 judicial ruling, suggest grounds for cautious
optimism. The Quality of Malawi's Constitution: Malawi's 1994 Constitution is genuinely impressive. It
establishes four fundamental principles: people's trust as basis of state power, accountability,
transparency and human rights. It contains a comprehensive Bill of Rights (Chapter IV, Sections
15-46) protecting civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. It establishes separation of
powers with genuine checks and balances, limits the presidency to two five-year terms, and creates
independent institutions including the Electoral Commission and Human Rights Commission. Thomas
Paine's standard — that a constitution grounds government in the consent of the people — is
substantially met by the 1994 Constitution, which emerged from the 1993 referendum mandate. The
Weakness of Constitutionalism — Historical Roots: However, constitutionalism as practice has been
consistently weaker than the constitution as document. This weakness has deep historical roots.
Colonial authorities imposed constitutional systems without the consent of local communities, creating
a tradition where constitutional principles were external impositions rather than internalised values.
After independence, the 1964 Constitution was replaced within two years by Banda's 1966
Constitution creating a one-party life-presidency — demonstrating that legal constitutional change can
entirely undermine constitutional values. The Big Man Problem and Patronage: Throughout Malawi's
history, power has concentrated in dominant leaders who used state resources for political purposes.
The 'big man' political culture — where presidents present government-funded ambulances as
personal gifts — blurs the constitutional distinction between state resources, party resources and
private resources. The Cashgate scandal (2013), in which MK24 billion was stolen from government
accounts, is the starkest example of constitutional principles of accountability and transparency being
violated at the highest level. Selective Constitutionalism: Malawi has shown stronger commitment to
constitutional principles in financial matters — because donor dependency creates external pressure
for accountability in public finance management. However, in social and political matters,
constitutional compliance has been far more selective. This pattern reveals that constitutionalism in
Malawi has often been performed for external audiences rather than practised as genuine internal
commitment. Signs of Improvement — Transformative Constitutionalism: The 2020 Constitutional
Court ruling annulling the presidential election represents transformative constitutionalism in action —
an independent, innovative and bold judiciary actively enforcing constitutional principles even against
the most powerful figure in the country. This demonstrates that Malawi's constitutional institutions,
when functioning independently, can deliver genuine constitutionalism. Conclusion: Malawi does
indeed have a good constitution but inconsistent constitutionalism. The gap between constitutional
text and constitutional practice reflects colonial legacies, poverty, patronage politics and elite capture.
However, the 2020 ruling offers genuine grounds for hope. As scholars argue, transformative
constitutionalism supported by an independent judiciary offers Malawi's best path from good
constitutional documents to good constitutional governance — ensuring that constitutional principles
benefit all Malawians, not just those with political connections.
MASTER GLOSSARY — ALL KEY DEFINITIONS
Politics (Heywood) The activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general
rules under which they live. Involves both conflict (from diversity and scarcity)
and cooperation.

Diversity The fact that people are different — they want different things, have different
beliefs and competing needs — making conflict inevitable.

Scarcity The fact that resources are never enough for everyone — land, money, jobs
are all limited — driving competition and conflict.

Conflict Resolution Politics as a search for managing conflict peacefully — not always achieving
a solution, but an ongoing attempt to prevent violence.

View 1 — Art of Politics as the exercise of control within society through making and enforcing
Government collective decisions, confined to government institutions.

View 2 — Public Affairs Politics as the management of public life — distinguishing between a public
sphere (political) and private sphere (non-political).

View 3 — Compromise Politics as a particular method of resolving conflict through negotiation,

& Consensus compromise and conciliation rather than force.

View 4 — Politics as Politics as present in all social relationships and every corner of human
Power existence — wherever power operates.

Power (Face 1) Decision-making — conscious actions directly influencing the content of

decisions. The most visible face of power.

Power (Face 2) Agenda-setting — the ability to prevent decisions from being made by
controlling what issues are publicly discussed.

Power (Face 3) Thought control — the ability to shape what people think, want and need
through ideological indoctrination and psychological conditioning.

Normative Concerned with values, ideals and what ought to be — the approach of
traditional political science.

Empirical Concerned with observable facts that can be tested and measured — the
approach of behavioural political science.

Behaviouralism The approach to political science that studies actual human political
behaviour through scientific, empirical and value-free methods.

Value Neutrality The behaviouralist principle that researchers must keep personal values and
moral judgments entirely separate from scientific analysis.

State A political entity with defined territory, permanent population, government and
sovereignty — the foundation of political organisation.

Sovereignty The supreme power of a state to govern itself without external interference —
both internally (supreme within borders) and externally (independent among
states).
Government The institution through which the state exercises its authority — temporary,
concrete and visible, derived from the state.

