2 Understanding the Weather

“A change in the weather is sufficient

to create the world and oneself anew.”
Marcel Proust, French novelist

Weather and its Elements

What is weather?
• Weather is a state of the Earth’s atmosphere at a particular time and place.
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But what is atmosphere?

• In simple terms, it is the layer of gases that surround some
planets — in the case of our Earth, we call these gases ‘Air’.
• The layer closest to the surface of the Earth is called the
‘troposphere’, and that is where all land-based plants and
animals (including humans!) live and breathe.
• It is also where almost all-weather phenomena, which we will
explore in this chapter, take place.
The troposphere extends to a height of 6 to 18 kilometres from
the ground; it is less thick at the poles (where the cold air
contracts) and thicker in the tropical zone (where the warmer air
expands).

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We use many words to describe the weather — hot, cold, rainy, cloudy, humid, snowy, windy, and
so on. They describe the different ways in which we experience the elements of weather.
The elements of the weather are:
• Temperature: How hot or cold the atmosphere is.
• Precipitation: Any form of water, such as rain, snow, sleet or hail, that falls from the sky.
• Atmospheric Pressure: The weight of the air above us, felt on the Earth’s surface.
• Wind: The movement of air, including its speed and directions.
• Humidity: The amount of water vapour in the air.

Let us imagine that Krishnan from Chennai is

speaking with Amir in Kashmir. Krishnan tells Amir
that it has become chilly in Chennai after it rained
the previous night. Amir asks him how cold it is.
How will Krishnan explain to Amir how cold it is?
After all, what is cold for Krishnan may be quite
pleasant for Amir!

As you can see, it would be difficult for Krishnan to convey his sense of chillness to Amir unless
there is a commonly agreed way to measure the temperature. It is the same with other elements
of the weather. In this chapter, we will learn how we measure the weather using common
standards.
From early times, humans have closely observed Nature and learnt to read her signals to forecast
the weather. Observing birds flying low, ants carrying eggs, squirrels gathering nuts, frogs

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croaking loudly, or even the opening and closing of pine - cones, provided valuable information
about coming rain or storms. This knowledge has been passed down from generation to
generation. Even today, in many parts of India, people use traditional ways to predict the weather,
especially the arrival of the monsoon.

Squirrels gathering nuts Birds flying low

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Ants shifting their eggs to higher ground is

a natural behaviour that indicates an
expected change in the weather, especially
heavy rain.

A frog croaking in a forest of the

Western Ghats, in expectation of rain.

The opening and closing of pine cones are

natural mechanisms driven by environmental
humidity. Pine cones close in humid
conditions to protect their seeds, and open in
dry conditions to release them, ensuring they
spread in favourable weather.

In the last few centuries, scientists have worked out methods to measure and monitor the
elements of the weather with great precision. Based on those inputs, meteorologists try to predict
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how the weather will behave in a particular region after a few hours or a few days, or even a few
weeks.

1. What is weather?
Weather Instruments
Temperature
There are several types of thermometers. Some simply measure the ambient temperature; others
record the maximum and minimum temperatures during a day. Thermometers often use a colored
liquid which expands when the temperature increases. However, more and more, digital
thermometers are preferred as they are more precise and can record more data.

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Indeed, temperature recordings can be used to collect some useful statistics, including:
• Range of temperature or the maximum temperature minus the minimum temperature
during a particular period of time (usually 24 hours).
• Mean daily temperature or the maximum temperature plus the minimum temperature of the
day divided by two.

Snow melts quickly when it’s warm. Cloudy weather ―it’ getting cold.

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In winter, coconut oil Curd takes longer to set in cold weather.
turns solid.

The India Meteorological Department was set up in 1875. Its motto is ādityāt
jāyate vriṣhti, which means, “From the sun arises rain.” The phrase comes
from the ancient text Manusmṛiti, and the complete sentence reads, “From
the sun arises rain, from rain comes food, and from food, living beings
originate.”

