Study:

1. What’s in the textbook but not in class

2. What’s in the textbook and in class
3. What’s in class but not the textbook

Preface
C Wright Mills coined the sociological imagination.
Sociology is not an end in itself, but a means to an end, as the sociological
imagination creates informed and active people.

Themes of the textbook:

● Impetus for social action
● Prevalence of social inequality
● The socially constructed nature of society

Chapter 1
LO (Learning Outcome) 1:
Describe the bidirectional relationship between individual choices and larger social
forces.
● Strange in the familiar: the ways society shapes personal choices
● General in the particular: the broader social patterns reflected in the actions
of individuals
● Norms: society’s expectations for how we are supposed to act, think, and look
● Normative: behaviours, appearances, and thoughts that correspond to
society’s norms
● Life chances: opportunities an individual has in life based on stratification,
inequality, race, ethnicity, and gender
● Micro level: the level of individual experiences and choices
● Macro level: the level of broader social forces
● Agency: people’s capacity to make choices, which then have an impact on
other people and on the society in which they live

LO 2:
Define sociology and identify the role of the sociological imagination
● Sociology: the systematic study of society
● Sociological imagination:the ability to perceive the interconnections
between individual experiences and larger social forces
LO 3:
Describe the historical context in which sociology emerged and compare sociology
to other disciplines
● Colonialism: one nation assumes partial or full control over nations in other
parts of the world
● Colonization: the process whereby colonial powers establish permanent
settlements in their colonies, appropriating indigenous populations’ lands
and exploiting those peoples
● Social statics: in Auguste Comte’s view, forms of social organization
● Social dynamics: in Auguste Comte’s view, processes of social change

LO 4:
List and describe the tools that are used to develop the sociological imagination
● Empirical methods: data collections that produces verifiable findings and is
carried out using systematic procedures

LO 5:
Contrast positivist, interpretive, and critical approaches to theorizing
● Theory: a set of propositions intended to explain a fact or a phenomenon
● Positivist: an approach to theorizing that emphasizes explanation and
prediction
● Interpretive: an approach to theorizing that focuses on the ways people come
to understand themselves, others, and the world around them
● Critical: an approach to theorizing that explores the role power plays in social
processes and emphasizes the importance of knowledge being tied to
emancipation from power
● Classical sociological theories: sociological theories developed in the early
years of the discipline and form the foundation for subsequent theorizing
● Contemporary sociological theories: sociological theories developed since
the mid-20th century

LO 6:
Outline the core assumptions of the functionalist, conflict, symbolic interactionist,
feminist, and postmodern perspectives
● Manifest functions: an intended function of one of society’s structures
● Latent functions: an unintended positive function of one of society’s
structures
● Values: collectively shared criteria by which we determine whether
something is right or wrong
● Latent dysfunction: an unintended negative function of one of societies
structures
● Social facts: observable social phenomena ‘over and above’ individuals that
exercise power over them
● Material social facts: social facts that have a tangible reality, such as the
education system and the government
● Non-material social facts: social facts that are intangible, such as morals,
norms, and values
● Mechanical solidarity: the social bonds that exist in preindustrial societies
based on similarities among people
● Organic solidarity: the social bonds that exist in industrialized societies
based on the different roles that people play in the division of labour
● Collective consciences: the unified body of cultural knowledge that is
transmitted in group religious rituals
● Anomie: a state wherein traditional norms deteriorate, processes of social
control decline
● Bourgeoisie: in Marxist conflict theory, the owners of the means of
production
● Proletariat: in Marxist theory, the people who work for the owners of the
means of production
● Surplus value: products are sold for more money than they cost to produce
(exploitation factor)
● Alienation: the detachment that exists between a worker and their labour as
perpetuated under capitalism
● Praxis: the responsibility that scholars have to provide subordinated and
marginalized groups in society with the knowledge they need to be able to
end their powerlessness
● Significant other: people who are important to us and whose approval we
seek
● Generalized other: strangers who are not close to us but whose expectations
we consider before acting
● Front stage: in dramaturgical theory, the social roles we play when in front of
other people
● Back stage: in dramaturgical theory, our identities and behaviours when we
are no longer in front of certain people
● Impression management: the process by which we control our appearances,
words, and actions so they correspond to the specific roles we’re playing
● Total institution: an isolated social system in which involved individuals are
housed, looked after, and socialized apart from the wider society
 ● Feminism: the system of ideas and political practoces based on the principle
that women are human beings equal to men
● Patriarchy: legal and/or social power that is vested in males
● Androcentric: male-centered, failing to account for women’s experiences
● Discourses: ways of talking about a social phenomenon, or bodies of
knowledge about that phenomenon