Nation A community of people sharing common culture, language, history and

collective identity — distinct from a state.

Nation-State Where a nation and state coincide in the same territory — e.g. Japan. Most
African states are multi-nation states.

Nationalism The political doctrine that nations should be self-governing and that national
identity is the natural and legitimate basis for political organisation.

National The right of nations to determine their own political future and form their own
Self-Determination governments.

Imagined Communities Nations are communities constructed through shared imagination, symbols
(Anderson) and narratives — not biological bonds. Members never know most
fellow-members yet feel connected.

Constitution A body of fundamental rules regulating the structure of the state, allocating
power and governing relationships between citizens and state organs.

Constitutionalism The practice of exercising power within the limits set by the constitution —
(Kanyongolo) nobody is above the law, no matter how highly placed.

Written Constitution All fundamental laws written in one single document — e.g. Malawi, USA,
Nigeria.

Unwritten Constitution Fundamental laws spread across multiple sources — statutes, court
decisions and conventions — e.g. Britain.

Rigid Constitution One that is difficult to amend — requiring special super-majority procedures
beyond ordinary legislation.

Flexible Constitution One that can be amended through relatively simple procedures similar to
passing ordinary laws.

Federal Constitution Power shared between central and regional governments — both
constitutionally protected.

Unitary Constitution All power concentrated in one central government — regions exist at central
government's discretion. Malawi's type.

Universal Suffrage The right of ALL adult citizens to vote regardless of race, gender, religion,
social status or wealth.

Transformative Using the constitution as an active tool for social transformation toward
Constitutionalism justice and equality, enforced by a bold and independent judiciary.

Civil Society (Burke) Edmund Burke's 'little platoons' — families, private businesses, trade unions,
clubs, community groups funded by individuals for their own interests.

Legitimacy The recognised right of a government to exercise power — accepted by

citizens as appropriate, not merely obeyed from fear.
Separation of Powers The division of government into three independent arms (Executive,
Legislature, Judiciary) to prevent any one from accumulating unlimited power.

Checks and Balances The system whereby each arm of government limits the power of the others
— parliament impeaches president, courts declare laws unconstitutional,
president vetoes legislation.

Anti-Politics Disappointment with formal political processes, reflected in non-participation,

support for anti-system parties or use of direct action.
MASTER REFERENCE — KEY THINKERS AND THEIR IDEAS
THINKER DATE KEY IDEA TOPIC

Aristotle 384-322 BC 'Man is by nature a political animal.' Politics is an ethical activity

Politics,
creating
Public
a just
Affairs,
society.
State,
Studied
Comparative
158 constitut
App

Plato 428-348 BC Founded philosophical approach to political science. Politics should

Philosophical
be guided
Approach
by philosopher-kings who kno

Machiavelli 1469-1527 The Prince (1531) — realistic account of politics using cunning,
Artcruelty
of Government,
and manipulation.
Historical
ArtApproach
of government

Jean Bodin 1530-1596 Introduced sovereignty as the absolute and perpetual power ofSovereignty,
the state (1576).
State

Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679 Leviathan (1651) — without strong state, life is 'solitary, poor, State,
nasty, National
brutish and
Security
short.' State necessary to pr

John Locke 1632-1704 State legitimacy depends on protecting territorial integrity and Territory,
natural rights
Stateof citizens (1689).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 General will — the collective will of the people is the source ofPeople,
politicalPublic
authority.
Affairs
Direct citizen participation b

Edmund Burke 1729-1797 Civil society as 'little platoons' — small voluntary institutions serving
Public individual
Affairs, Civil
interests.
Society

Thomas Paine 1737-1809 'A government without a constitution is power without right.' Constitution
Constitutions
is an act of people, not government.

Adam Smith 1723-1790 Wealth of Nations (1776) — state policies promote free markets
Economic
while ensuring
Regulation
necessary economic regulati

Lord Acton 1834-1902 'Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.'
Power, Art of Government

Max Weber 1864-1920 State defined as entity with 'monopoly on the legitimate use ofState,
physical
Government
force' within a territory (1919).

Lenin 1870-1924 'Politics is the most concentrated form of economics.' Class struggle
Politicsisasthe
Power,
heart Marxism
of politics.

Harold Laswell 1902-1978 Politics: Who Gets What, When, How? (1936) — politics aboutPolitics
production
as Power
and distribution of scarce resource

Karl Polanyi 1886-1964 State must intervene in markets to prevent economic disparities
Economic
and ensure
Regulation
social well-being (1944).

Hannah Arendt 1906-1975 Politics is most important human activity — involves free and equal
Publiccitizens,
Affairs giving meaning to life.

