Piecewise-Defined Functions

A piecewise-defined function uses different formulas for different values of x.

Examples
(
x, x≥0
|x| =
−x, x < 0
(
x + 1, x ≥ 0
f (x) =
2, x<0
(
3x, x < 1
f (x) =
5, x≥1
(
x, x<2
f (x) =
4 − x, x ≥ 2
(
x2 , x≥0
f (x) = 2
−x , x < 0

−x, x < 0

f (x) = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

1, x>1


Greatest Integer (Floor) Function

The greatest integer function (also called the floor function) gives the largest integer less
than or equal to x.

⌊x⌋ = greatest integer ≤ x

Examples
Example 1:
⌊1.9⌋ = 1
Solution: The integers less than or equal to 1.9 are ..., −1, 0, 1. The greatest among
them is 1.
—
Example 2:
⌊5.7⌋ = 5
Solution: The integers less than or equal to 5.7 are ..., 3, 4, 5. The greatest among them
is 5.

1
 —
Example 3:
⌊−1.2⌋ = −2
Solution: The integers less than or equal to -1.2 are ..., −3, −2. The greatest among
them is −2.

Least Integer (Ceiling) Function

The least integer function (also called the ceiling function) gives the smallest integer greater
than or equal to x.

⌈x⌉ = smallest integer ≥ x

Examples
Example 1:
⌈2.3⌉ = 3
Solution: The integers greater than or equal to 2.3 are 3, 4, 5, ... The smallest among
them is 3.
—
Example 2:
⌈5.1⌉ = 6
Solution: The integers greater than or equal to 5.1 are 6, 7, 8, ... The smallest among
them is 6.
—
Example 3:
⌈−1.7⌉ = −1
Solution: The integers greater than or equal to -1.7 are −1, 0, 1, ... The smallest among
them is −1.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Definition of Increasing Function
A function f (x) is called increasing on an interval if for any two points x1 and x2 in that
interval,
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
This means that as the input increases, the output also increases.

2
Definition of Decreasing Function
A function f (x) is called decreasing on an interval if for any two points x1 and x2 in that
interval,
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
This means that as the input increases, the output decreases.

Practice Questions
Determine whether the following functions are increasing or decreasing on the given intervals:

1. f (x) = x2 on (0, ∞)

2. f (x) = −x2 on (0, ∞)

3. f (x) = x3 − 3x on (−∞, ∞)
1
4. f (x) = x
on (0, ∞)

1. Slope
The slope of a line measures its steepness. It is defined as:
y2 − y 1
m=
x2 − x 1
It tells how much y changes when x changes.

2. Secant Line
A secant line is a straight line that joins two points on a curve:

(x1 , f (x1 )) and (x2 , f (x2 ))

It represents the line cutting the curve at two points.

3. Average Rate of Change

The average rate of change of a function f (x) over an interval [x1 , x2 ] is:

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=
∆x x2 − x 1
It measures how the function changes on average between two points.

3
4. Relationship Between the Three Concepts
These three concepts are directly related:

• A secant line connects two points on a curve.

• The slope of this secant line is given by:

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
m=
x2 − x 1
• This slope is called the average rate of change of the function over the interval
[x1 , x2 ].

Slope of Secant Line = Average Rate of Change

So, all three concepts describe the same idea from different perspectives:

• Secant line → geometric view

• Slope → numerical measure

• Average rate of change → functional interpretation

Example:
f (x) = x2
Between x = 1 and x = 3:
9−1
=4
3−1
Between x = 2 and x = 4:
16 − 4
=6
4−2
Conclusion: Different intervals give different slopes. So the function has changing
rate of change.

5. Straight Line (Constant Slope)

Example:
f (x) = 2x + 1
Take any two points:

(1, 3), (3, 7)

4
 Slope of secant line:
7−3
m= =2
3−1
Now take another pair:

(2, 5), (4, 9)

9−5
m= =2
4−2
Conclusion: All secant lines give the same slope.

6. Key Relationship
• For curves: slope changes with interval.

• For straight lines: slope is constant for every secant line.

