What are crop protection chemicals?

The development of chemicals to protect agricultural crops is an important

activity within the chemical industry. Without them, many crops would suffer
losses dramatically.
Chemical crop protection products, commonly referred to as pesticides or
agrochemical products, play a vital role in controlling the pests and diseases
that infect, consume or damage crops thereby significantly reducing the
quantity and quality of food production, while the benefits of agricultural
innovation goes to farmers and consumers. Chemical crop protection products
or “pesticides” help control insects, diseases, weeds, fungi and other
undesirable pests. It is estimated that annual crop losses could double without
the use of crop protection products. Based on the type of pesticide, the
pesticide market is classified into fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, and
others.
Herbicides: substances that kill or inhibit growth of unwanted plants (weeds)
Insecticides: substances that kill arthropod pests, i.e. insects and mites
Fungicides: substances that destroy or prevent the growth of pathogenic fungi
 Significance of crop protection chemicals
Every year in India, pests and diseases eat away, on an average, 20-30% of
food, worth about Rs. 45000 crore, produced by the farmers. World over, the
damage by fungi to rice, wheat and maize alone costs $60 billion per year and
the Fungal diseases destroy 125 million tonnes of rice, wheat, maize, potatoes
and soyabeans each year. Stemming fungal diseases alone in the world’s five
most important crops could feed more than 600 million people. It is, therefore,
essential to control the pests and diseases through Primary Plant Protection for
providing sufficient food security to the growing population of the country.
“Green Revolution” during the 1960s and 1970s, has considerably increased
the crop production and made India self-sufficient in food. It is mentioned that
apart from High Yielding Seeds, chemical fertilizers, irrigation; pesticides
played a very important role in enabling the Green Revolution. However, it is
difficult to segregate the contribution, exclusively made by pesticides.
Availability of safe & effective pesticides and their judicious use by the farming
community is critical to a sustained increase in agricultural production and
productivity. Pesticides are also useful in health programmes for controlling
vectors, responsible for diseases like malaria.
 Global market for crop protection chemicals
The crop protection chemicals market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 5.15% to reach USD
70.57 Billion by 2021. The market growth is driven by the rising need for food security for the
growing population, advancement in farming practices and technologies and heavy crop loss
due to pest infestations. The market is further driven by factors such as increasing demand for
biopesticides along with increasing acceptance for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) by the
farmers, and high opportunities in developing countries
On the basis of type, the global market is led by herbicides, followed by, insecticides and
fungicides. On the basis of origin of crop protection chemicals, the market is led by synthetic
crop protections chemicals, but biopesticides is projected to be the fastest-growing market due
to the rising demand for biopesticides by the farmers, as they are less toxic and environment
friendly.
The Indian crop protection chemicals market is projected to witness a CAGR of 3.73% during
the forecast period (2019-2024) to reach USD 2.61 billion in 2024. India is a high growth and
high size market for the crop protection chemical industry on the back of its diverse
agroclimatic conditions as well as the country's increasing impetus on improvements in
agricultural productivity. The Indian market for biopesticides is projected to grow at a CAGR of
close to 16% over the forecast period (2019-2024). The major companies dominating the
Indian market for its products, services, and continuous product developments are Bayer
CropScience, Syngenta India Limited, UPL Limited, PI Industries, Rallis India Limited, Corteva
Agriscience, Crystal Crop Protection, Indofil Industries Limited, FMC India, among others.
 5,000 YEARS OF CROP PROTECTION
Like all agricultural innovations, Crop protection products have evolved tremendously since
their inception. From natural chemical elements to plant- and metal-based insecticides to
synthetic products, formulations have drastically changed and for the better: today’s products
are more sustainable, targeted, efficient and environmental friendly than their predecessors.
The first recorded use of an insecticide was about 5000 years ago by the Sumarians, who
used sulfur compounds to control insects and mites attacking their food sources. Then, in the
first century B.C., Romans used a few techniques – a compound made from crushed olives,
burnt sulfur and salt – to control ants and weeds in their crops. In 800 A.D., the Chinese
used arsenic mixed with water to control insects in their field crops and citrus orchards.
Other pesticides, derived from natural sources such as pyrethrum from dried
Chrysanthemum flowers and nicotine extract from tobacco plants, evolved over time.
From 1750 to about 1880, farmers began using crop protection products more widely and
international trade promoted the use of plant- and metal-based insecticides. Until the early
1900s, Europe and the U.S. used compounds made with sulfur, iron, copper, arsenic and
sodium to control weeds in cereal crops and fungus in grapes. In the 1930s and 40s,
effective and widely used fungicides were developed along with the first synthetic
insecticides.
5,000 YEARS OF CROP PROTECTION
5,000 YEARS OF CROP PROTECTION
 5,000 YEARS OF CROP PROTECTION
By the 1960s and 70s, farmers began to utilize Integrated pest Management (IPM) to
control pests. IPM is based on the idea that farmers can manage insect pests, using
crop protection products only when needed. This practice paved the way for the
development of more targeted and environmentally friendly products, such as
pyrethrum-based formulations. In addition, with improved research, the plant science
industry began developing more efficient products that were effective at lower rates,
such as one ounce of active ingredient per acre rather than two pounds used
previously. Herbicides like glyphosate, which are still commonly used today, were
developed in the 1970s and have continued to improve and become more efficient
over time.
In the 1990s, crop protection product development concentrated on finding active
ingredients that better target pests. Through biotechnology, plant scientists also
improved the IPM concept – using naturally occurring materials such as insect
hormone or venom, microbes or plant material extracts like Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) – to more accurately and selectively target pests. Finally, weed treatments, such as
neonicotinoids, were developed during this time to protect emerging seedlings from
pests while not impacting beneficial species like pollinators.
 5,000 YEARS OF CROP PROTECTION
The plant science industry invests heavily in research to develop new products,
ensuring that they do not pose unacceptable risks to humans or the environment. In
fact, it now takes about $286 million USD and 11 years of research and development
to bring a new crop protection product to market.
Today, crop protection products are more environmentally friendly, targeted and
efficient, allowing farmers to better control target pests while allowing beneficial flora
and fauna to prosper.
 What are Pesticides?
Pesticides means any substance intended for preventing, destroying,
attracting, repelling or controlling any pest including unwanted species of plants
or animals during production, storage, transport, distribution and processing of
food, agricultural commodities or animals feed. The term normally excludes
fertilizers, plant and animal nutrients, food additives and animal drugs.

What is pest?
Pests are any organisms, insects, rodents, nematodes, fungal diseases,
weeds, herbs, bacteria etc which are injurious to the health of man or to man’s
economic efforts.
Pesticides is a general terms used in connection with pest. More specific
terms are available for individual pest categories. These are as follows:
Insecticides: are substances that prevent, destroy, kill insects ( belongs to the
class insects, phylum athropoda)
 What are Pesticides?
Fungicides: are substances that prevent, destroy or inhibit the growth of
fungus or disease in crops.
Herbicides: are substances which are preventing, or inhibiting the growth of
unwanted plants or for killing weeds.
Rodenticides: are substances that inhibit growth, destroy or kill rodents ( class
Mammalia, Order: Rodentia)
Chemosterilants: are substances that sterilize the plants.
Plant growth regulator: are substances that cause the acceleration or
retardation of the rate of growth or rate maturation.
Attractants: are substances that attract the pests
Repellents: are the substances that repel the pest from treated plants.
etc
 Properties of ideal Pesticides
1. It should have a broad spectrum to kill the pests.
2. It should be non-toxic to mammals.
3. It should be non-toxic to plants
4. It should have low production cost
5. It should have low residual toxicity
6. It should have low toxic to beneficial insects.
7. It should be compatible with other pesticides
8. It should not produce off taste on vegetables and fruits
9. It should not inflammable and should have not corrosive action on metals.
Steps involved in commercial development of pesticides starting from Laboratory
synthesis

1. Synthesis
2. The preliminary screening
3. Formulation
4. Toxicity studies
5. Residue studies
6. Registration
7. Promotion
8. Pilot plant studies
9. Commercial Development
 Reasons for use of pesticides

1. Pesticides are used to ensure better protection against unpredictable losses

caused by plant diseases and pests
2. Pesticides are used to improve both quality and quantity of food
3. Pesticides are used to decrease the extent of vector born and other
diseases in humans and animals
 Classification of Insecticides
• Insecticides are classified in three ways

• (I) According to their mode of entry:

• Stomach Poisons: This insecticides are applied to the part of the Crop
which serves as food for pest. For example DDT, BHC. Their application is
through food and entry the midgut of the insect. Stomach poisons are
necessarily therefore to be ingested during feeding.
• Contact Poisons : Contact poisons are those which kills the pests only due
to contact or absorbed action. Their application is through body surface
and entry through the cuticle and tracheae. For example pyrethrum,
rotenone, toxaphene etc
• Fumigants: Gaseous poisons used for killing insects are called fumigants.
These are applied in vapour state and their entry is through tracheae e.g.
HCN, chloropicrin, DDVP, methyl bromide, chloropicrin
 Classification of Insecticides
• Systemic Insecticides: Systemic insecticides are toxicants which when
applied to the root, stem or leaves of plants are rapidly absorbed and
translocated to various parts of the plants in amounts lethal to insects
feeding on these. Eg Phorate, aldicarb, carbofuran. Translocation of
these pesticide takes place mostly through xylem vessels only.
The main properties of the systemic insecticides are:
(a) The compound should have ability to penetrate into the plant
through roots, stems and leaves
(b) The compound should have sufficient solubility to enable the
compounds to move in the plant sap
 Classification of Insecticides
(II) According to mode of action:
Physical poisons: Some substances kill insects by their physical action. No direct
chemical or biochemical effect is caused by these insecticides. This type of product
may be incorporated during formulation development to enhance the efficacy of
insecticides.
The different physical effects that these insecticides exert include
(a) Moisture stress: Some substances like charcoal absorb moisture from body and
thus desiccate the insect to death
(b) Mechanical injury: Dust of aluminium oxide cause abrasion of the cuticle. This
mechanical injury finally lead to loss of moisture from the body of the insects.
Some inert dusts like talc when added to stored grain fill in the interspaces
between the grains causing difficulty in movement of stored products pests.
©: Asphyxiation: Heavy mineral oil, tar oil etc when applied on insect block the
passage of air through the spiracular apertures. Scale insect and insect’s egg can be
easily controlled .
 Classification of Insecticides
Protoplasmic Poison: These poisons primarily cause precipitation of protein
in the insect cells. Most of the inorganic insecticides like fluorides, arsenicals
etc and organic insecticides like nitrophenols, fatty and mineral oils,
formaldehyde, heavy metals like copper and mercury when ingested cause
precipitation of cellular proteins in the mid-gut epithelium.
Respiratory Poison: These poisons are to be differentiated from the physical
poison which exclude entry of oxygen into the breathing system in physical
ways. The poisons included in this group cause anoxia I,e bring about
biochemical blockade of passage of oxygen at cellular level inspite of the fact
that atmospheric oxygen has free access into the tracheae and tracheoles.
This insecticides mostly include fumigants like HCN
Nerve poison:
The first two systems have the serious defect of overlapping of their function
 Classification of Insecticides
• (III) According to their chemical nature:
Inorganic Compounds : Arsenicals, Fluorine compound etc
Organic Compounds: DDT, BHC, Phorate and Carbaryl
Organic Insecticides are classified into natural and synthetic Compounds.
Natural compounds are further divided into Petroleum oil and botanicals.
Oil Formulation: There are three oil formulations in general use:
(i) Oil emulsions: Which is the mixture of oil, a small quantity of water and
an emulsifier (soap, blood albumin etc.) to make oil somewhat miscible with
water. This makes a stock spray (commercially emulsifiable oils) to which a
recommended amount of water is added at the time of use as a spray.
 Classification of Insecticides
• (ii) Emulsive Oil: Contains only oil and emulsifier (soap, blood
albumin etc.) no water. They are emulsified by agitation in spray tank
• (iii) Tank mix oils: wherein the emulsifier and water added separately
only at the time of use