Functionalism
● Positivist
● Macro-level (social is a network of structures performing specific functions)
● Functionalism believes social order is maintained through consensus and
cooperation
● Durkheim
○ Functionalist
○ Social facts (material + non-material)
○ Solidarity
■ Preindustrial: people bond over similarities (mechanical)
■ Industrial: people bond over differences (organic)
● The division of labour in industrialization creates need
between people
○ Rapid social change, and subsequently anomie, increases suicide rates
in industrializing areas
Conflict perspective
● Macro-level
● Critical (emphasizing power and emancipation)
● Society is a small group of powerful people on top who control and exploit the
large powerless group at the bottom
● Marx
○ Capitalism as the driving force of inequality
○ Bourgeoisie/proletariat
○ The workers experience alienation from their labour, as the owners
pay them less than the value of what they produce
● Other theorists identify structures aside from capitalism which contribute to
inequality
● Resources are distributed unevenly both between and within groups
● Praxis: the positive social action scholars are obligated to perform
Symbolic interactionist perspective
● Micro (society is individuals engaging in communication with each other)
 ● Socialization: the lifelong process by which we acquire the skills and
knowledge necessary for life. Socialization is finished when we have
developed a sense of the generalized other
● The generalized other is ‘an overall sense of the expectations of others’
● Goffman
○ Symbolic interactionist
○ ‘Presentation of self’
○ Total institutions
■ Ex. prisons, psychiatric institutions, concentration camps, the
military, monasteries, and boarding schools
■ A place in which someone’s previous identity is stripped away to
make room for a new identity which conforms to the institution
○ Dramaturgical theory
■ Social life is akin to theatre, with a front stage (where we behave
for society) and a back stage (where we behave naturally)
■ Impression management: maintenance of the front stage
persona and behaviours
Feminist perspectives
● Feminism encompasses social and political practice, and
empirical/theoretical academic work
● Early feminist were interested in sociological methods for social change
● Female sociologists: Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), Beatrice Potter Webb
(1858-1943), Anna Julia Cooper (1858-1964), Jane Addams (1860-1935), Ida B.
Wells-Barnett (1862-1931), Marianne Weber (1870-1954)
● Sociology: social critique focusing on description, analysis, and correction of
social inequality
● Society: heavily structured on/around gender
● Dorothy Smith
○ Because of differing socialization and societal position, men and
women have different viewpoints/perspectives
○ Structures can only be understood by examining micro-level
experiences of those structures
Postmodern perspective
● Postmodernism focuses on the ways society has changed since WWII, and
the increase in ideas and imagery, media, and tech
● Skeptical postmodernism
○ The social changes following wartime have made society chaotic and
meaningless, and therefore insignificant sociologically, as no
assertions of meaning or morality can be assigned
 ● Affirmative postmodernism
○ Society has changed too much to rely on macro concepts like
functionalism and conflict theory, or macro identities “like ‘man’ or
‘Black’”. Therefore, we must focus on the small and local details, and
question the foundations of all knowledge
Post-structuralism
● Foucault
● Objectivity in truth cannot exist, truth is created by history
● Relationship between knowledge and power
● Ideas and knowledge made by powerful structures is given more credibility
Summary:
● Functionalist: macro perspective viewing society as a number of structures
which fulfill functions that keep society stable
● Conflict: macro perspective describing society as characterized by conflict and
competition over unequally distributed resources
● Interactionist: micro perspective depicting society as consisting of individuals
engaged in various forms of meaningful communication
● Feminist: micro/macro perspective assuming society is structured upon gender
● Postmodernist: skeptical perspectives propose society has evolved beyond
meaning-making, affirmative perspectives suggest society has changed too
much for overarching social concepts or categories

