DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

OVERVIEW
The digestive system breaks down complex food
into simple, absorbable nutrients that fuel our body.

Introduction to Digestion
STAGES OF DIGESTION
• Ingestion:The process of receivingand taking food
into the body through the mouth.
• Propulsion: Movement of food through the digestive
tract via swallowing and peristalsis.
• Digestion: Mechanical breakdown (chewing,
churning) and chemical breakdown (enzymes) of food.

• Absorption: Transfer of nutrients from the digestive

tract into the bloodstream for body use.
• Excretion: Removal of undigested waste materials
from the body through the anus.
PARTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT): Digestive (Accessory)
• Mouth Glands:
• Pharynx • Salivary Glands
• Oesophagus • Liver
• Stomach • Gall Bladder
• Small Intestine • Pancreas
• Large Intestine These glands produce
• Rectum enzymes and secretions
• Anus that aid in food breakdown.
MOUTH – GENERAL STRUCTURE
• Also known as Oralcavity orBuccalcavity
• First part of the gastrointestinal tract
• Surrounded by upper and lower lips
• Contains lips, cheeks, gums, teeth, salivary glands,
and tongue

• Space between gums and cheeks is called Vestibule

• Roof of buccal cavity is the Palate
• Palate divided into Hard palate (anterior) and Soft
palate (posterior)
TEETH – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• Teeth perform mechanicaldigestion
• Break down food into smaller pieces for easier
processing
• Total 32 teeth in adult humans

• Incisors: 8 (cutting and biting)

• Canines: 4 (tearing food)
• Premolars: 8 (crushing and grinding)
• Molars: 12 (grinding food)
TONGUE – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• Lies on floor of mouth
• Attached to Hyoid bone
• Mixes saliva with food to form bolus
• Muscular organ essential for chewing and
swallowing

• Contains taste receptors for four basic tastes:

Sweet
Salty
Sour
Bitter
• Plays key role in speech and food manipulation
 PHARYNX – STRUCTURE AND ROLE

• Muscular tube located • Epiglottis directs food to • Nasopharynx: Upper part

between mouth and oesophagus during behind nasal cavity
oesophagus swallowing • Oropharynx: Middle part
• Also called the throat • Prevents food from behind oral cavity
• Common passage for both entering the airway • Laryngopharynx: Lower
digestive and respiratory • Three distinct parts: part connecting to
tracts [Link] oesophagus and larynx
• Passes bolus into [Link] • Critical junction for food
oesophagus to prevent [Link] and air passage
heartburn
OESOPHAGUS – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• Muscular tube transporting food from pharynx to
stomach.
• Located in front of vertebral column and behind
trachea.
• Has valves to prevent backflow of food.

• No digestion occurs here (no enzymes present).

• Opens into stomach at lower end.
• Uses peristaltic movements to push food downward.
STOMACH – OVERVIEW AND STRUCTURE
• J-shaped pouch located on left side of abdominal
cavity
• Capacity ranges from 30 ml (empty) to 1.5 liters (full)
• Receives food from oesophagus via cardiac
sphincter
• Secretes gastric juice that converts bolus into chyme

• Stomach wall consists of four distinct layers:

[Link] – outermost protective layer
[Link] – muscle layer for churning
[Link] – connective tissue with blood vessels
[Link] – innermost layer with gastric glands
 PARTS OF STOMACH
CARDIAC AND FUNDUS REGIONS
Cardiac Region Fundus Region
• Uppermost part of • Upper dome-shaped part •
stomach Contains specialized cells: •
• Attached to oesophagus Chief cells produce:
• Contains cardiac sphincter Pepsin
• Sphincter prevents Rennin
backflow of stomach Lipase
contents • Parietal cells produce:
• Acts as gateway for food Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
entry
BODY AND PYLORUS REGIONS
Body of Stomach Pylorus Region
• Largest part of the • Connects stomach to
stomach duodenum
• Primary site for protein • Transfers partially digested
digestion food to small intestine
• Stores food temporarily • G cells secrete Gastrin
• Contains gastric glands for hormone
enzyme secretion • Gastrin stimulates gastric
• Muscular walls churn and juice production
mix food with gastric juices • Goblet cells secrete mucus
• Mucus protects stomach
lining from acid
 FUNCTIONS OF STOMACH

• Stores food and releases it • Chemical breakdown of • Mucus secretion protects

slowly to small intestine food occurs in stomach stomach lining from acid
• Storage times vary by • Gastric juice digests • Kills bacteria and dust
nutrient: proteins into smaller particles
Fat: 6-8 hours peptides • HCl provides antiseptic
Proteins: 4-5 hours • Converts bolus into semi- action
Carbohydrates: 1-2 hours liquid chyme • Prevents infection from
• Prepares food for ingested microorganisms
absorption in small
intestine
 SMALL INTESTINE
Overview
• Main site for digestion and absorption of nutrients
• Approximately 6-7 meters in length
• Connects stomach to large intestine
• Longest part of the gastrointestinal tract

Three Main Parts

[Link] - First and shortest section
[Link] - Middle section for absorption
[Link] - Final and longest section
DUODENUM
• Shortest and widest part of small intestine (~10-11
inches)
• Accepts only alkaline food from stomach
• Receives bile juice, pancreatic juice, and partially
digested food