Use of Oil: (I) As a insecticide carrier and (II) As insecticides themselves

Advantages: (I) They are relatively cheaper than other insecticides
(II) They posses good spreading quality
(III) They are easy to mix and to handle
(IV) They are safe for animals
 Classification of Insecticides
Dis-advantages: (I) They posses low insect toxicity
(II) They are unstable on storage
(III) They are phytotoxic, therefore largely used as solvent for domestic
insecticides.
(IV) They damage insecticides equipments- rubber hoses and other
parts of the sprayers
Toxicology and Safe Use of Pesticides

If agriculture fails; every thing else will fail

- M.S Swaminathan
(Father of Indian Green Revolution)

Dr. Mamoni Banerjee

Assistant Professor
RMSoEE
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Kharagpur
 Toxicology
Toxicology is the branch of science studying the properties of
pesticides used in agriculture their action on warm blooded
animals, insects, bacteria, fungi, plants and ecological systems.
Points to Remember:
 Toxicity and Hazard: Toxicity is the ability of a chemical
substance to produce injury once it reaches a susceptible site
in or on the body while hazard is the probability that a
substance will produce injury under the conditions/manner
of use.
 Acute Toxicity: Acute toxicity of an organisms by a
pesticide occurs when the pesticide acts at once. It manifests
itself in upsetting of the vital activity of the organism with a
possible lethal outcome.
 Chronic Toxicity: Chronic toxicity of an organism I the
result of the repeated action of relatively small amounts of
pesticide and manifests itself in slowly developing
malfunction of normal vital activity.
 Points to Remember
 Acute Oral Toxicity: Acute oral toxicity is the property of
a substance which causes adverse effects in an organism
by swallowing it.
 Acute Dermal Toxicity: Acute dermal toxicity is the
adverse effects occurring within a short time of dermal
application of a single dose of a test substance.
 Inhalation toxicity: Inhalation toxicity is the total of
adverse effects caused by a substance following a single
uninterrupted exposure by inhalation over a short period
of time (24 hours or less) to a substance capable of being
inhaled.
 Mutagenicity: Mutagenicity refers to the induction of
permanent transmissible changes in the amount or Teratogenicity
structure of the genetic material of cells or organisms.
 Teratogenicity: Teratogenicity is the ability to cause
defects in a developing fetus. It is a potential side effect
of many insecticide and drugs.
 Points to Remember
 Oncogenicity: Oncogenicity is the property of a substance
which produces or induces either benign or malignant
tumors in living animals. Oncogenicity study refers to test
the potential to cause carcinogenicity.
 Carcinogenicity: Carcinogens are substances or exposures
that can cause cancer. Thus Carcinogenicity refers to
specific oncogenicity whether a substance or insecticide
promote the growth of malignant tumors.
 Delayed Neuropathy: Delayed neuropathy is the study to
find whether a substance causes suppression of
acetylcholinesterase or not.
 Reproduction Study: The effect of pesticide on gonadal
function, uterus cycle, mating behavior, conception, Animal model for testing toxicity
parturition, lactation, weaning, growth and development
of the offspring.
 Primary Eye and Dermal Irritation Studies: These studies
serve to identify possible hazards due to exposure of the
eyes and skin. These studies serve for the direction on the
wearing of protective goggle and clothing.
 Measurement of Toxicity
 Chronic studies are done on the number of animals
including rats, mice, rabbit, guinea pigs.
 Before reaching into the market, the toxicity of
pesticides is determined on the rat model under
laboratory conditions.
 This toxicity is defined by the lethal dose-50 (LD50),
expressed as milligram of toxicant per kilogram of
body weight, the dose that kills 50 percent of the of the
test animals after administration.
 LD50 is measured in terms of oral, dermal, and
respiratory or inhalation toxicity.
 The LD50 is somewhat similar to LC50 (Lethal
Concentration), is the surrounding environment (air or
water) related to ED50 (Effective Dose 50) and EC50
(Effective and Concentration 50) which includes some
fixed toxicity criteria other than death.
 I50 value is known as the concentration inhibits by 50
percent of enzymes population.
 Measurement of Toxicity
 LD50 value of each batch of animals are recorded as percentage as exposed to a range
of doses.
 The results are represented by the sigmoid curve which is steepest at the region of 50
percent response.

 A small change in concentration leads to large change in percentage killings of

microorganisms.
 The dose which kills half the organism is thus a more sensitive index of toxicity than
any other dose. That is why LD50 is usually adopted as a standard for comparing the
relative toxicity of substances.
 Estimation of Toxicity to Humans
 In order to assess the potential chronic toxic hazard of a
pesticide, individuals of a suitable animal species are fed with
varying amounts of the substances and the highest concentration
having no effect on any organism in that batches of animal is
determined. This is known as threshold daily dose.
 Numerous observations are made during the longer duration
feeding trial by autopsy examination when animals are
eventually sacrificed.
 The data includes change in body weight , activities of enzymes
in serum, liver and behavior changes (after death) histological
examination of liver, kidney, lung and brain.
 In order to arrive at a figure for acceptable daily intake (ADI) for
man, threshold daily dose (mg/kg/day) is determined using an
appropriate animal species and this is divided by safety factor. The
later is often 100.
Classification of Toxicity as Per WHO
Category of Pesticide Toxicity
 Pesticide Label
 Besides the names of pesticide its concentration, types of formulation, date of
manufacture, expiry date, registration number, antidote is provided on the label.
 The label contains a diamond shaped warning symbol. It is divided into two triangles
by a horizontal line.

 The colour of the lower triangle gives an idea about the degree of toxicity or potential
hazards of pesticides.
 Pesticide Label
Directions on leaflets:
Due to limitation of space on the
pesticide, detailed information on the
use of pesticide is given on the leaflet.
The following information is normally
available on the leaflet:
 Particular of application of pesticides
 Directions of use
 Warning and cautionary statement
 Storage information
 Safety with Pesticides
Safe Storage
Do:
 Store the pesticides away from house premises.
 Keep pesticides in original containers.
 Pesticides/weedicides must be stored separately.
 Where pesticides have been stored, area should be marked with warning
signs.
 Pesticides be stored away from the reach of the children and live stocks.
 Storage place should be well protected from direct sunlight and rain
Don’t:
 Never store pesticide in house premises.
 Never transfer pesticides from original to another containers.
 Do not store insecticides with weedicides.
 Do not allow children to enter the storage place.
 Pesticides should not be exposed to sunlight or rain water.
 Safety in application with Pesticide
Before Application
 Read label and leaflet carefully and follow instructions
there in.
 Make sure that the application equipment is in working
order.
 Never spray pesticide alone while handling highly toxic
pesticides.
 Ensure that water, soap, and towels are available at the
site of application.
 Ensure that goggles, shoes and gloves are available
before application of pesticides.
 Safety in application with Pesticide
During Spraying
 Wear personal protective clothing.
 Spray crops with the wind. In another words, spray with
the wind coming from back.
 Ensure that there are no animals, people, food, or animal
feed from down wind to the area i.e, in the direction in
which the wind is blowing.
 Check the sprayer and sprayer equipment for leaks.
 Do not blow out blocked spray nozzles with the mouth.
 Apply pesticide when needed.
 Take care to prevent the applied pesticide from
contaminating nearly streams, ponds, lakes or wells.
 If during spraying the person feels ill or notices any
irregular body symptoms, work should be stopped and
medical care should be sought immediately.
 Spray pesticides in the morning or evening. Don’t spray
pesticides during the noon.
Safety in application with Pesticide
After Spraying
 Left over spray solutions should be disposed off at safer
place viz. barren isolated area.
 The used/empty containers should be crushed with
stone/stick and buried deep in soil away from water sources.
 Wash hands and face with clean water and soap before
eating/smoking.
 Wash cloths separately.
 On observing poisoning symptoms give the first aid and
show the patient to doctor. Also show the empty container to
doctor.
 Mark the sprayed field and prevent unauthorized entry into
the treated area.
 Left over spray solution should not be drained in or near
ponds,canal or water lines etc.
 Emergencies
Accidents, while using pesticides may occur in
spite of taking all precautions.
The symptoms of mild poisoning include
 headache,
 giddiness,
 weakness,
 nervousness,
 blurred vision,
 excess perspiration and
 eye irritation.
If severe poisoning occur, high fever stroke and
loss of consciousness may also take place.
 First Aid
Inhaled Poison:
 If victim is in an enclosed space, do not go in
after him, without an air supplied respirator.
 Carry patient (do not let him walk) to fresh air
immediately.
 Open all doors and windows.
 Losen all tight clothing.
 Apply artificial respiration if breathing has
stopped or is irregular.
 Keep patient as quiet as possible.
 If patient convulsing, watch his breathing and
protect him from falling and striking his head.
Keep his chin up so his air passage will remain
free for breathing.
 Prevent chilling (wrap patient in blankets, but
don’t overheat). Do not give alcohol in any form.
 First Aid
Swallowed Poisons:

 The most important choice you must make when aiding a person who
has swallowed a pesticide whether, you should make the victim vomit.
 The decision must be made quickly and accurately, the victim’s may
depend on it. Usually, it is best to get rid of the swallowed poison fast.
But, there are exceptions.
 Never induce vomiting in the victim if unconscious or in convolution.
The victim could choke to death.
 Never induce vomiting in the victim has swallowed a corrosive poison.
A corrosive poison will burn the threat and mouth severely while
coming up as it did going down.
 Never induce vomiting if the person has swallowed petroleum
products(Kerosene, gasoline, oil, lighter fluid).
 First Aid
How to induce vomiting:
 Do not waste a lot of time in inducing
vomitting. Use it only as first aid until you
can get the victim to a hospital.
 Make sure the victim is lying face down or
kneeing forward while resting.
 Do not let him lie on his back because
vomited matter could enter the lungs and do
more damage.
 First give the patient large amounts of milk
or water one to two cups for victims up to
five years old; up to 0.9 litre for victims of
five years and older.
 First Aid
 If you are sure the poison is an acid, give the victim milk of magnesia(15
ml to 24 ml of water), baking soda or chalk in water.
 If you are sure that poison is an alkali give the patient lemon juice or
vinegar.
Universal Sponge: use these sponge to absorb excess poisons only after first
aid. Suggestions for the corrosive or non corrosive poisons are followed.
Activated Charcoal: It absorbs many poisons at a high rate. Mix it with water
into a thick soup for the victim to drink. Activated charcoal is found in
aquarium filters or is available from a drug store.
Home made absorber: A home made ‘universal sponge’ for poison is a
mixture of four tablespoons of toast (burnt black), two table spoon of strong
tea (instant ice tea mix will do), and two table spoons of milk of magnesia.
This is used to absorb and neutralize most poisons.
 First Aid
Shock
Sometimes poison victims go into shock. If untreated
or ignored shock can kill victim even if, the
poisoning injuries would not have been fatal.
If antidote is not available, use some general
measures to prevent absorption of the poison.
 Activated Charcoal, 50 gm can be used in 400 ml
of water through mouth remaining in intestinal
tract as per need.
 Sodium sulfate (30gm dissolved in 250 ml water)
can also be used but the dose should not exceed 5
ml/10 kg body weight.
 Antidotes
• An antidote is a drug, chelating substance, or
a chemical that counteracts (neutralizes) the
effects of another drug or a poison.
• There are dozens of different antidotes;
however, some may only counteract one
particular drug, whereas others (such as
charcoal) may help reduce the toxicity of
numerous drugs.
Antidotes used in
 Organochlorines Poisoning
 Organophosphates, Carbamates, and
anticholinesterases Poisoning
 References
1. Handbook of Agrochemical Industries (Insecticides and Pesticides), EIRI
Books, 2022.
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
 Crop Protection

If agriculture fails; every thing else will fail

- M.S Swaminathan
(Father of Indian Green Revolution)

Dr. Mamoni Banerjee

Assistant Professor
RMSoEE
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Kharagpur
 Overview
• Chemical pesticides
• Classification of pesticides based on
chemical nature, Mode of action and
Toxicity:
 Organochlorines (OCs)
 Organophosphates (Ops)
 Carbamates
 Pyrethroides
 Fungicides
 Herbicides
 Chemical Pesticides
• Pesticides are a group of chemicals used for the
destruction of insects, weeds, fungi, bacteria, etc.
They are generally called insecticides, fungicides,
bactericides, herbicides or rodenticides.
• Most of the pesticides have the ability to destroy a
wide variety of pests or weeds, but some are
developed against specific pests or pathogens.
• Most of these chemicals are designed in such a way
as to disturb the physiological activities of the target
organism, leading to dysfunction and reduced vitality.
• The greater use of pesticides for high agricultural Accumulation of chemical pesticides in
production has led to increased pollution of environment

environmental compartments soil, water and air.

• The characteristics of pesticides, such as high
lipophilicity, bioaccumulation, long half-life and
potential of long range transport, have increased the
chances of contaminating the air, water and soil, even
after many years of application.
 Classification of pesticides based on
chemical nature
1. Organochlorines: DDT,DDD, Dicofol, Eldrin,
Dieldrin, Chlorobenziate, Lindane, BHC, Methoxychloro
Aldrin, Chlordane, Heptaclor, Endosufan, Isodrin,
Isobenzan, Toxaphene, Chloro propylate
2. Organophosphates: Dimefox, Mipafox, Methyl Organochlorines
Parathion, Ronnel, enitrothion, Bidrin, Phorate, Fenthion,
caumphos, Abate, Dichlorovas, Diptrex, Phosphomidon,
Demetox, Oxydemeton-methyl, Malathion, Dimethoate,
Trichlorofan
3. Carbamates :
 Methyl
Carbaryl, Carbanolate, Prupoxur, Dimethan,
Dimetilan, Isolan, Carbofuran, Pyrolan, Organophosphates
Aminocarb, Aldicarb,
 Thio
Vernolate, Pebulate, Diallate, Monilate, Butylate,
Cycloate, Trillate, Thiourea
 Dithio
Methan, Thiram, Ferban, Amoban, Naban, Zineb, Carbamates
Maneb, Ziram Polyran, Dithane M- 45
 Classification of pesticides based on chemical
nature
4. Pyrethroids : Allethrin, Bonthrin, Dimethrin,
Tetramethrin, Ptrethrin, CyclethrinFurethrin, Fenevelerate,
Alphamethrin, Decamethrin, Cypermethrin
5. Phenyl amides (Fungicide):
 Carbanilates
Barban, Carbetamide, Chlororprofan, Prophan, Phenyl
Urea, Fenuron, Monuron, Diuron,Flumeturon, Pyrethroids
Chloroxuron, Neburon, Bromuron
 Acylanalide
Propanil, Solan, Dicryl, Karsil, Propachlor, Alachlor,
Butachlor
 Toluidines
Trifluralin, Dipropanil, Benefin, Oryzalin, Isopropanil,
Nitralin Benzamide

 Acetamide
Diphenamid
 Classification of pesticides based
on chemical nature
6. Phenoxyalkonates (Herbicide): 2,4-D(2,4 Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid),2,4,
5 T(2,4 5 Trichloro Phenoxy acetic acid), Dichloroprop, Mecoprop, Erbin,
Sesone

7. Trazines (Herbicide): Atrazine, Simazine, Ametryn, Atratone, Chlorazine,

Cynazine, Cyprazine, Metribuzin, Propazine, Turbutryn, Simetryn

8. Benzoic acid (Herbicide): Dicamba, Dichlorobenil, Chloroambin, Tricamba,

Neptalan, Bromoxynil

9. Phtalimides (Fungicide): Captan, Diflotan, Folpet

10. Dipyrids (Herbicide): Paraquat, Diaquat

11. Others :Pentachlorophenol, Floroacetate, Phenyl mercuric acetate, Ethyl

mercuric Phosphate,Methyl mercuric chloride, Sodium arsenate, Calcium
arsenate, Lead arsenate, Cacodylic acid, Aluminium phosphide, Zinc phosphide
 Organochlorines (OC)
• Organochlorines (OC) are a group of chlorinated compounds
widely used as pesticides. These chemicals belong to the class of
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with high persistence in
the environment.
• OC insecticides were earlier successfully used in control of
malaria and typhus, yet they are banned in most of the advanced
countries. The review statistics on the use of different pesticides
shows that 40% of all pesticides used belong to the
organochlorine class of chemicals.
• Due to their low cost and the need against various pests,
organochlorine insecticides such as DDT, hexachlorocyclohexane
(HCH), aldrin and dieldrin are among the most widely used
pesticides in developing countries of Asia.
• The basic characteristics of organochlorine pesticides are high
persistence, low polarity, low aqueous solubility and high lipid
solubility.
• Organochlorine pesticides can enter the environment after
pesticide applications, polluted wastes discarded into landfills,
and discharges from industrial units that synthesize these
chemicals.
• They are volatile and stable; some can adhere to the soil and air,
thus increasing the chances of high persistence in the
environment, and are identified as agents of chronic exposure to
animals and humans.
 Organochlorines (OC)
They have a related chemical structure,
showing chlorine substituted aliphatic or
aromatic rings. Due to their structural
resemblances, these compounds share
certain physicochemical characteristics
such as persistence, bioaccumulation and
toxicity.
One basic character that they share across
the spectrum is persistence, where
persistence is defined as half-life greater
than two months in water or six months
in soil sediment.
The persistence of OC compounds varies
from moderate persistence with half-life
of approximately 60 days to high
persistence with half-life up to 10–15
years.
 Organochlorines (OC)
• The most commonly used
pesticide in agricultural practice is
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT), which is moderately
hazardous, with high persistence
and a half-life of 2–15 years.
• The use of DDT is now banned in
many countries but it is illegally
used in most of the developing
countries. This applies also to
endosulphan, an insecticide which
is highly hazardous and has
moderate persistence with a half-
life of fifty days and is used in the
production of cashew.
 Organochlorines (OC)
A comprehensive summary of major Organochlorine pesticides with their chemical
name, structure, toxicity, use and persistence in environmental medium as follows:
1. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) C14H9Cl5: DDT, is a colorless,
tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 113–130 mg/kg, Dermal: 2510 mg/kg, Mice Oral: 150–300
mg/kg, Guinea Pigs Oral: 300 mg/kg, Rabbit Oral: 400 mg/kg
Structure:

Use: Acaricide Insecticide

Persistence in environment:High Persistence. Half life: 2–15 years
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Moderately hazardous
 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
C14H9Cl5
Mechanism of insecticide action: In insects, DDT opens
sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire
spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death.
Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene
are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides.
Biological Effect: Human: Prickling sensation of the mouth,
nausea, dizziness, confusion, headache, lethargy,
incoordination, vomiting, fatigue, tremors in the extremities,
anorexia, anemia, muscular weakness, hyper excitability,
anxiety, and nervous tension.
In Birds: Egg shell thinning and in Fish: Affects membrane
function and enzymes
 Organochlorines (OC)
2. 1,1-dichloro-2,2bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDD)
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 4000 mg/kg
Structure:
Use: Insecticide

Persistence in environment:High
Persistence Half life: 5–10 years

WHO classification based on rat oral

LD50: Acute hazard is unlikely
 Organochlorines (OC)
3. Dicofol C14H9Cl5O: Dicofol is an organochlorine pesticide that is chemically
related to DDT. Dicofol is a acaricide that is very effective against spider mite.
Pure dicofol is a white crystalline solid. Technical dicofol is a red-brown or amber
viscous liquid with an odor like fresh-cut hay.
Solubility: It is stable under cool and dry conditions, is practically insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents. Solubility: 0.8 mg/l (25 °C) in water.
Melting Point: 78.5 - 79.5 °C for pure dicofol, 50 °C for technical dicofol
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 684–1495 mg/kg, Rabbit Oral: 1810 mg/kg, Dermal: 2.1
g/kg Use: Acaricide. It is formulated as emulsifiable
Structure: concentrates, wettable powders, dusts, ready-to-use
liquids, and aerosol sprays.
Persistence in environment:Moderate persistence
Half life: 60 days
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50:
Biological Effect: Moderately hazardous
Rats: Decrease in body weight and acute neurotoxicity
Dogs: Inhibition of ACTH (Adrenal cortical tropic hormone)
 Organochlorines (OC)
4. Endrin C12H8Cl6O : It was primarily used as an insecticide, as
well as a rodenticide and piscicide. It is a colourless, odorless solid,
although commercial samples are often off-white.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 3 mg/kg, Dermal: 15 mg/kg, Mouse Oral:
1.37g/kg, Rabbit Oral: 60–94 mg/kg
Persistence in environment:
Structure: Moderate Persistence Half life:
1Day to 12 Years
WHO classification based on rat
oral LD50: Highly hazardous
Use: Acaricide. Endrin was formulated as emulsifiable concentrates (ECs), wettable
powders (WPs), granules, field strength dusts (FSDs), and pastes. The product could then be
applied by aircraft or by handheld sprayers in its various formulations. Exposure to endrin
can occur by inhalation, ingestion of substances containing the compound, or by skin
contact. In addition to inhalation and skin contact, infants can be exposed by ingesting the
breast milk of an exposed woman. In utero, fetuses are exposed by way of the placenta if the
mother has been exposed.
 Organochlorines (OC)
5. Toxaphene (Camphechlor) C10H10Cl8
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 80–293 mg/kg, Dogs: 25 mg/kg

Use: Acaricide, Insecticide

Structure: Persistence in environment:Moderate persistence
Half life: 11 years

WHO classification based on rat oral LD50:

Slightly hazardous
 Organochlorines (OC)
6. Endosulfan C9H6Cl6O3S: Although classified as a yellow label
(highly toxic) pesticide by the Central Insecticides Board, India is one
of the largest producers and the largest consumer of endosulfan in the
world.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 18 to 220 mg/kg, Dermal: 74 mg/kg, Rabbits
Dermal: 200–359 mg/kg, Ducks Oral: 33 mg/kg
Structure:

Use: Acaricide, Insecticides

Persistence in environment:Moderate Persistence Half life
Alpha Isomer:35days
Beta Isomer:150days
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Highly hazardous
 Endosulfan C9H6Cl6O3S
Biological Effect:
Human:
• Decreases the white blood cell count and macrophage migration, adverse
effects on humoral and cell-mediated immune system.
• Affects semen quality, sperm count, spermatogonial cells, sperm
morphology and other defects in male sex hormones DNA damage and
mutation

Rats
• Immunosuppression, neurological disorders, congenital birth defects,
chromosomal abnormalities, mental retardation, impaired learning and
memory loss and glomerulonephritis
 Organophosphates Insecticides
• Organophosphates are a group of human-made
chemicals that poison insects and mammals.
Organophosphates are the most widely used
insecticides. Its make up about 50% of the
killing agents in chemical pesticides. They are
used in agriculture, the home, gardens, and
veterinary practice.
• Organophosphate insecticides are one type of
pesticide that works by damaging an enzyme in
the body called acetylcholinesterase. This
enzyme is critical for controlling nerve signals
in the body. The damage to this enzyme kills
pests and may cause unwanted side effects in
exposed humans.
• Different Organophosphates group of
Insecticides are as follows:
• Malathion, parathion, diazinon, fenthion,
dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos, ethion etc
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Parathion: Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion and locally
known as "Folidol", is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide. It was
originally developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. It is highly toxic to non-target
organisms, including humans, so its use has been banned or restricted in most
countries.
Properties: When pure, parathion is a white crystalline solid. It is commonly
distributed as a brown liquid that smells of rotting eggs or garlic. The insecticide is
somewhat stable, although it darkens when exposed to sunlight.
Synthesis: Parathion is synthesized from diethyl dithiophosphoric acid
(C2H5O)2PS2H by chlorination to generate diethylthiophosphoryl chloride
((C2H5O)2P(S)Cl), and then the chloride is treated with sodium 4-nitrophenolate
(the sodium salt of 4-nitrophenol).