LO 7:
Identify what critical thinking is and explain its importance
● Critical thinking: a method of thinking wherein the thinker imposes
intellectual standards on their thought processes
● Dualistic (uncritical) thinking: binary thought which assumes that there are
good and evil mutually exclusive realities or choices, without grey area
● Lower-order thinking: memory, recall, paraphrasing
● Higher-order thinking: extrapolation and application of knowledge to new
experiences
● Critical society: a society with a large population of high-order thinkers who
effect social change at the macro level

Guide to Critical Thinking

Summarize:
Topic area?
 Main ideas?
Conclusions?
Evaluate:
Target audience? How does the audience affect the presentation of the
material?
Is it evidence-based?
Is there bias or one-sidedness?
Is it persuasive or argumentative?
Is the language or tone biased?
Is the material well structured and presented
Respond:
What is your position on the material and what is it based on?
Are there alternative positions to consider?
Can you apply this conclusion to a different situation or event?
What are the realistic consequences of the conclusion?
How do the images used to present the material imply bias or consequences?
Does this material or conclusion remind you of anything?
LO 8:
Describe the four different ways that sociology can be practiced
● Sociological imagination is built with:
○ Empirical research methods to create verifiable knowledge
○ Sociological theories to provide context and explanation
○ Critical thinking to help us evaluate and extrapolate

● Academic sociology
○ Theory, empirical research
● Policy sociology
○ Use of research for policy and law development to further social
change
● Public sociology
○ Transmitting sociological knowledge to non-academics
● Private sociology
○ The application of sociology to one’s personal life

Chapter 2
LO 1:
Explain why sociological reasoning is important
● Concept: an abstract idea expressed as a word or phrase
 ● Variable: a categorical concept for properties of people or entities that can
differ and change

LO 2:
Differentiate between deductive and inductive reasoning
● Deductive reasoning: a theory-driven approach that typically concludes with
generalizations based on research findings
● Inductive reasoning: a data-driven approach that begins with observations
and ends in theory construction

LO 3:
Demonstrate an understanding of the goals of sociological research
● Exploratory research: explores an area of interest that very little is known
about
● Descriptive research: described features and characteristics of a group,
event, activity, or situation
● Explanatory research: clarifies aspects of a particular social phenomenon
● Evaluation research: assess the need for or effectiveness of a social program
● Empowerment research: examines social settings and conditions to identify
key issues and involves stakeholders for the purpose of improvement
● Participatory action research (PAR): a field method involving stakeholders
and co-researchers in a collaborative process designed to improve outcomes

Evaluation research done before a social program is established is a needs

assessment. This asks, what is the social problem, and what resources are needed to
address it?
When evaluation research is used to appraise existing infrastructure, this is
program evaluation. This questions whether a program is working as intended.
Action research is a subset of empowerment research involving an action
researcher and shareholders from the population receiving empowerment.
PAR involves community members not only as stakeholders, but co-researchers
that are consulted at every step

LO 4:
Identify steps for conducting sociological research
● Operationalization: the process whereby variables are defined in a precise
manner that is measurable
● Reliability: there is consistency in the measure for a variable of interest
● Validity: a measure is a good indicator of the intended concept
 ● Hypothesis: a testable research statement that includes at least two variables
● Research design: a detailed outline of all of the proposed components of a
study
● Data analysis: compilation of observations into a format that helps us learn
more about the research problem

Data can be analyzed/coded with programs like SPSS, PSPP, and NVivo.