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Precipitation

The amount of rainfall is measured with the help of an instrument called a rain gauge. When it
rains, the water falls into a funnel and is collected in a cylinder. A scale is attached to the cylinder
to measure the depth of rainwater collected. For example, when the height of the water collected
is 5 mm, we say that the area received 5 mm of rainfall.

Collecting funnel

10
9
8
Measuring Scale 7
6
5
4
3
Measuring Tube 2
1

Rain gauge

Atmospheric pressure

Our bodies are quite aware of temperature and rainfall. But you may also have experienced that
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the weather sometimes feels ‘heavy’, as before a thunderstorm. This is related to atmospheric
pressure, which is the pressure exerted by the weight of the air above and around us. The
atmospheric pressure is higher near the seacoast and lower as we go higher up into the
mountains. When you climb a mountain, the air gets thinner than in the plain below. As a result,
the air pressure is lower, and there is less oxygen available for your lungs to take in. With less
oxygen getting into your blood, your body has to work harder to keep you moving! That’s why
people sometimes feel breathless, dizzy or tired at high altitudes.

This does not mean that the atmospheric pressure is always high on the plains below or on the
coast. In fact, it sometimes drops dramatically, resulting in what meteorologists call a ‘depression’
or ‘low-pressure system’, which can sometimes develop into a storm or even a cyclone.

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lower
pressure
(cooler
air)

higher
pressure
(warmer air)

Atmospheric Pressure
The instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is called a
barometer. As with thermometers, there are several types of
barometers. The unit they display is generally the millibar (abbreviated
as mb). The normal atmospheric pressure at the seacoast is around 1013
mb; a pressure below 1000 mb indicates a depression.

Barometer

People who journey to places at a high altitude are advised to make pauses on the way to allow
the body to acclimatise. Our army personnel serve in high-altitude places like Khardungla in
Ladakh, which is over 5600 metres above sea level. It is hard to imagine how they live and work
in places where the oxygen level is so low — the atmospheric pressure there is generally about
650 millibars!

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1. Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time, including
temperature, humidity, wind, clouds, and rainfall.

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Wind
Wind is the movement of air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Speed and
direction are two important factors when we describe the wind. The wind is an important element
of the weather. Its direction and speed help in weather forecasting. Besides, air pilots and sailors
need to be aware of wind data, as the wind has a great influence on flying or sailing. Farmers also
use the wind direction to predict where rain might come from. Also, a greater wind speed will
cause the soil to dry faster.
So, how do we measure this direction and speed?
A wind vane (or weather vane) has a rotating arm with a pointer at one end and a tail at the other.
When the wind blows, the tail is pushed, and the pointer turns in the direction of the wind. It
responds even to a light breeze.
This wind vane on the tarmac is called a ‘wind sock’. It gives pilots an indication of the direction
of the wind during take-off and landing. Similar socks are used in industries that release ash or
gases.

Wind Vane Anemometer

The simplest instrument to measure the wind direction and speed is the Anemometer. It has
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three or four metal cups that rotate on a vertical shaft when the wind blows — the stronger the
wind, the faster the rotation. A meter attached at the bottom counts how many times the spins in
a certain period of time and calculates the wind speed in kilometres per hour (km/h).

Have you seen seeds like these flying in the wind? What
would happen to the seeds if there was no wind?

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Humidity

Humidity is the last element of the weather on our list. It refers to the amount of water vapour
present in the air. It also depends on factors like temperature, wind, pressure and location.

Humidity of the air is measured as Relative Humidity: air that would contain absolutely no
water vapour (which is impossible in natural conditions) is rated at 0%, while air saturated
with water vapour will have a humidity of 100%. In practice, dry weather has a relative
humidity range between 20% and 40%, while humid weather usually falls between 60% and
80% relative humidity.

But how do we measure such numbers?