Bernard Crick 1929-2008 Politics as the conciliation of differing interests through sharedCompromise
power — 'artand
of the
Consensus
possible.'

David Easton 1917-2014 Eight characteristics of behaviouralism — regularities, verification,

Behavioural
techniques,
Approach
quantification, value-free, syst

Leslie Lipson 1912-2004 'The behavioural method records the details of what men do seeking
Behavioural
to explain
Approach
why they do.'

Leo Strauss 1899-1973 Philosophy is the quest for wisdom; political philosophy attempts
Philosophical
to know theApproach
right or good political order.

Kate Millett 1934-2017 Politics as 'power-structured relationships, arrangements whereby

Politics
oneasgroup
Power,
of persons
Feminismis controlled by anot

Adrian Leftwich 1940-2013 'Politics is at the heart of ALL collective social activity, formal and
Politics
informal,
as Power
public and private.'

John Rawls 1921-2002 State must ensure social justice and equitable access to publicPublic
services
Services,
for all State
citizens (1971).

Benedict Anderson 1936-2015 Nations are 'imagined communities' — constructed through shared
Nationalism,
imagination,
National
symbols
Identity
and narratives, not

Frantz Fanon 1925-1961 Nationalism essential for colonised peoples to reclaim humanity
Anti-Colonial
and self-worth
Nationalism
after psychological damage o

Kanyongolo ContemporaryConstitutionalism means exercising power within the limits of the

Constitutionalism
constitution (2007).
in Malawi

Stoker Contemporary'Politics is designed to disappoint' — outcomes often messy, ambiguous

Compromise
and
and
never
Consensus
final.

Keith Boulding 1910-1993 Three Faces of Power (1989) — the Stick (force), the Deal (exchange),
Faces of Power
the Kiss (loyalty/obligation).
EXAM STRATEGY AND WRITING GUIDE

How to Structure a 20-Mark Essay Answer

The PEEL Framework — Use This For Every Paragraph: P — POINT: State your argument clearly
in one sentence E — EVIDENCE: Name a thinker, concept or example E — EXPLAIN: Show HOW
the evidence supports your point L — LINK: Connect back to the question

PARAGRAPH CONTENT LENGTH KEY REQUIREMENT

Introduction Define ALL key terms in the question. State what

3-4 sentences
you will argue (your
Must show
thesis).
youOutline
understand
your essay
the question
structure.
immediately

Body Paragraph 1 First main argument FOR the statement. Use 5-7
PEEL.
sentences
Name a thinker.
Must Give
have aspecific
Malawianevidence
example.
— thinker name + date + id

Body Paragraph 2 Second argument or COUNTER-argument. Show

5-7 sentences
you can see multiple
Must engage
perspectives.
with opposing view — not just agree with

Body Paragraph 3 Application to Malawi or deeper analysis. Connect

5-7 sentences
theory to real Malawian
political example.
example is essential — shows applied unders

Body Paragraph 4 Critical evaluation — what are the weaknesses

4-6orsentences
limitations of each
Shows
argument?
distinction-level thinking — nothing is perfect

Conclusion Make a final judgment. Which argument is stronger

3-4 sentences
and WHY? No
Must
newdirectly
information.
answer the question — not just summarise

Marking Criteria — What Examiners Look For

MARKS GRADE WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE

18-20 Distinction Precise definitions. Multiple thinkers cited with dates. Sophisticated Malawian examples. Critical evaluation o

15-17 Merit Good definitions. Several thinkers cited. Good Malawian examples. Some critical evaluation. Clear argumen

12-14 Credit Basic definitions. Some thinkers mentioned. Some examples. Limited critical evaluation. Argument present b

9-11 Pass Limited definitions. Few thinkers. Vague examples. Descriptive rather than analytical. Argument unclear.

Below 9 Fail No clear definitions. No thinkers cited. No examples. No argument. Mostly irrelevant content.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

✗ NEVER just name a concept without explaining it — 'politics is about power' gets no marks without
explanation
✗ NEVER forget Malawian examples — your examiner wants to see applied local knowledge
✗ NEVER use only one thinker — aim for at least three different scholars per essay
✗ NEVER write only one side of an argument — 'discuss' means engage with multiple perspectives
✗ NEVER forget to define key terms in your introduction — missing definitions lose easy marks
✗ NEVER end without a clear conclusion answering the question directly
✗ NEVER confuse state and government, or nation and state — these distinctions are frequently tested
✗ NEVER confuse constitution (document) and constitutionalism (practice) — a critical distinction