Steps to sociological research

1. Research question
2. Literature review
3. Narrowed focus
4. Research design
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Draw conclusions
8. Report findings

LO 5:
Identify the ethical principles that underlie research involving human participants
● Debriefing: the later disclosure of all relevant details in cases where research
participants cannot be told all of the information ahead of time

Ethical requirements:
1. Respect for persons
2. Concern for welfare
3. Justice
Research for Indigenous welfare must include engaging with the relevant
communities

LO 6:
Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative methods
● Qualitative methods: methods most often employed to better understand
social phenomena using inductive reasoning and non-numerical data
● Quantitative methods: methods usually employed to test hypotheses based
on deductive reasoning and numerical data
● Grounded theory: a systematic strategy for moving from specific
observations to general conclusions about discourses, actions, interactions,
and practices
 ● Rigour: trustworthiness of a qualitative research process and the data
collected
● Triangulation: the use of multiple data-gathering techniques within the
same study

Audit trails: transparent, readily available documentation of how and why research
decisions were made and conclusions were drawn (for the purpose of validity and
rigour)

LO 7:
Describe the main use of each of the following research methods: experiments,
surveys, interviews, focus groups, secondary analysis of existing data, content
analysis, ethnography, systematic observation, and participant observation
● Experiment: a deductive research method for testing a hypothesis through
the use of a carefully controlled environment and random assignment to
conditions
● Independent variable: the presumed cause or variable that is manipulated in
an experiment
● Dependent variable: the outcome or variable that is measured in an
experiment
● Control group: participants in an experiment who are not exposed to the
independent variable
● Survey: a method of gathering opinions using a questionnaire
● Respondents: persons who consent to provide survey answers
● Representative sample: a group that closely approximates the population of
interest
● Interview: a verbal question-and-answer technique used for obtaining
information on a topic of interest
● Secondary analysis of existing data: a research method used to examine
information on a topic of interest that was collected or created by someone
other than the researcher for an unrelated purpose
● Content analysis: a secondary analysis technique used to systematically
examine messages contained in text or portrayed in images
● Discourse analysis: the use of multiple methods to critically examine the
ways in which language is used to convey social constructions and social
relations
● Historical analysis: the examination and interpretation of historical forms of
data
 ● Ethnography: fieldwork designed to describe everyday behaviour in natural
settings
● Systematic observation: a naturalistic but non-participatory method for
collecting data on a social group or process
● Participant observation: a naturalistic method for collecting
● Single-case design: case study research that focuses on only one person,
organization, event, or program as the unit of analysis, as emphasized by the
research objectives
● Convergent design: employs at least one qualitative and one quantitative
method at the same time in order to compare different perspectives as part of
the overall data integration

Research Methods:
Experiment
● Lab
● Field
○ Control
○ Random sampling and assignment
○ Manipulation and measurement of variables
■ Determining causality
■ Isolating variables
● Artificiality
● Low generalizability
● Field: more realism but less control
Survey
● Questionnaire
○ Sample
○ Series of questions
■ High response rate
■ Detailed information
■ Variable relationships
● Uncertain validity and respondent accuracy (lying)
Interviews
● Focus groups
○ Series of questions
■ Can clarify questions
■ More researcher participation
● Building and maintaining rapport
● Focus group: group dynamics
Secondary data analysis
● Content analysis
● Discourse analysis
● Historical analysis
○ What inferences can be made/what messages are conveyed?
■ Stats, text, images
■ Quantitative: predetermined categories and indicators
■ Qualitative: patterns and themes
● Convenient
● Large data sets
● Non-reactive and unobtrusive
○ Uncertain validity in data collection
○ Incomplete measures
Ethnography
● Systematic (nonparticipation) observation
● Participation observation
○ Interviews
○ Participant observation
○ Secondary analysis of existing data
■ Natural settings
■ Detailed information
■ Insider insight
● Accessing and exiting research groups
● Bias
● Reactivity

Chapter 3:
LO 1:
Define culture and distinguish between material and non-material forms
● Culture: the sum total of the social environment in which we are raised and
continue to be socialized throughout our lives
● Cultural universals: common practices shared by all societies
● Material culture: tangible or physical items that people have created for use
and give meaning to in a given culture
● Nonmaterial culture: intangibles produces by intellectual or spiritual
development and the use of artifacts in a given culture
● Cultural diffusion: the spread of material and nonmaterial forms of culture
from one social group to another through various means including trade,
immigration, and technology
 ● Culture shock: a sense of disorientation and confusion that results when
placed in unfamiliar surroundings where aspects of the culture are new or
unknown