For straight lines: all secant lines lie on the same line

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
Average Rate of Change =
x2 − x 1

1. f (x) = x3 + 1
(a) [2, 4]
f (2) = 9, f (4) = 65
65 − 9 56
= = 28
4−2 2

(b) [−1, 4]
f (−1) = 0, f (4) = 65
65 − 0 65
= = 13
4 − (−1) 5

2. g(x) = x2 − 2x
(a) [1, 4]
g(1) = −1, g(4) = 8
8 − (−1) 9
= =3
4−1 3

5
(b) [−2, 4]
g(−2) = 8, g(4) = 8
8−8 0
= =0
4 − (−2) 6

4. g(t) = 2 + cos t
(a) [0, π4 ]
π  √
2
g(0) = 3, g =2+
4 2
√ √
 √ 
2
(2 + 22 ) − 3 −1 + 22 4 −1 + 2
π = π =
4 4
π

(b) [−π, π4 ]
π  √
2
g(−π) = 1, g =2+
4 2
√ √
 √ 
2
2
(2 + 2 ) − 1 1+ 2 2 4 1 + 2
π = 5π =
4
− (−π) 4
5π

6. P (u) = u3 − 4u2 + 5u [1, 2]

P (1) = 2, P (2) = 2
2−2
=0
2−1

Slope and Tangent Line Problems

7. y = x2 − 5, P (2, −1)
Differentiate:
y ′ = 2x
At x = 2:
m = 2(2) = 4
Tangent line:
y − (−1) = 4(x − 2)
y + 1 = 4x − 8 ⇒ y = 4x − 9

6
8. y = 7 − x2 , P (2, 3)
Differentiate:
y ′ = −2x
At x = 2:
m = −4
Tangent line:
y − 3 = −4(x − 2)
y = −4x + 11

13. y = x3 − 12x, P (1, −11)

Differentiate:
y ′ = 3x2 − 12
At x = 1:
m = 3(1)2 − 12 = −9
Tangent line:
y − (−11) = −9(x − 1)
y + 11 = −9x + 9 ⇒ y = −9x − 2

14. y = x3 − 3x2 + 4, P (2, 0)

Differentiate:
y ′ = 3x2 − 6x
At x = 2:
m = 12 − 12 = 0
Tangent line:
y − 0 = 0(x − 2) ⇒ y = 0

Instantaneous Rate of Change

The instantaneous rate of change of a function f (x) at a point x = a is defined as the limit
of the average rate of change as the interval shrinks to zero. It is given by:
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
It represents the rate at which the function is changing at a single instant.

Tangent Line
A tangent line to a curve at a point is a line that touches the curve at that point and has
the same direction (slope) as the curve at that instant.

7
Key Idea: Limit of Secant Lines
A tangent line can be understood as the limit of secant lines. A secant line joins two points
on a curve. As the second point moves closer to the first point, the secant line gradually
becomes the tangent line.

Secant line → Tangent line

Mathematical Interpretation
When the second point approaches the first point:

• x2 → x1

• h = x2 − x 1 → 0

In this limiting process, the secant line becomes the tangent line.

Geometric Insight
• Secant line represents the average behavior of the function between two points.

• Tangent line represents the instantaneous behavior of the function at a single point.

Indeterminate Forms
Definition
Indeterminate forms are expressions obtained while evaluating limits that do not give a
definite value directly. These forms are ambiguous and require further algebraic or analytical
techniques to evaluate.

8
 Indeterminate ̸= No Answer ⇒ Further work is required
—

Common Indeterminate Forms

0 ∞
, , ∞ − ∞, 0 · ∞, 1∞ , 00 , ∞0
0 ∞
—

Techniques to Solve
• Factorization (for 00 )

• Rationalization (for roots)

• Divide by highest power (for ∞

∞
)

• Algebraic manipulation (for ∞ − ∞, 0 · ∞)

• Logarithms (for power forms like 1∞ )

• L’Hôpital’s Rule (advanced method)

Examples
0
1. Form 0 (Factorization)
Easy:
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
lim = lim =4
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2
Average:
x2 − 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 2
x→1 x − 1 x→1

Difficult:
x3 − 27
lim = lim (x2 + 3x + 9) = 27
x→3 x − 3 x→3
—

9
 ∞
2. Form ∞ (Divide by highest power)
Easy:
x
lim =1
x→∞ x

Average:
2x2 + 3
lim =2
x→∞ x2 + 1

Difficult:
4x3 − x 4
lim 3
= =2
x→∞ 2x + 5 2
—

3. Form ∞ − ∞ (Combine terms)

Easy: √
lim ( x2 + 1 − x)
x→∞

Multiply by conjugate:

x2 + 1 − x2 1
= √ =√ =0
2
x +1+x 2
x +1+x
—

4. Form 0 · ∞ (Convert to fraction)

Example:
lim x ln x
x→0+

Rewrite:
ln x
=
1/x
Apply L’Hôpital:
1/x
= = −x → 0
−1/x2
—

5. Form 1∞ (Log method)

Example:  x
1
lim 1+
x→∞ x
Let y = expression
 
1
ln y = x ln 1 +
x

10
 lim = 1 ⇒ y = e
—

6. Form 00
Example:
lim xx
x→0+

Take log:
ln y = x ln x

=0⇒y=1
—

7. Form ∞0
Example:
lim x1/x
x→∞

Take log:
ln x
ln y = →0⇒y=1
x
—

Conclusion
Indeterminate forms do not give direct answers. They require transformation using appro-
priate techniques such as factorization, rationalization, logarithms, or L’Hôpital’s Rule to
evaluate the limit. Basic Definitions:
Limit: The limit of a function describes the value that f (x) approaches as x approaches
a certain point.

lim f (x) = L
x→a

means that the values of f (x) get closer to L as x gets closer to a.

Right-hand limit:
lim f (x)
x→a+

is the value approached by f (x) when x approaches a from the right side (x > a).
Left-hand limit:
lim f (x)
x→a−

is the value approached by f (x) when x approaches a from the left side (x < a).

11
 Important:
lim f (x) exists only if lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x)
x→a x→a x→a

Problem:
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
Step 1: Check at x = 1
0
f (1) = ⇒ undefined
0
Step 2: Simplify
x2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1)
(x − 1)(x + 1)
f (x) = = x + 1, x ̸= 1
x−1
Key Concept:
Simplification is valid only when x ̸= 1
Limit:
lim f (x) = 2
x→1

Question: Discuss the behavior of the following functions, explaining why they have no
limit as x → 0.

(a) (
0, x < 0,
U (x) =
1, x ≥ 0

(b) 
 1 , x ̸= 0,
g(x) = x
0, x = 0

(c) 
0,   x = 0,
f (x) = 1
sin ̸ 0
, x=
x

Solution: We discuss each function near x = 0 and check whether the function ap-
proaches a single value from both sides.

(a) (
0, x < 0,
U (x) =
1, x ≥ 0
To find lim U (x), we examine the left-hand and right-hand limits.
x→0

12
 When x → 0− , we have x < 0, so

U (x) = 0.

Hence,
lim U (x) = 0.
x→0−

When x → 0+ , we have x ≥ 0, so

U (x) = 1.

Hence,
lim U (x) = 1.
x→0+

Since the left-hand limit and right-hand limit are not equal,

lim U (x) ̸= lim+ U (x),

x→0− x→0

the two-sided limit does not exist. Therefore,

lim U (x) does not exist.

x→0

(b) 
 1 , x ̸= 0,
g(x) = x
0, x = 0

To find lim g(x), we again study the behavior from both sides.
x→0
1
When x → 0+ , x is a very small positive number, so becomes very large positive. Thus,
x
1
lim+ g(x) = lim+ = +∞.
x→0 x→0 x
1
When x → 0− , x is a very small negative number, so becomes very large negative.
x
Thus,
1
lim− g(x) = lim− = −∞.
x→0 x→0 x

So the function does not approach one finite number near x = 0. Instead, it goes to +∞
from the right and −∞ from the left. Therefore,

lim g(x) does not exist.

x→0

Question: Use the fundamental rules of limits to find the following limits.

(a) lim(x3 + 4x2 − 3)

x→c

13
 x4 + x 2 − 1
(b) lim
x→c x2 + 5
(c) lim (24x2 − 3)
x→−2

Solution:

(a)
lim(x3 + 4x2 − 3)
x→c

Using limit laws (sum and power rules):

= lim x3 + 4 lim x2 − lim 3

x→c x→c x→c

= c3 + 4c2 − 3

lim(x3 + 4x2 − 3) = c3 + 4c2 − 3

x→c

(b)
x4 + x 2 − 1
lim
x→c x2 + 5
Using limit laws (quotient rule):

limx→c (x4 + x2 − 1)
=
limx→c (x2 + 5)

c4 + c 2 − 1
=
c2 + 5

x4 + x 2 − 1 c4 + c 2 − 1
lim =
x→c x2 + 5 c2 + 5

(c)
lim (24x2 − 3)
x→−2

Using limit laws:

= 24 lim x2 − lim 3
x→−2 x→−2

= 24(−2)2 − 3

= 24(4) − 3 = 96 − 3 = 93

14
 lim (24x2 − 3) = 93
x→−2

Question: Evaluate
x2 + x − 2
lim
x→1 x2 − x

Solution:
Direct substitution gives:
12 + 1 − 2 0
=
12 − 1 0
which is an indeterminate form.