• Secretes important enzymes and hormones:

Enterokinase
Secretin
Pancreozymin
Cholecystokinin
JEJUNUM
• Middle partof the small intestine
• Length approximately 4-8 feet
• Major site for absorption of sugars, amino acids, and
fatty acids

• Final food breakdown occurs here

• Secretes intestinal juice containing digestive
enzymes
• Highly vascularized for efficient nutrient absorption
ILEUM
• Lastand largest part of the small intestine
• Length approximately 10-11 feet
• Connects to the cecum of the large intestine

• Primary function is absorption of nutrients

• Absorbs bile salts for recycling
• Absorbs vitamins including B12
ABSORPTION IN SMALL INTESTINE
• Absorption occurs mainly through villi (finger-like
projections)
• Villi line the inner walls of the small intestine
• Microvilli: tiny hair-like structures on villi
• Microvilli dramatically increase surface area for
nutrient absorption
• Nutrients pass through villi walls into bloodstream
• This efficient design maximizes nutrient uptake
 LARGE INTESTINE – STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION

• Length approximately 1.5 • Divided into five main • Final part of the
meters par ts: gastrointestinal tract
• Starts from ileum and 1. Cecum • Also absorbs electrolytes
ends at rectum [Link] colon and vitamins
• Primary function is [Link] colon • Houses beneficial bacteria
absorbing water from [Link] colon for digestion
digested food [Link] colon • Prepares waste for
• Converts liquid waste into elimination
solid form
 RECTUM AND ANUS
Rectum Anus
• Stores remaining waste • Final exit of digestive tract
material • Undigested food (faeces)
• Opens outside via the excreted voluntarily
anus • Contains two sphincter
• Stored waste is called muscles:
faeces Internal sphincter
• Final storage site before (involuntary)
excretion External sphincter
• Connects large intestine to (voluntary)
anus • Controls defecation
process
 DIGESTIVE GLANDS
SALIVARY GLANDS
Function Types of Salivary Glands Key Facts
• Exocrine glands in mouth • Parotid glands - largest, • Parotid: 25% of saliva
secreting saliva located below ear production
• Saliva converts food into • Submandibular glands • Submandibular: 70% of
bolus - second largest saliva production
• Produces 0.5 to 1.5 liters • Sublingual glands - • Sublingual: 5% of saliva
daily smallest, below tongue production
• Contains salivary amylase for • Saliva essential for initial
carbohydrate digestion digestion
• Has antibacterial properties
 LIVER – OVERVIEW AND
STRUCTURE

• Largest gland in the body • Two lobes: Right (larger) • Four surfaces:
• Weighs approximately 1.8 and Left (smaller) 1. Superior
kg • Lobes separated by 2. Inferior
• Reddish brown in color falciform ligament 3. Anterior
• Located in upper right • Internal structure: 4. Posterior
abdomen hexagonal lobules
• Portal triads contain:
portal vein, bile duct,
hepatic artery
 FUNCTIONS OF LIVER

• Secretion of bile juice for • Vitamin and mineral • Produces bile to emulsify
fat digestion storage fats
• Glycogen synthesis and • Synthesis of heparin • Converts excess glucose to
storage (anticoagulant) glycogen
• Synthesis of urea from • Blood sugar regulation • Removes toxins from
ammonia • Detoxification and bloodstream
• Metabolism of purification of blood • Essential for maintaining
carbohydrates, fats, and body homeostasis
proteins
 GALL BLADDER
• Located below the right lobe of the liver
• Stores and concentrates bile juice
• Contains cystic duct connecting to common bile
duct
• Absorbs moisture, making bile more concentrated
• Releases bile into duodenum for fat digestion
 PANCREAS – STRUCTURE AND SECRETION

Structure and Location:

• Located behind stomach in upper left abdomen
• Divided into three parts: Head, Body, and Tail
• Head secretes Lipase (breaks fats into fatty acids and glycerol)
• Body secretes Amylase (breaks starch into maltose)
• Tail secretes Trypsin (breaks peptones into amino acids)

Islets of Langerhans (Endocrine Function):

• Alpha cells: Secrete Glucagon (raises blood sugar)
• Beta cells: Secrete Insulin (lowers blood sugar)
• Delta cells: Secrete Somatostatin (regulates other hormones)
• Functions as both exocrine and endocrine gland
ROLE OF GASTRIC HCL
Secreted by parietal cells in the stomach lining
Converts bolus (food mass) into chyme (semi-liquid
mixture)
Breaks down complex food molecules for easier
digestion
Converts inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin
enzyme

Provides acidic environment (pH 1.5-3.5) essential for

enzyme function
Denatures proteins, making them accessible for
enzymatic breakdown
Protects body from ingested pathogens and
microorganisms
ROLE OF PEPSIN IN PROTEIN DIGESTION
Pepsin is the primary protein-digesting enzyme
in the stomach.
Secreted by chief cells as inactive pepsinogen.
Activated by hydrochloric acid (HCl) into active
pepsin.
Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides and
amino acids.
Works optimally in acidic environment (pH 1.5-
2.5). • Most protein digestion continues in small
intestine by pancreatic enzymes.
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