LO2:
Distinguish between high culture and popular culture, and outline a critical view of
popular culture
● High culture: activities shared by the social elite
● Popular culture: well-liked everyday practices and products
● Status symbols: material indicators of wealth and prestige
● Ideology: a set of ideas that support the needs and views of a particular group

Social reproduction of class: the elite are taught to appreciate and understand high
culture through wealth and higher education, which they pass down through
generations, maintaining their status
LO3:
Explain why language is viewed as a precursor to shared understandings
● Language: a shared system of communication that includes spoken, written
and signed forms of speech as well as nonverbal gestures used to convey
meaning
● Mother tongue: the first language learned at home in childhood that is still
understood by an individual
● Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: the assertion that language helps shape realist for
those experiencing it

Linguistic determination: language shapes and establishes thinking

Linguistic relativism: language has meaning relevant to its culture
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: a blend of linguistic determination and relativism which
states that language shapes its users’ reality

LO4:
Explain why norms are considered to be regulators of shared behaviours
● Folkways: informal norms based on accepted traditions
● Mores: institutionalized norms embedded in laws used to help maintain
social control
● Taboos: mores that are considered wrong in and of themselves
● Prescriptive norms: rules concerning behaviours we are expected to perform
● Proscriptive norms: rules concerning behaviours we are expected to refrain
from
LO5:
Identify shared values and debate the correspondence between cultural values and
norms using functionalist and conflict perspectives
● Emblems: gestures with direct verbal equivalents

Canadian values:
1. Equality and fairness in a democratic society
2. Belief in consultation and dialogue
3. Importance of accommodation and tolerance
4. Support for diversity
5. Compassion and generosity
6. Attachment to Canada’s natural beauty
7. Commitment to freedom, peace, and nonviolent change

LO6:
Explain why values exist alongside contradictory norms
● Ideal culture: cultural values a majority of people identify with in a given
society
● Real culture: practices engaged in by the majority of people in a given society
● Cultural relativism: an ability to understand another culture in its own terms
sympathetically enough so that the culture appears to be a coherent and
meaningful design for living
● Ethnocentrism: the tendency to believe that one’s cultural beliefs are
superior and should be used as the standard to which other cultures are
compared
● Subculture: a group that can be differentiated from mainstream culture by its
divergent traits involving language, norms, beliefs, and/or values
● Counterculture: a type of subculture that strongly opposes central aspects of
mainstream culture

LO7:
Describes features of Canadian culture that make it unique
● Symbol: an object, image, or event used to represent a particular concept

Chapter 4:
LO1:
Explain how our own unique sense of ‘self’ includes traits that fall along a personal-
social identity continuum
 ● Personal-social identity continuum: the range of traits you possess that
emphasize you as a unique individual on one end and as a member in a group
on the other end
● Auxiliary traits: characteristics presumed to accompany a specific master
status

LO2:
Define ‘self’ and explain its connection to socialization and social interaction
● Self-concept: an individual’s sense of who they are based on perceived
similarities to and differences from others
● Socialization: the lifelong process through which people learn about
themselves and their various roles in society and in relation to one another
● Social identities: the portion of an individual’s sense of self derived from
membership in social groups
● Personal identities: the portion of an individual’s sense of self that renders
them unique from others

LO3:
Describe the continuum of nature versus nurture assumptions
● Biological determinism: the belief that human behaviour is controlled by
genetics
● Sociobiology: an evolutionary perspective focused on how groups develop
social behaviours and adapt to environments given existing genetic
constraints
● Behaviourism: a school of thought that denies free will, emphasizes
observable phenomena, and claims that all behaviour is learned from the
environment
● Bio-ecological theory of human development: a theory that views human
development as a dynamic process of reciprocal interaction in which
individuals play an important role in shaping the environment in which they
develop

LO4:
Describe Mead’s stages of development of the self and differentiate between the ‘I’
and the ‘me’