Step 1: Factor numerator and denominator

x2 + x − 2 = (x − 1)(x + 2)
x2 − x = x(x − 1)

Step 2: Simplify

x2 + x − 2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
2
=
x −x x(x − 1)
Cancel the common factor (x − 1) (for x ̸= 1):
x+2
= , x ̸= 1
x

Step 3: Evaluate the limit

x+2 1+2
lim = =3
x→1 x 1

Final Answer:
3
Question: In Exercises 5 and 6, explain why the limits do not exist.
x
5. lim
x→0 |x|

1
6. lim
x→1 x − 1

15
 Solution:

5.
x
lim
x→0 |x|
We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits.
For x > 0, |x| = x, so
x x
= =1
|x| x
x
⇒ lim+ =1
x→0 |x|

For x < 0, |x| = −x, so

x x
= = −1
|x| −x
x
⇒ lim− = −1
x→0 |x|

Since
x x
lim− ̸= lim+ ,
x→0 |x| x→0 |x|
the limit does not exist.

x
lim does not exist
x→0 |x|

6.
1
lim
x→1 x−1
We again evaluate both sides.
For x → 1+ , x − 1 > 0 and very small, so
1
→ +∞
x−1
1
⇒ lim+ = +∞
x→1 x−1
For x → 1− , x − 1 < 0 and very small, so
1
→ −∞
x−1
1
⇒ lim− = −∞
x→1 x−1
Since the function approaches different infinite values from each side, the limit does not
exist.

16
 1
lim does not exist
x→1 x−1
Question: (
3 − x, x < 2,
f (x) = x
+ 1, x > 2
2
(a) Find lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x).
x→2 x→2

(b) Does lim f (x) exist? If so, find it.

x→2

(c) Find lim− f (x) and lim+ f (x).

x→4 x→4

(d) Does lim f (x) exist? If so, find it.

x→4

Solution:

(a)
lim f (x)
x→2+
x
For x > 2, f (x) = +1
2
2
lim+ f (x) = +1=2
x→2 2

lim f (x)
x→2−

For x < 2, f (x) = 3 − x

lim f (x) = 3 − 2 = 1
x→2−

lim f (x) = 2, lim f (x) = 1

x→2+ x→2−

(b)
Since
lim f (x) = 1 and lim f (x) = 2
x→2− x→2+

1 ̸= 2
Therefore,
lim f (x) does not exist
x→2

(c)

17
 x
Since 4 > 2, use f (x) = +1
2
4
lim− f (x) = +1=3
x→4 2
4
lim+ f (x) = +1=3
x→4 2

lim f (x) = 3, lim f (x) = 3

x→4− x→4+

(d)
Since both one-sided limits are equal,

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = 3

x→4− x→4

Therefore,
lim f (x) = 3
x→4

Question: 
3 − x, x < 2,


f (x) = 2, x = 2,
 x
 ,
 x>2
2
(a) Find lim+ f (x), lim− f (x), and f (2).
x→2 x→2

(b) Does lim f (x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
x→2

(c) Find lim − f (x) and lim + f (x).

x→−1 x→−1

(d) Does lim f (x) exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
x→−1

Solution:

(a)
For x → 2+ , we use the branch for x > 2:
x
f (x) =
2
So,
2
lim+ f (x) = =1
x→2 2
−
For x → 2 , we use the branch for x < 2:

f (x) = 3 − x

18
So,
lim f (x) = 3 − 2 = 1
x→2−

Also, from the definition of the function,

f (2) = 2

Therefore,
lim f (x) = 1, lim f (x) = 1, f (2) = 2
x→2+ x→2−

(b)
Since
lim f (x) = 1 and lim f (x) = 1,
x→2− x→2+

the two-sided limit exists and is equal to 1. Thus,

lim f (x) = 1
x→2

Note that the limit exists even though

f (2) = 2 ̸= 1

because the limit depends on the values of f (x) near x = 2, not exactly at x = 2.

(c)
To find the limits as x → −1, note that −1 < 2, so on both sides of −1 we use the branch

f (x) = 3 − x

Hence,
lim f (x) = 3 − (−1) = 4
x→−1−

and
lim f (x) = 3 − (−1) = 4
x→−1+

Therefore,
lim f (x) = 4, lim f (x) = 4
x→−1− x→−1+

(d)
Since
lim f (x) = lim + f (x) = 4,
x→−1− x→−1

the two-sided limit exists. Therefore,

lim f (x) = 4
x→−1

19