2 (C2H5O)2P(S)SH + 3 Cl2 → 2 (C2H5O)2P(S)Cl + S2Cl2 + 2 HCl

(C2H5O)2P(S)Cl + NaOC6H4NO2 → (C2H5O)2P(S)OC6H4NO2 +
NaCl
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Applications and dose: As a pesticide, parathion is generally
applied by spraying. It is often applied to cotton, rice and fruit
trees. The usual concentrations of ready-to-use solutions are 0.05
to 0.1%. The chemical is banned for use on many food crops.
Insecticidal activity and Mode of action: Parathion is a
cholinesterase inhibitor. It generally disrupts the nervous system
by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. It is absorbed via skin,
mucous membranes, and orally. Absorbed parathion is rapidly
metabolized to paraoxon.
Safety: Paraoxon exposure can result in headaches, convulsions,
poor vision, vomiting, abdominal pain, severe diarrhea,
unconsciousness, tremor, dyspnea, and finally lung-edema as
well as respiratory arrest. Symptoms of poisoning are known to
last for extended periods, sometimes months. The most common
and very specific antidote is atropine, in doses of up to 100 mg
daily.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Malathion is an organophosphate insecticide which acts as an
acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.
Physical / Chemical Properties:
 Malathion is a colorless to amber liquid with a skunk- or garlic-like odor.
 Molecular weight: 330.4 g/mol
 Solubility (water) : 145 mg/L
 Soil Sorption Coefficient (Koc) : 30, 93-1800 depending on soil type and
environmental conditions.
Uses:
 Malathion is a broad-spectrum insecticide used to control a variety of
outdoor insects in both agricultural and residential settings. Malathion is
registered for use on food, feed, and ornamental crops and in mosquito,
boll weevil and fruit fly eradication
 Malathion is also an ingredient in shampoos to control head lice.
 Signal words for products containing malathion may range from Caution
to Danger. The signal word reflects the combined toxicity of the active
ingredient and other ingredients in the product.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Mode of Action:
Target Organisms: Malathion is toxic via skin contact, ingestion, and inhalation
exposure.
• Malathion and other organophosphate insecticides bind to the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at nerve endings throughout the bodies of
insects and other organisms. Under normal circumstances, AChE binds to the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) at the nerve junction, effectively ending
the stimulation of the next neuron. When AChE is bound by malathion's
metabolite malaoxon, ACh accumulates at the nerve junction and results in
overstimulation of the nervous system.
• Malaoxon is considered to be 22 times more toxic than the parent malathion
from acute dietary exposure and 33 times more toxic by all routes of exposure
from short-term and medium-term exposures.
• The organophosphate pesticides, including malathion, share a common mode
of action. Exposure to multiple organophosphates can lead to additive toxicity.
However, the different organophosphates vary widely in their potency and
how well they are absorbed by the body depending on the route of exposure.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Mode of Action:
Non-target Organisms
• Acetylcholinesterase is found in mammals,
amphibians, fish, reptiles, and birds. In these
organisms, the binding of AChE with
malathion allows the accumulation of ACh at
the nerve junction. This accumulation of ACh
leads to overstimulation of glandular cells,
autonomic ganglia, the central nervous
system, and both smooth and skeletal
muscles.
• Uptake and metabolism of organophosphates
such as malathion are similar in insects and
mammals.
• Plants metabolize malathion to malaoxon
although this appears to be a minor pathway,
and maloaxon is rapidly eliminated.
Malathion is not expected to be toxic to plants
or aquatic algae because its mode of action
targets nervous systems.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Acute Toxicity:
Oral
Malathion is very low in toxicity when ingested. The acute rat LD50 is 5400 mg/kg
in males and 5700 mg/kg in females. The low toxicity is due to rapid
carboxylesterase enzyme metabolism of malathion. The acute LD50 in mice ranges
from 400-4000 mg/kg.
Dermal
Malathion is low in toxicity when applied to the skin. The acute dermal LD 50 in
rats is >2000 mg/kg.
In a skin-irritation study, malathion caused slight skin irritation in rabbits.
In an eye-irritation study with rabbits, malathion caused slight eye irritation that
cleared within 7 days.
Inhalation
Malathion is very low in toxicity when inhaled, with an acute LC50 in rats of >5.2
mg/L
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Parathion methyl, or methyl parathion: Methyl
parathion is an insecticide and acaricide used to control
boll weevils and many biting or sucking insect pests of
agricultural crops.
It kills insects by contact, stomach and respiratory action.
Methyl parathion is available in dust, emulsifiable
concentrate, ULV liquid, microencapsules and wettable
powder formulations.
Methyl parathion is one of a class of insecticides referred
to as organophosphates. These chemicals act by interfering
with the activities of cholinesterase, an enzyme that is
essential for the proper working of the nervous systems of
humans, animals and insects.
Properties: Pure methyl parathion is a white crystalline
solid with a characteristic odor of rotten eggs or garlic.
Technical product is light to dark tan with about 80%
purity. Methyl parathion is hydrolyzed by, and therefore
not compatible with, alkaline materials.
Chemical Properties
 Organophosphates Insecticides
TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS: ACUTE TOXICITY
Methyl parathion is highly toxic by inhalation and ingestion, and
moderately toxic by dermal adsorption. As with all organophosphates,
methyl parathion is readily absorbed through the skin. Skin which has
come in contact with this material should be washed immediately with
soap and water and all contaminated clothing should be removed.
Accidental skin and inhalation exposure to methyl parathion have
caused human fatalities. Methyl parathion may cause contact burns to
the skin or eyes . Because methyl parathion has a short half-life (1 hour
on cotton) when applied to crops, the risk of exposure to agricultural
workers is low.
Factory workers who handle quantities of concentrated methyl
parathion are at a higher risk. Exposure may occur during mixing,
spraying or application of methyl parathion, during cleaning and repair
of equipment or during early re-entry into fields .
Persons with respiratory ailments, recent exposure to cholinesterase
inhibitors, cholinesterase impairment, or liver malfunction are at
increased risk from exposure to methyl parathion. High environmental
temperatures or exposure of the chemical to visible or UV light may
increase its toxicity.
 Toxicity
• The main effect of acute exposure to organophosphates is
poisoning. Organophosphate pesticides can be absorbed
via the skin and integumentary system, respiratory
system via inhalation, or direct ingestion.
• Chronic exposure to organophosphate can cause the same
effects as seen in acute exposure. However, with chronic
exposure, memory, speech loss, lack of coordination, and
impaired judgment are also impaired.
• Chronic exposure to organophosphate can also cause flu- Lethal Dose 51–500 mg/kg
like symptoms like nausea, vomiting, malaise, and
weakness. Peripheral polyneuropathy has been linked to
chronic exposure.
• Exposure to some organophosphate has been associated
with the possible development of cancer.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
• The amount of a chemical that is lethal to one-half
(50%) of experimental animals fed the material is
referred to as its acute oral lethal dose fifty, or LD50.
The oral LD50 for methyl parathion in rats is 18 to 50
mg/kg, in mice is 14.5 to 19.5 mg/kg, in rabbits is 420
mg/kg, in guinea pigs is 1270 mg/kg, and in dogs is 90
mg/kg. The dermal LD50 in rats is 63 to 491 mg/kg, in
mice is 1200 mg/kg, and in rabbits is 300 mg/kg
• The lethal concentration fifty, or LC50, is that
concentration of a chemical in air or water that kills half
of the experimental animals exposed to it for a set time
period. The 4-hour inhalation LC50 for methyl parathion
in rats is 34 mg/m3, and in mice is 120 mg/m3.
 Carbamate pesticides
Carbamates
• Carbamates are also used extensively as pesticides. Their mechanism of
action, like that of OPs, is inhibition of AChE. The toxicity of the carbamate
compounds varies with the molecular structure, but in general the AChE
inhibition is of shorter duration than that of OPs. The severity and duration of
toxicity are accordingly less. Acute toxicity from carbamate exposure
produces symptoms identical to OP toxicity. The carbamate ester derivatives,
used as insecticides (and nematocides), are generally stable and have a low
vapour pressure and low water solubility.
• Aldicarb (Temik), carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin), ethienocarb,
fenobucarb, oxamyl, and methomyl etc are underCarbamate insecticides.
These insecticides kill insects by reversibly inactivating the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase. The organophosphate pesticides also inhibit this enzyme,
although irreversibly, and cause a more severe form of cholinergic poisoning.
• Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone mimic,
rather than inactivating acetylcholinesterase. The insect repellent icaridin is a
substituted carbamate.
 Carbamate pesticides
1. Carbofuran is an odorless white crystalline solid.
Contact with skin may burn skin and eyes. When exposed to
heat or flames it may emit toxic oxides of nitrogen.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Carbofuran is a white crystalline solid with a melting point
of 153-154 degrees C and a vapor pressure of 2 x 10(-5) mm
Hg at 33 C. Solubility in water is 700 ppm. Other
solubilities include: 30% in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, 25% in
dimethyl sulfoxide, 15% in acetone, 14% in acetonitrile,
12% in methylene chloride, 9% in cyclohexanone, and 4% in
benzene.
Mode of Action: Carbofuran is a broad spectrum carbamate
pesticide that kills insects, mites and nematodes on contact
or after ingestion. It is used against soil and foliar pests of
field, fruit, vegetable and forest crops. Carbofuran is
available in liquid and granular formulations. As with other
carbamate compounds, carbofuran's cholinesterase-
inhibiting effect is short-term and reversible.
 Carbamate pesticides
• Symptoms of carbofuran poisoning include: nausea, vomiting,
abdominal cramps, sweating, diarrhea, excessive salivation,
weakness, imbalance, blurring of vision, breathing difficulty,
increased blood pressure or 'hypertension,' and lack of control of
urine or feces release, referred to as 'incontinence.' Death may
result from respiratory system failure associated with carbofuran
exposure.
• Carbamates generally are excreted rapidly and do not accumulate
in mammalian tissue. If exposure does not continue,
cholinesterase inhibition reverses rapidly. The oral LD50 for rats
is 5 mg/kg, for mice is 2 mg/kg, and for dogs is 19 mg/kg. The
dermal LD50 for rabbits is 885 mg/kg .

• The 4-hour LC50 for inhalation of carbofuran in guinea pigs is

43 mg/m3. The LC50 for rats is 85 mg/L and 52 mg/L for dogs .
 Carbamate pesticides
Effect on Environmental
• Carbofuran degrades fairly slowly in non-sterile, neutral, or acid
aerobic soils, with half-lives ranging from 1-8 weeks. It is more
stable in sterile soil, and unstable under alkaline conditions.
• Under anaerobic conditions, carbofuran is more stable and may
take twice as long to degrade. The major degradates of concern
are the 3-hydroxyl carbamate and 7-phenol products resulting
from hydrolysis. The metabolites of carbofuran are less toxic
than the parent compound.

• Carbofuran is mobile in soil, particularly sandy soil with high

percolation rate.
 Carbamate pesticides
Ecological Characteristics
• Acute avian oral toxicity: LD50
90-500 mg/kg
• Avian subacute dietary toxicity:
LD50 16-1104 ppm
• Freshwater fish acute toxicity:
LC50 94-2859 ppb
• Acute toxicity for freshwater
invertebrates: 9.8-38.6 ppb
• Carbofuran is characterized as
very highly toxic to coldwater and
warmwater fish, highly toxic to
freshwater invertebrates, and very
highly toxic to birds.
 Carbamate pesticides
2. Carbaryl (1-naphthyl methylcarbamate) is a white
crystalline solid commonly sold under the brand name Sevin. It
is a wide-spectrum carbamate insecticide which controls over
100 species of insects on citrus, fruit, cotton, forests, lawns, nuts,
ornamentals, shade trees, and other crops, as well as on poultry,
livestock and pets.
It is also used as a molluscicide and an acaricide. Carbaryl works
whether it is ingested into the stomach of the pest or absorbed
through direct contact. The chemical name for carbaryl is 1-
naphthol N-methylcarbamate.
Carbaryl is formulated as a solid which varies from colorless to
white to gray, depending on the purity of the compound. The
crystals are odorless. This chemical is stable to heat, light and
acids under storage conditions.
It is non-corrosive to metals, packaging materials, or application
equipment. It is found in all types of formulations including
baits, dusts, wettable powder, granules, oil, molassas, aqueous
dispersions and suspensions
 Carbamate pesticides

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Carbaryl is a solid which

varies from colorless to white or gray, depending on the
purity of the compound. The crystals are odorless.
Carbaryl is stable to heat, light and acids. It is not stable
under alkaline conditions. It is non-corrosive to metals,
packaging materials or application equipment.
Solubility in water: 0.005 g/100 g (20 degrees C),
0.004 g/100 g (30 degrees C)
Solubility in solvents: Carbaryl is soluble in ethanol,
petroleum ether, diethyl ether, and chloroform; moderately
soluble in polar solvents such as acetone, dimethyl
sulfoxide, mixed cresols, and cyclohexanone.
Melting point:145 degrees C
 Carbamate pesticides
TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS
ACUTE TOXICITY
• The oral LD50 of carbaryl ranges from 250 mg/kg to 850 mg/kg
for rats, and from 100 mg/kg to 650 mg/kg for mice. The
inhalation LC50 for rats is 0,005 to 0.023 mg/kg . Low doses can
cause minor skin and eye irritation in rabbits, whose dermal
LD50 has been measured at greater than 2,000 mg/kg. Technical
carbaryl has little potential for skin or eye irritation.
• It can produce adverse effects in humans by skin contact,
inhalation or ingestion. The symptoms of acute toxicity are
typical of the other carbamates. Direct contact of the skin or eyes
with moderate levels of this pesticide can cause burns. Inhalation
or ingestion of very large amounts can be toxic to the nervous
and respiratory systems resulting in nausea, stomach cramps,
diarrhea and excessive salivation. Other symptoms at high doses
include sweating, blurring of vision, incoordination, and
convulsions.
 Carbamate pesticides
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
• Carbaryl is lethal to many non-target insects. The pesticide is
more active in insects than in mammals. The destruction of
honeybee populations in sprayed areas is sometimes a problem.
Carbaryl is moderately toxic to aquatic organisms, such as
rainbow and lake trout, bluegill, and cutthroat. It is also
moderately toxic to wild bird species, with low toxicity to
Canada geese .