LO5:
Identify the ways in which the perceptions of others affect our individual identities
 ● Looking-glass self: (Cooley) the sense of ourselves we develop based on our
perceptions of how others view us

Mead’s Development Stages

Preparatory stage - imitation
Play stage - playing a single role
Game stage - understanding and take on multiple roles

LO6:
Identify primary agents of socialization and describe their main contributions to the
development of the self and/or social identity
● Agents of socialization: the groups, social institutions, and/or social settings
that have the greatest amount of influence on the developing self
● Self-esteem: an evaluation of one’s own self worth
● Interpersonal trust: a perception that another person can be relied upon and
has your best interests at heart
● Social comparison: how individuals evaluate themselves in terms of
appearance, merit, and abilities based on how they compare to others
● Mass media: communications that target large audiences in print or in
electronic format

LO7:
Outline the basic components of social structure
● Social structure: the framework of cultural elements and social patterns in
which social interactions take place
● Status: a recognized social position that exists independently of the
individual that occupies it
● Role: the behavioural component of a status
● Anticipatory socialization: the process by which individuals learn about the
roles associated with a status before taking on that status
● Status set: the sum total of all the statuses held by a person at a given time
● Ascribed statuses: a social position conferred at birth
● Achieved statuses: a social position obtained through personal actions
● Master status: the most influential status in ain individual’s status set
● Role conflict: a situation in which incompatible role demands exists between
two or more held statuses
● Role strain: a situation in which incompatible role demands exists within a
single status
 ● Social group: two or more people who share relevant cultural elements and
interact with each other with regular frequency
● Social network: an interrelated system of social relationships of varying
purpose, relevance, intimacy, and importance

Status: held by an individual

Role: enacted by an individual

LO8:
Explain how social institutions contribute to social structure and assess the merits
of Weber’s ideal type of bureaucracy in modern society
● Social institutions: relatively permanent societal structures that govern the
behaviour of groups and promote social order
● Bureaucracy: a formal organization model consisting of an explicit chain of
authority and a set of procedures and protocols that guide the relationships
and processes that exists within it
● Ideal type: an analytical construct that clearly depicts all the main features of
some social phenomenon but is not found in reality
● Resocialization: a process that involves radically altering one’s identity by
exchanging one status for another
Chapter 5:
Chapter 6:

Chapter 8: Race and Ethnicity

LO1: Compare the concepts of ethnicity, race, racialization, visible minorities, and
racialized groups
Ethnicity:
- Cultural characteristics such as language, religion, taste in food, shared
descent, cultural traditions, and shared geographic locations
Ethnic origin / objective ethnicity:
- The ethnic characteristics of your ancestors
Ethnic identity / subjective ethnicity:
- How you personally identify your ethnicity
Race:
- A socially constructed category used to classify humankind according to
physical characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture, and facial features
Racialization:
- The process by which groups come to be designated as being of a particular
‘race’, and on that basis subjected to different and/or unequal treatment
Visible minorities:
- Persons, other than indigenous persons, who are non-Caucasian in race or
non-White in colour
Racialized groups:
- People of colour, who are disproportionately affected by the process of
racialization

LO2: Describe contemporary patterns of ethnicity in Canada

5% of Canadians are Indigenous
- Top 3: First Nations, Metis, Inuit
19% of Canadians are racialized
- Top 3: South Asian, Chinese, Black
21% of Canadians are foreign-born
- Top 3 Source Countries: Philippines, China, India

LO3: List the three objectives of Canada’s immigration policy, outline the types of
people who enter the country on the basis of these objectives, and described
contemporary immigration patterns
Family-class immigrants:
 - Immigrants who are sponsored by close relatives living in Canada
Economic immigrants:
- Immigrants selected on the basis of some combination of educational
attainment, occupational skills, entrepreneurship, business investment, and
ability to contribute to the Canadian economy
Refugees:
- Persons who are forced to flee from persecution