This is done through an instrument called a hygrometer. Again, there are several types of
hygrometers, depending on the principle they are based on. Measuring humidity is of great
importance in many industrial processes, such as food processing. Museums also monitor
humidity as they need to maintain a dry environment to preserve their exhibit.

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Hygrometer

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1. What is humidity?
Weather Stations
A weather station brings all these instruments together,
making it easy to measure and track the weather. Readings
of all the measurements are taken at regular intervals, which
helps in mapping and forecasting the weather.
An automated weather stations
An Automated Weather Station (AWS) is a self-operating
system that uses various sensors to measure and record
weather data, such as temperature, humidity, wind speed
and direction, precipitation, and atmospheric pressure. Such
stations are widely used in fields like agriculture, aviation, navigation, environmental monitoring,
and so on, providing accurate and timely weather information without the need for human
intervention.

In 2023, the National Disaster Management Authority set up an AWS at a glacial lake of Sikkim at
an altitude of more than 4800 metres above sea level. The AWS provides early information about
upcoming weather conditions.
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Predicting the Weather

Meteorologists collect data using these instruments over long periods of time. They study the data
and use scientific methods to try and predict the weather. Such predictions are very important
nowadays, as climate change makes extreme weather, such as droughts, floods, cyclones, etc.,
more frequent.

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Accurate predictions help us to be ready for such events. They also enable local governments to
mobilise resources and prepare for any disasters. For example, if stormy weather is expected at
sea, fishermen are warned about venturing out in their boats, or an entire coastal area might have
to be evacuated if a cyclone is expected.

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India: weather warning for India on 19 May 2024

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1. Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air.

Glossary

1. Sleet – Frozen or partly frozen rain.

2. Hail – Small, hard balls of ice that fall from the sky like rain.
3. Meteorology – Meteorology is the systematic study of weather and its evolution. This study
is the basis for weather forecasting.
4. Ambient – Of the immediate surroundings.
5. Statistics – The technique of gathering and analysing information or data in order to be
able to detect patterns, understand events or make predictions.
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MIND MAP

Traditional
Weather 1
• State of the Earth’s atmosphere at a specific time & place
Prediction
• Atmosphere = layer of gases (air) around Earth
• Weather occurs in Troposphere (6–18 km thick)
• Thinner at poles, thicker at tropics

Elements
• Temperature – Hot/cold atmosphere 2
of Water
• Precipitation – Rain, snow, hail, sleet
• Atmospheric Pressure – Weight of air above
• Wind – Movement of air (speed & direction)
• Humidity – Amount of water vapour

Need to
Measure 3
Allows common standards for communication; helps
Weather
in forecasting.

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Traditional
Observed nature (birds flying low, ants carrying 4 Weather
eggs, frogs croaking, pine cones opening) to
Prediction
predict rain/storms; still used in rural India for
monsoon.

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Thermometers: digital, max-min; can

Temperature calculate temperature range (max–min) and
Modern
Measurement mean daily temperature ((max + min)/2).
Weather 5
Measurement
Rain Gauge: measures rainfall in mm; Precipitation
funnel collects water → cylinder → Measurement
read scale.

Atmospheric Barometer: measures pressure in millibars

Pressure (mb); sea level ~1013 mb; low (<1000 mb) →
Measurement depression → storm/cyclone.

Wind vane: direction; Anemometer:

speed (km/h); Windsock: visible Wind
Measurement
direction indicator.

Hygrometer: measures relative humidity (%);

Humidity
important for industry, agriculture, and museum
Measurement
preservation.

Places where all instruments are kept; Automated Weather Weather

6
Stations (AWS) record data automatically; used in aviation, Stations
agriculture, navigation, environmental monitoring.
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Predicting
7 Meteorologists collect long-term data; predict short-
Weather
term & medium-term weather; issue warnings for
extreme events (cyclones, storms, floods, droughts);
saves lives (fishermen, coastal evacuations).

Example : IMD (India Meteorological Department)

issues daily maps showing rainfall, pressure systems,
wind, etc.

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