Power Phrases for Distinction-Level Writing

✓ 'As Heywood argues...' / 'According to Weber's analysis...' / 'In Leftwich's formulation...'
✓ 'This is illustrated in the Malawian context by...' / 'A compelling Malawian example is...'
✓ 'However, this view is criticised for...' / 'A significant limitation of this argument is...'
✓ 'The 2020 Constitutional Court ruling demonstrates...' / 'The Cashgate scandal of 2013 reveals...'
✓ 'Drawing these threads together...' / 'On balance, the evidence suggests...'
✓ 'While X is persuasive, Y offers a more comprehensive account because...'
✓ 'This connects directly to our earlier analysis of...' / 'Building on this foundation...'
COMPLETE LIST OF LIKELY EXAM QUESTIONS BY TOPIC

TOPIC 1: DEFINING POLITICS

1. Define politics and explain why it is described as an 'essentially contested concept.' (20 marks)

2. 'Politics is best understood as the exercise of power rather than the art of government.' Discuss with
reference to Malawi. (20 marks)

3. Compare and contrast any TWO of Heywood's four views of defining politics. (20 marks)

4. Explain the three faces of power and illustrate each with an example from Malawi. (20 marks)

5. To what extent does View 3 (politics as compromise and consensus) accurately describe Malawian
political life? (20 marks)

6. What is 'anti-politics'? Examine its causes and manifestations in contemporary Malawi. (20 marks)

TOPIC 2: APPROACHES TO POLITICAL SCIENCE

1. Distinguish between traditional and behavioural approaches to the study of political science. (20 marks)

2. 'The behavioural approach is superior to traditional approaches in political science.' Discuss. (20 marks)

3. Explain David Easton's eight characteristics of behaviouralism with examples from Malawi. (20 marks)

4. What is meant by value neutrality? Is it achievable in political science research? Discuss. (20 marks)

5. Compare the philosophical and historical approaches to studying politics. (20 marks)

6. How does the comparative approach contribute to our understanding of Malawi's political system? (20
marks)

TOPIC 3: THE STATE

1. 'The state is the cornerstone of political organisation.' Discuss with reference to Malawi. (20 marks)

2. Identify and explain the four essential elements of a state, using Malawi as your example throughout.
(20 marks)

3. Distinguish between a state, a government, a nation and society. (20 marks)

4. Examine the four roles of the state in society with examples from Malawi. (20 marks)

5. To what extent does Malawi exercise genuine sovereignty in the modern world? (20 marks)

6. Is Malawi a nation-state? Justify your answer with reference to political theory and Malawian evidence.
(20 marks)

TOPIC 4: NATIONALISM AND NATIONAL IDENTITY

1. Examine the challenges of building national identity in post-colonial Malawi. (20 marks)

2. 'Nationalism has been both a liberating and a destructive force in African politics.' Discuss. (20 marks)

3. Explain Benedict Anderson's concept of 'imagined communities' and apply it to Malawi. (20 marks)
4. Compare and contrast liberal nationalism and anti-colonial nationalism with examples from Africa. (20
marks)

5. To what extent has Malawi succeeded in constructing a unified national identity? (20 marks)

6. What is the difference between a nation and a state? Illustrate your answer with African examples. (20
marks)

TOPIC 5: GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN MALAWI

1. 'The 2020 Constitutional Court ruling demonstrates that Malawi's democracy is maturing.' Discuss. (20
marks)

2. Examine the main challenges facing democratic governance in Malawi. (20 marks)

3. Describe the three arms of Malawi's government and explain how checks and balances operate
between them. (20 marks)

4. Trace Malawi's political development from independence in 1964 to the present day. (20 marks)

5. To what extent does the separation of powers function effectively in Malawi? (20 marks)

6. How has the legacy of the Banda era shaped contemporary Malawian politics? (20 marks)

TOPIC 6: CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTIONALISM

1. 'Malawi has a good constitution but weak constitutionalism.' Discuss. (20 marks)

2. Examine the factors that have undermined constitutionalism in Malawi since independence. (20 marks)

3. 'The 1994 Constitution represents Malawi's most significant democratic achievement.' Discuss. (20
marks)

4. Compare written and unwritten constitutions, explaining which type is more suitable for Malawi. (20
marks)

5. Explain the four principles of constitutionalism and assess their application in Malawi. (20 marks)

6. What is transformative constitutionalism and why is it important for Malawi's democratic future? (20
marks)

7. Compare the 1966 and 1994 Malawi Constitutions and explain what changed and why. (20 marks)

FINAL MESSAGE: You have covered all six topics thoroughly. You understand the concepts,
you can apply them to Malawi, and you know how to write at distinction level. The difference
between a pass and a distinction is not knowledge — it is PRECISION, EVIDENCE and
APPLICATION. Always define terms. Always name thinkers. Always give Malawian examples.
Always evaluate critically. You have everything you need. Trust your understanding. Good luck,
BLESSED.