LO4: Describe the implications of ethnicity for families and for economic
experiences
Bicultural:
- Participation in two distinct cultures simultaneously
Integration pattern:
- Identifying with both one’s heritage culture and one’s new, national culture
Ethnic pattern:
- Identifying primarily with one’s heritage culture
National pattern:
- Identifying primarily with one’s new, national culture
Diffuse pattern:
- Uncertainty about which culture(s) one should or should not identify with

“As long as I’m being asked where I’m from, I’m not from here.”
Employment + Income:
- Employment is lower for Indigenous people
- Income “ ”
- Lower education levels, but gap is clear between those of equal
accomplishment
- Family-class imm. less successful than economic class imm.
- Recent imm. more affected
- Continues today despite increased education in imm. beyond the
average Canadian-born
- Refugees lowest income of all
- Causes: english proficiency, labour market, support from ethnic
community, willingness/ability to immigrate, employer preference
against immigrants, racial discrimination

LO5: Distinguish between dominant and minority groups and describe the forms of
interaction that can take place between them
Dominant groups:
 - Groups that have institutionalized power and privilege in society
Minority groups:
- Definable groups that are socially disadvantaged and face unequal treatment
Les femmes du pays:
- The Indigenous ‘country wives’ of European traders
Ethnocide:
- The eradication of a culture
Residential schools:
- A boarding school funded by the Canadian government used to assimilate
Indigenous children
Pluralism:
- Cultural differences are valued in society
Segregation:
- Minority groups are separated from the dominant groups
Anti-miscegenation laws:
- Laws that prohibit interracial marriages
Population transfer:
- A process whereby minority groups are forcibly expelled or are limited to a
location

Assimilation:
A minority group is absorbed into the dominant culture; can be voluntary or
coercive
Canadian colonization:
- Fur trade: Metis people, decreased efforts to colonize
- Decreased economic alliance → forced assimilation
- Reserves
- Laws: prohibition of cultural practices with a goal of ethnocide (eradication of
a culture)
- Indian Act (1876): Indigenous people are now wards of the federal
government
Residential schooling:
- Government-funded, Christian-run
- Initially a ‘day school’ run adjacent to reserves, but moved to residential to
increase efficacy
- 1884: attendance mandatory under 16
- 150 000 children attended
- Half manual labour until 1951
- Instruction was academic and religious
 - Few children learned much at all, but were converted
- Abuse is common
- 91 000 of the 150 000 reported physical and/or sexual abuse
- Due to total prohibition of cultural practices, when children finally went
home, they could not engage in their home environment
- Residential school syndrome: like PTSD, characterized by nightmares,
flashbacks, and fear/anger
- 1990s: many christian groups apologized
- 2008: federal government apologized
WWI: Ukrainian people termed enemy aliens, put in camps
WWII: Japanese people “ ”

LO6: Outline the three components of prejudice and describe the different forms
that discrimination can take
Prejudice:
- An attitude that is unrelated to reality and is generalized to all members of a
certain group
Racism:
- A specific form of prejudice based on aspects of physical appearance , such as
skin colour
Discrimination:
- Treating someone unfairly because of their group membership
Hate crimes:
- Criminal offences motivated by hate toward an identifiable group

Individual discrimination
Hate crimes
- Top 3 bases: race/ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation
- Race based: black and Arab/west asian mostly
- Religion based: jewish and muslim mostly
- Violent: 43%, most often in cases of sexual orientation and arab/asian people
Institutional/systemic discrimination

LO7: Discuss theories of prejudice and racialization, including interactionist,

conflict, and critical race theories
White privilege:
- The advantages and benefits in a society that are based solely upon being
white
Passing:
 - A situation whereby a racialized person’s skin colour is light enough to be
viewed by others as being white

Overrepresentation of minorities in lower labour positions

Critical race theory:

White privilege
Analysis of racist concepts, micro-institutions, and macro-institutions

Chapter 9: Canadian Families

Chapter 10: Religion, Science, and Education

Chapter 11: Social Control, Deviance, and Crime

Chapter 12: Health and Illness

Chapter 13: Social Change

Chapter 14: Environmental Sociology

Chapter 15: Globalization