• Accumulation of carbaryl can occur in catfish, crawfish, and

snails, as well as in algae and duckweed. Residue levels in fish
were 140 fold greater than the concentration of carbaryl in
water. In general, due to its rapid metabolism and rapid
degradation,carbaryl should not pose a significant
bioaccumulation risk in alkaline waters. However, under
conditions below neutrality it may be significant .
 Pyrethroides
• Pyrethroides and pyrethrins are similar organic
compounds isolated from the flowers of
pyrethrums (Chrysanthemum Coccineum and
C. cinerariaefolium).
• The insecticidal properties of pyrethrins are
derived from ketoalcoholic esters of
chrysanthemic and pyrethroic acids .
Pyrethroides affect the sodium channels and
lead to paralysis of the organism.
• Pyrethroides have a comparatively slight level
of mammalian toxicity and have a fast
biodegradation capacity.
• Exposure to very high levels of the compounds
in air, food or water may cause giddiness,
headache, vomiting, muscle twitching, low
energy, convulsions and loss of consciousness
Mode of action
 Others
• There are many more pesticides used in agricultural practice.
Heavy metals have found vast use as pesticides. Elements
like iron, lead, sulphur, arsenic, mercury, zinc, tin, etc. have
been used in inorganic or organic metal form.
• Methyl mercuric chloride, sodium arsenate, calcium
arsenate, zinc phosphide are some of the compounds that fall
under this category.
• Among the various classes of pesticides, organochlorines
and organophosphates are widely used. Organochlorines are
known for their high persistence and toxicity characteristics.
• These pesticides cause neurological damage, endocrine
disorders, and have acute and chronic health effects. Hence
contamination of the environment with organochlorine
pesticides drastically affects the ecosystem.
 Fungicide: Phenylamides & Phthalimides
1. Phenylamide fungicides are systemic compounds that show
potent eradicative anti-fungal activity. When added to the soil,
they enhance plant growth and yield; in addition, these
fungicides affect the homeostastis of the soil system. These
chemicals affect nutrient cycling and enter the food chain, and
have thus been reported to affect higher organisms including
humans. They affect nucleic acids by inhibiting the activity of
RNA polymerase I system. They are known to impact mitosis
and cell division in target fungi.
2. Phthalimides: Phthalimides include three fungicides, captan,
folpet and captafol which together represent the second most
important group of organic fungicides used. They represent
about half the usage of the dithiocarbamates. The fungicides
difolatan, captan and folpet react with thiols such as cysteine
and glutathione at acidic pH levels of 4.0 to 5.0.
 Herbicides
1. Phenoxyalkonates are a widely used family of herbicides.
These pesticides are mainly used to control weeds in
agriculture. Nearly all compounds of this group are degraded
by microorganisms.
Examples: 2,4-D(2,4 Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid),2,4 5 T(2,4 5
Trichloro Phenoxy acetic acid) Dichloroprop, Mecoprop, Erbin,
Sesone
2. Triazines: The compounds that fall under this category are
herbicidal pesticides. They include desmetryne, chlorazine,
atriazine, propazine, etc. These compounds are known to have
potential use as insect chemosterilants. Higher concentrations of
these herbicides were found to inhibit plant catabolism pathway.
Examples: Atrazine, Simazine, Ametryn, Atratone, Chlorazine,
Cynazine, Cyprazine, Metribuzin, Propazine, Turbutryn, Simetryn
 Herbicides

3. Benzoic acid: Benzoic acid herbicides include

dicamba, dichlobenil, chlorambin, bromoxynil, ioxynil
and naptalam. Little information is available regarding
their degradation by soil microbes. Ioxynil is found to
precipitate in acid soils.
Examples: Dicamba, Dichlorobenil, Chloroambin,
Tricamba, Neptalan, Bromoxynil

4. Dipyrids: The dipyridyl herbicides include paraquat

and diquat. They are strongly adsorbed as organic Benzoic acid
cations in the soil . Microorganisms metabolize paraquat
as the main source of nitrogen.
Examples: Paraquat, Diaquat
 References

1. [Link]

2. Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, Edited by: Robert I. Krieger and William C. Krieger, Academic Press,
Elsevier, 2001.
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
5. McCollister et al., [Link] Studies of 0,O-Dimethyl-O-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl) Phosphorothioate
(Ronnel) in Laboratory Animals , Insecticide toxicity to animals,ACS,690-693.
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
8. [Link]
9. CRC Handbook of Pesticides By G.W.A. Milne, Taylor and Francis, ISBN 9781315892078,2017.
10. [Link]
11. [Link]
 Bio-pesticide

The term biopesticides defines compounds that are used to manage agricultural pests
by means of specific biological effects rather than as broader chemical pesticides. It
refers to products containing biocontrol agents – i.e., natural organisms or substances
derived from natural materials (such as animals, plants, bacteria, or certain minerals),
including their genes or metabolites, for controlling pests. Biopesticide can be
classified as follows:
Microbial pesticides : pesticides that contain microorganism, like bacteria, fungi, or
virus, which attack specific pest species, as active ingredients. Although most of these
agents attack insect species (called entomopathogens; products referred to as
bioinsecticides), there are also microorganisms (i.e., fungi) that control weeds
(bioherbicides).
Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs): these include pesticidal substances that are
produced in genetically modified plants/organisms (GMO) (i.e., through the genetic
material that has been incorporated into the plant).
 Bio-pesticide

Biochemical pesticides: pesticides based on naturally occurring substances

that control pest by non-toxic mechanisms. Biochemical pesticides fall into different
biologically functional classes, including pheromones, and other semiochemicals, plant
extracts, and natural insect growth regulator.
 Microbial pesticides: Bacillus thuringiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt) is a gram positive, soil-dwelling bacteria (microbe). It is
naturally found in soil. During Sporulation, many B. thuringiensis strains produce
crystal proteins that are toxic to insects larvae. The protein, also known as Bt toxin,
is produced in an inactive, crystalline form. When consumed by insects, the protein is
converted to its active, toxic form (delta endotoxin), which in turn destroys the gut of
the insect.
It is also called crystal proteins or Cry proteins which are encoded by cry genes. In
most strains of B. thuringiensis, the cry genes are located on a plasmids (cry is not a
chromosomal gene in most strains).
Cry toxins have specific activities against insect species specially for the orders
Lepidoptera. They are target specific. They are used as specific insecticides under
trade names such as DiPel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these
pesticides are regarded as environmental friendly, with little or no effect on
humans, wildlife, pollinators, and other beneficial insects, and are used in organic
farming.
 Microbial pesticides: Bacillus thuringiensis
How does Bt work?
Bt has to be eaten to cause mortality. The Bt toxin dissolve in the high pH insect gut
(Alkaline) and become active. The toxins then attack the gut cells of the insect,
punching holes in the lining. The Bt spores spills out of the gut and germinate in the
insect causing death within a couple days. Even though the toxin does not kill the
insect immediately, treated plant parts will not be damaged because the insect stops
feeding within hours. Bt spores do not spread to other insects or cause disease
outbreaks on their own.
Bt action is very specific. Different strains of Bt are specific to different receptors in
insect gut wall. Bt toxicity depends on recognizing receptors, damage to the gut by the
toxin occurs upon binding to a receptor. Each insect species possesses different types
of receptors that will match only certain toxin proteins, like a lock to a key.
It is because of this that farmers have to be careful to match the target pest species
with a particular Bt toxin protein which is specific for that insect. This also helps the
beneficial insects because they will usually not be harmed by that particular strain
of Bt.
 Microbial pesticides: nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV)
The nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), is a virus having insecticidal properties, predominantly
affecting the moth and butterflies. The poly hedral capsid from which the virus gets its name is
an extremely stable protein srystal that protects the virus in the external environment. It
dissolves in the alkaline midgut of moths and butterflies to release the virus particle and
infect the larva.
Symptoms of NPV infection in insects include:
 Discoloration (brown and yellow)
 Stress
 Decomposition (liquedification)
 slow movement to no movement at all; refusal to eat)
The virus enters the nucleus of infected cells and reproduces until the cell begins to produce
crystals in the fluids of the host. These crystals can transmit the virus from one host to
another. The host becomes visibly swollen with fluid containing the virus, and eventually dies,
turning black with [Link] in infected insects is nearly 100%.
The virus is unable to infect humans in the way it does insects, because human stomachs are
acid-based and NPV requires an alkaline digestive system in order to replicate. It is possible for
the virus crystals to enter human cells, but not to replicate to the point of causing illness
 Mass production of Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV)
Materials required: Agar-agar : 12.75g
Gram floor (Besan) : 105g
Methyl Para Hydroxyl Benzoate : 2g
Yeast powder : 10g
Ascorbic acid : 3.5g
Sorbic acid : 1g
Streptomycin : 0.25g
Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus
Multi vitamin : 2 capsule
Vitamin-E (400 mg) : 1 capsule
Distilled water : 390 ml
Centrifugal machine
Glass vials
Muslin cloth
 Methodology
• Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) is host specific for Spodoptera
litura and Helicoverpa armigera. NPV is a stomach poison. NPV is effective
when it is ingested by the larvae. The mass production of NPV of H.
armigera and S. litura is same except H. armigera is reared in individual vial
to avoid cannibalism. The NPV of these pests can be produced by using both
natural as well as artificial diet contaminated with the respective NPV. The
third instar larvae of these pests either collected from field or reared in the
laboratory are allowed to feed the contaminated diet. Keep larvae hungry for
24 hours before inoculation of virus. Larvae get infected with virus within 3-4
days and hang themself upside down in tubes. These infected larvae are
collected in a beaker containing water for 3-4 days for putrification. The
putrified larvae are crushed with the help of mixer cum grinder by adding
some water. This solution is filtered with the help of muslin cloth and add
more water, if required. The filtered extract solution is centrifuged (30,000
RPM) to separate the polyhedral of NPV from the solution. The polyhedral is
separated from the water and is ready to use.
 Beauveria bassiana
• Beauveria bassiana is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout
the world and acts as a parasite on various insects species, causing white
muscardine disease; it thus belongs to the entomopathogenic fungi. It is
being used as a biological insecticide to control a number of pests such
as termites, thrips, whitefly, aphids and different beetles.
White muscardine disease: The insect disease caused by the fungus is a
muscardine which has been called white muscardine disease. When the
microscopic spores of the fungus come into contact with the body of an
insect host, they germinate, penetrate the cuticle, and grow inside, killing
the insect within a matter of days. Afterwards, a white mold emerges from
the cadaver and produces new spores. A typical isolate of B. bassiana can
attack a broad range of insects; various isolates differ in their host range.
The factors responsible for host susceptibility are not known.
 Mass production of Beauveria bassiana
• Materials required: Sorghum, Water, Chalk powder, Autoclave
Methodology: Soak 1 Kg of Sorghum in water for 48 hours. Replace water after
24 hrs, after 48 hrs. rinse water completely. Separate equally in 10-15 flasks
and plug with hard cotton cushion and wrap with double aluminum foil.
Sterilize for 40 minutes with 21 psi. Inoculate the each flask containing jowar
with 2-3 drop of nucleus culture after cooling. Beauveria culture will grow fully
after 20-25 days. Mix 2 Kg of chalk powder in Beauveria culture and dry in
shade.
Dose: 1 gram/liter of water or 1 Kg/1000 liter of water/ha (Repeat application
after 10-20 days interval). Beauveria bassiana can be used as a biological
insecticide to control a number of pests such as termites, whiteflies, and many
other insects. As an insecticide, the spores are sprayed on affected crops as an
emulsified suspension or wettable powder. The fungus rarely infects humans or
other animals, so it is generally considered safe as an insecticide.
 Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs)
• Plants can be given genes that help the plants' bodies make substances to
fight pests. These self-made pesticides are called "plant-incorporated
protectants" (PIPs). PIP-producing crops are sometimes called "genetically
modified" (GM) or "genetically engineered" (GE) plant.
• PIPs can help plants resist viruses, bacteria and insects. When PIP crops target
insects, they can be called "insect-resistant." PIP-producing plants can help
growers lower the amount of pesticides they use on their fields.
• Some of the crops that can be made to produce PIPs are corn, soybeans,
cotton, potatoes and plums. However, this does not mean that all of the
crops (corn, soybean, etc.) you see in farmers' fields are making their own
pesticides. Other forms of these crops are still conventionally or organically
grown.
Example of Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs): Bt cotton, Bt Maize. Bt
cotton, a genetically modified (GM) crop in which a gene for the Bt pesticidal
protein was introduced to the plant's own genetic material.
 Plant-Incorporated Protectants (PIPs)
• PIP plants are regulated as pesticides by the Authority. Authority looks at the
risks of each PIP before it can be registered as a pesticide. This review aims to
protect human and environmental health. The following factors are
considered in these reviews:
Risks to human health and the environment — including plants, animals and
other living things that are not the pests
What to do if pest insects develop the ability to recover from the plant-made
pesticides. This ability is called "insect resistance" or "pesticide resistance."
The chance that PIP genes could spread to other plants
Another genetic modification: Herbicide-tolerant plants
• Herbicide-tolerant (HT) plants have their genes changed to make them
survive the use of specific weed [Link] plants are sometimes called
genetically modified or genetically engineered.
 Botanical insecticides
Botanical insecticides: The botanicals are plant products that have
been used as insect repellents in our country from ancient times. Plants
yields the following products that are used in insect control;
(I) Toxicants or insecticides
(II) Attractants (Geraniol, Eugenol)
(III) Repellents (Oil of citronella and ceder)
(IV) Solvent for insecticides (Cotton seed oil)
(V) Dust carrier (Soybean and walnut shell flours)
Example of Some botanical pesticides along with their properties,
formulation, target insects, advantages and disadvantages are as
follows:
 Botanical insecticides
1. Nicotine (C10H14N2 ) : Tobacco was used in insect control in France
from early 1800 Its active ingredient was isolated, identify and
named as nicotine. The tobacco plants contains 12 alkaloids of
which nicotine, nornicotine and anabasine posses as insecticidal
properties. There are several species of tobacco plants but only
two, namely, Nicotiana tabacum and N. rustica are used for
extraction of Nicotine.
Properties: Pure nicotine is a colourless liquid soluble in water and in
most organic solvents darkens and becomes viscous on exposure to air.
It has low toxicity to plants, more to insects and the most to mammals.
In insect, it acts as contact and stomach poison affecting the nervous
systems. LD50 (Lethal dose) for aphid is 48.
 Botanical insecticides
1. Formulation: Nicotine is used as dust, spray and fumigant. The
compound that is commercially sold is nicotine sulphate ( contains
40 percent nicotine) which readily dissolved in water. As dust, either
crude tobacco is finely ground and mixed with a carrier.
As spray, one part of nicotine sulphate is dissolved in 500-1000 parts of
water
Target pests: Soft bodies sucking insects like aphids, thrips and scale
insects.
Advantage: Nicotine leaves no harmful residue
Disadvantage: Nicotine is highly toxic to mammals
 Botanical insecticides
2. Pyrethrum or Pyrethrins: Pyrethrum is obtained from the white
flower of Crysanthemum. The active ingredients of pyrethrum are six
esters: Pyrethrin I and II, Cinerin I and II, Jasmoline I and II whose
structural formulae are similar.
Properties: This is a contact insecticide affecting the nervous system.
The affected insect gets paralysed and quickly falls to the ground. This
action is termed as “ knock down” which does not lead to immediate
death and some insect may recover after a knock-down. Its LD50 for
housefly is 31 and for the bedbug 5.
Formulations: Pyrethrum is formulated as dust by grinding dried
flowers and mixing the powder with a non-alkaline carrier, as a spray by
extracting the active materials in solvents and as aerosols. A synergist is
usually added to increase its toxicity.
 Botanical insecticides
Targets: The target encompass a wide range. Pyrethrum is particularly
effective on ectoparasites like chewing lice of livestocks and on aphids.
It is also used as insect repellent. When mixed with grain, it protect the
store grain pests.
Advantages: (i) Pyrethrum posses a quick knock down powder
(ii) affect wide range of insects.
(iii) It has low plant and mammalian toxicity- only
insecticides approved in USA for use in food packaging.
(IV) It don't have any residual effect
Disadvantages: Pyrethrum is unstable and decomposed by sunlight
(II) It is expensive
 Botanical insecticides
3. Rotenone: The plant contained a chemicals that is known as
rotenone. It was first used as insecticides against caterpillar.
Properties: pure rotenone is a white, crystalline substance, insoluble in
water and soluble in organic solvent. Rapidly decomposed by light snd
alkalis. It is both contact and stomach poison which affects respiration
by the inhibition of O2 utilization by the body cells resulting in the
death of the insect. LD50 for B. mori is 3.
Formulations: It is formulated as dusts, WDP, EC and aerosols. Dust is
prepared by adding rotenone powder with 3-7 parts of a carrier like
talc, clay or gypsum never with alkaline carrier like lime. Dust are
effective in case of ectoparasite
 Botanical insecticides
Targets: Rotenone is effective against aphids, ectoparasite, pests of
vegetables and ornamentals plant. The crystalline form is also used in
moth proofing.
Advantages: It is harmless to animals, man and plants and no residual
effect.
Disadvantages: It has low toxicity to some insect.
 Botanical insecticides
4. Sabadilla: This is prepared from the seed of Amarican plant, Sabadilla
Officinale. A crude mixture of the plant alkaloids from subadilla seed is termed
as veratrine which contains several alkaloids, of which cevadine and veratridine
are toxic to insects.
Properties: Toxic principles of Sabadilla are easily destroyed by light. The
toxicants acts both as contact and stomach poison.
Formulations: This is formulated as dusts and sprays. Dusts are prepared by 5 to
20 percent ground seed of S. officinale mixed with a carrier like lime or sulphur.
Spray are prepared as 50 percent WDP.
Target: Human lice and thrips.
Advantages: It is safe for food crop
Disadvantages: It is unstable (II) It has low insect toxicity (III) It is toxic to
mammals
 Botanical insecticides
5. Acorus: Sweetflag or Acorus Calamus has insecticidal properties. A
mixture of powdered rhizome and powdered seeds affords protection
against stored grain pests. A mixture of its powder, water and soap can be
used as spray against aphids and caterpillars. Essential oil extracted from
the Acorus rhizome found to produce sterility in insect. This property can
also be used to control pests.
 Botanical insecticides
6. Neem: Neem or Azadirachta indica belongs to Meliaceae family have insecticidal
properties.
Active Ingredient: Seed is the main source for active ingredient. Apart from seed, bark
and leaf can be used for the same. The different active compound found in leaves are
Salannin, Azadirachtin, Azadiradion, Deacetylnimbinen, gedunin etc. Azadirachtin is the
main active compound.
Effect of neem derivatives: Neem derivatives do not kill insect outright as do the
chemical pesticides. The modify the insect’s behavior and influence their biological
process . The example of these effects are as follows:
1. Antifeedant or phagodeterrent effect
2. Oviposition inhibiting effect:
3. Growth and metamorphosis inhibiting effect
4. Effect on fecundity and egg sterility
5. Miscellaneous effect
 Other type of insecticides: Semiochemicals
Chemical communication plays an important and essential role in the
survival of insects, which enable them to appraise immediate environment
through modification of their behavior. Semiochemicals are organic
compounds used by insects to convey specific chemical messages that
modify behavior or physiology. The term semiochemical is derived from
the Greek word “semeon” which means sign or signal. Insects use
semiochemicals to locate mate, host, or food source, avoid competition,
escape natural enemies, and overcome natural defense systems of their
hosts. Semiochemicals have the advantage of being used to communicate
message over relatively long distances compared with other insect means
of communication such as touch. Semiochemicals have different molecular
weights depending on carbon chain. They are biologically active at very
low concentration in the environment, thus their chemical characterization
is complicated.
 Other type of insecticides: Semiochemicals
Equipment items include solid-phase microextraction (SPME), gas
chromatography-electroantennography (GC-EAG), gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) etc
are needed for extraction and chemical characterization of
semiochemicals.
Semiochemicals are species-specific and harmless to the environment.
These advantages over conventional insect pest control agents make
semiochemicals promising tools for the management of agricultural pests
particularly under organic cropping systems.
Identification and behavioral characterization of semiochemicals
• Identifying the range of volatiles that insects can detect in their environment is an important step
toward understanding the role of olfaction in modulating insect behavior. The process of
semiochemical identification involves extraction or headspace collection, identification of active
compounds, characterization of chemical composition of the identified compound, and
elucidation of behavioral response of the insect to the active product. If the organ that produces
the semiochemical is known, for example, the exocrine gland or the gut of the insect, it can be
extracted and identified. However, nonrelevant compounds can also be extracted, which
complicate the identification process. Accordingly, headspace collection is preferred instead
where a charcoal-filtered air is passed over the insect or its organ in an isolated aeration chamber
and the odor-laden air is withdrawn by vacuum for analysis. The air containing a mixture of
volatiles can be analyzed per se or after being absorbed by super Q using columns. In the 1950s, it
has been discovered that a measurable voltage arised between the tip and base of the insect
antenna when exposed to odors of biological significance for the insect. This antennal response to
different odors is known as electroantennogram or EAG. This voltage is thought to represent the
summed potentials of multiple responding olfactory neurons within the antenna, and the
amplitude of the voltage roughly corresponds to an insect’s sensitivity to a particular compound.
The EAG has been widely used in entomology for pheromones’ identification. The
electroantennogram was improved through time and the insect antenna has been used as a
detector (EAD) for a capillary-column gas chromatography, which is coupled with the flame
ionization detector (FID) that is sensitive to all organic molecules.
 Identification and behavioral characterization of semiochemicals
• The GC-EAD is gas chromatography coupled with electroantennographic detection of compounds
present in complex mixtures. This analytical procedure allows for rapid and accurate identification of
insect odors. It is widely used to discover and identify semiochemicals like insect pheromones and
repellents . The apparatus consists of injector (heated chamber), the column (10–100 m long, 1 mm
wide) lined with a semisolid wax or polymer, flame ionization detector, insect antennal preparation,
and a monitor to display the voltage output of the detector and the insect antenna (voltage on the Y-
axis against time on the X-axis). Retention time and peak of each molecule give the identity and
amount of the compound in the mixture, respectively. The FID output can be used to confirm the
presence, identity, and quantity of compounds exposed to the antenna while the antennal (EAD)
output indicates the presence/absence of olfactory sensitivity to eluting compounds and provides a
relative measure of the intensity of olfactory stimulation. The FID peaks of the test compounds can be
compared with retention times of those of commercially available versions of the same compounds
injected into the GC. Identifications can be confirmed by re-analyzing the extract with a coupled gas
chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) using the same column and GC operating parameters as
used in the GC-EAD analysis. Testing the behavioral activity of EAD-active volatiles is an important and
complementary step in the identification of semiochemicals that modify insect behavior. This
behavioral bioassay test can be carried out using wind tunnel or an olfactometer
 Potential use of semiochemicals in insect pest management
• Attract and kill (A&K)
• The technique as the name implies simply use an attractant or
semiochemical to lure an insect to a point source that contains a killing
agent (insecticide, pathogen, or sterilant), hence the technique is termed
attract and kill, attract and infect, and attract and sterilize, respectively.
The technique leads to the reduction of the insect population by killing
the target insect or reducing its fitness and fecundity or disabling it by
causing disease.
• Mating disruption
The technique is most commonly used in semiochemical-based pest
management. It manipulates insect behavior in such a way that leads to
population reduction. The environment where specific insect pest needs to
be controlled is saturated with synthetic sex pheromones so that the
abilities of males to locate the natural pheromone plume emitted by
 Potential use of semiochemicals in insect pest management
• females are disrupted. Mating disruption using synthetic pheromones or
parapheromones does not completely shut off mating, but the delay in
females mating may reduce their fecundity by approximately 50%. Insect
females have a critical time to mate and reproduce and any delay of
mating may affect their fitness and their abilities to select the suitable
sites for oviposition .
 Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• Introduction: Trichogramma spp. belongs to the category of egg parasitoid of
biological agents. Trichogramma spp., the most widely used bio-control agent
in the world and is effective against bollworms of cotton, stem borers of
sugarcane, fruit borers of fruits and vegetables. It attacks the pest at the egg
stage itself and hence damage done by larvae is avoided. It offers a lower cost
but more effective plant protection option in comparison to insecticides. Two
species i.e., T. chilonis and T. japonicum are predominantly used in India.
Trichogramma are dark coloured tiny wasps and the female wasp lays 20-40
eggs into the host's eggs. The entire cycle is completed within 8-12 days. The
tiny adult wasps search for the host (pest) eggs in the field and lay their eggs
into the eggs of the pests. The parasitised host's eggs turn uniformly black in
3-4 days. The Trichogramma eggs on hatching, feed the embronic contents of
host's egg, completes its development and adult comes out of the host egg by
chewing a circular hole. A single Trichogramma, while multiplying itself, can
thus destroy over 100 eggs of the pest.
 Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• 2. Major equipment needed
• Equipments like semi-automatic corcera rearing cages, trays, iron racks, hot air
oven, air conditioner, UV chamber, incubator, moth breeding tins, grinder,
mating chambers, parasitization jars, refrigerator, wire mesh, netlon etc. are
required for mass rearing of corcera and Trichogramma production.
• 3. Steps involved in production
• i) Identification of host
• The Trichogramma of multiplication starts with identification of a suitable host
species, with the following characteristics :
• easily available.
• easy to culture with the locally available material.
• should yield maximum host egg/larvae/pupae per unit cost.
 Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• In India Corcera cephalonica, a stored grain pest has been used for mass multiplication of targetted
species.
• ii) Rearing of host insect
• The host rearing containers are made of materials which are non-toxic, cheap and optimum sized to permit
mating and host searching and amenable to easy cleaning. Most commonly used cages are wooden cages,
which are now replaced with semi automatic corcyra rearing cages. The nuclear culture, i.e. eggs of Corcyra
cephalonica are introduced in rearing cages. In the model use of semiautomatic rearing cages of 30 no. is
considered.
• iii) Preparation of feed material
• Corcyra feed may be prepared from bold white sorghum grains without any insecticide residues. This can be
tested by taking a sample of 100 g from each bag. The crushed sample is fed to 20 number of 1st/2nd instar
Corcyra larvae for 2-3 days. Based on the mortality of the larvae, suitability of grains may be decided. The
requisite quantum of sorghum is milled to make 3-4 pieces of each grain. Sorghum grains are heat sterilised in
oven at 100°C for 30 minutes and the grains are sprayed with 0.1% formalin. This treatment helps in
preventing the growth of moulds as well as to increase the grain moisture to the optimum (15-16%), which
was lost due to heat sterilisation. Then grains are air dried.
 Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• iv) Corcyra charging
• In each rearing cage, 7.5 kg of sorghum grains are filled and charged with 0.5cc eggs (1cc = 20,000 eggs) of
mother culture. Yeast, groundnut kernel and streptomycin is added to enhance egg laying capacity of the
adult moths and for enriching the diet.
• v) Collection of moths
• After about 40 days of charging, moths start emerging and the emergence continues for two months. 10 to 75
moths emerge daily with the peak emergence being between 65th and 75th day.
• Collect the moths daily and transfer to the specially designed oviposition cages for egg laying. Roughly 2000-
3000 pairs of moth can be placed in one chamber. Moth emergence reduces after 100 days of initial
infestation and cages are released for cleaning.
• vi) Collection of eggs
• Eggs are collected by means of manual suction and are placed in tubes and counted with measuring cylinder.
Approximately one cc of eggs of Corcyra counts about 20,000 at the fresh harvest. After that due to shrinkage
of eggs the count may be increased. The present model assumes 20,000 eggs per one cc for calculation
purpose. The final output of Corcyra eggs from one cage has been assumed at 7.5 cc.
 Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• 4. Production of Trichocards
• The demand for Trichocards will start from the onset of kharif season and extends to rabi
season. The summer season vegetables offer an extra demand.
• i) Egg preparation
• The eggs of Corcyra thus collected are cleaned to make it free from insect scales etc. They
are sieved thrice and then poured on a plain paper. By slowly tapping eggs come downward
stick on to gummed card. Thus, the cleaned eggs are spread on the gummed cards (15 cm x
10 cm) with the help of screen. These eggs of Corcyra are exposed to UV rays of 15 watt UV
tube for 45 minutes to prevent hatching. While UV exposure, egg card should be kept about
12-15 cm away from tube.
• ii) Introduction of Trichogramma
• After the sterilisation the egg cards are placed in plastic bottles and are introduced with
nucleus culture of Trichogramma species of egg or pupal stage. The ratio of host egg and
parasite adult should be maintained at 1:5.
 Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• iii) What is a tricho card ?
• The parasitisation of Trichogramma spp., in laboratory condition on one cc eggs of Corcyra
cephalonica, which are uniformly spread and pasted on a card measuring 15 cm x 10 cm is
called as Tricho card. The card has 12 demarcations (stamps). About 12,000 Trichogramma
adults emerge out from this card in 7-8 days after parasitisation. To delay the emergence of
Trichogramma, these cards can be stored in refrigerator at 5-100C for 10-15 days. On
removing the cards to room temperature, the parasitoids emerge normally. Trichocards
have a shelf life of 2-3 days. However, these can be stored in a refrigerator for a period of 1
month without any spoilage.
• 5. Dosage
• For controlling sugarcane early shoot borer : Start releasing 6,000 parasites per week per
acre area, for a period of 5 weeks, starting from 4th week of planting i.e., as soon as the
adult male moths of early shoot borer are noticed in the field. Totally 30,000 parasites are
to be released per acre. More parasites may also be released depending upon the crop and
pest density.
 Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• In cotton- The Trichocards are released in the field at 45 days after sowing @ 5 cards / ha (one lakh eggs). In
total three release are necessary.
• 6. How to use 'Tricho card'
• The cards are to be used before the emergence of the adult parasite. Cut or tear each Tricho card into small
pieces and distribute them all over the field. The pieces may be stapled to sugarcane leaf at 7-8 m distance.
Care is to be taken to release the parasites either in morning or evening i.e., during cool hours, in windward
direction and there should not be any pesticide spray. Before releasing the parasite, the infected shoots are to
be cut to ground level and buried inside the soil so as to avoid secondary infestation.
• 7. Advantages of using Tricho cards
• Less cost, more effective.
• field application (releases) is very simple as compared to other methods.
• Records show higher yield in sugarcane (about 4-5 tonnes), as secondary infestation is avoided while using
Tricho cards.
• Cost of pest control is very nominal.
• Added to all these, environmental pollution is avoided.
 Trichogramma egg parasite - Mass production
• 8. Precautions
• The following precautions are required to be taken while using Trichocards :
• Trichocards should be packed in such a way that the parasitised surface is on the inner side.
• Emergence date should be specified on cards for the guidance of the users.
• Trichocards should be stapled on the inner-side of the leaf to avoid direct sunlight.
• Card should be stapled in morning hours and just before emergence to avoid predation.
• Farmers should refrain from using pesticides in the field where Trichogramma are released.
If need arises selective / safer pesticides can be used and it is to be ensured that pesticides
are used 15 days before or after release of Trichogramma