Internal Combustion Engine
(ME60111)
Pabitra Badhuk
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kharagpur
Evaluation Pattern
Class test 1 – 10 marks
Class test 2 – 10 marks
Project presentation – 20 marks
Mid-semester exam – 30 marks
End-semester exam – 30 marks
Syllabus
Module 1: Engine types and their operation
(historical development, engine components, engine classification, operating cycle, engine
operating parameters, air standard cycles, thermochemistry, fuel-air cycles)
Module 2: Combustion chamber design principles in SI engines
(mixture preparation, charge motion, combustion)
Module 3: Combustion chamber design principles in CI engines
(mixture preparation, charge motion, combustion)
Module 4: Pollutant emissions
(NOx, CO, HC, soot, measurement techniques, control)
Module 5: Numerical modelling of the combustion process in IC engines
(simulations to be carried out using Ansys CHEMKIN tool)
References
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, sec. ed., by John B. Heywood, McGraw Hill Education
IC Engines, fourth ed., by V Ganesan, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.
Fundamentals of Automotive and Engine Technology, Bosch Professional Auto. Info., Springer
Module 1 – Engine Types
and Their Operation
Background
Internal vs External Combustion Engines
External combustion engine: Work transfer and heat addition happen in different devices. So,
combustion is external to the engine.
Image source: ResearchGate
Internal combustion engine: Work transfer and heat addition happen inside the same device. So,
combustion is internal to the engine.
[Link]
engine-construction-working-limitations/
Steam engines to IC engines
It took 100 years to move from James Watt’s steam engine (1770s) to IC engines (1880s).
Key challenges:
Development of thermodynamics
Development of the petroleum industry
Development of metallurgy and manufacturing processes that can sustain high pressure and inertia
Historical Development
Nikolaus August Otto (1832–1891)
Otto’s singular contribution was his ability to be the first to build the four-stroke
internal combustion engine in 1876 and demonstrate its superiority over all its
predecessors.
By 1890, almost 50,000 of these four-stroke engines had been sold in Europe and the United States.
Historical Development
Gottlieb Daimler (1834–1900)
Daimler’s merits lie in the systematic development of the gasoline engine and in the
international distribution of his engines.
Wilhelm Maybach (1846–1929)
Maybach revised the gasoline engine and brought it to production. He also developed
water cooling, the carburettor, and the dual-ignition system.
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (1858–1913)
In 1892, Diesel was issued the patent for the “Diesel engine” that was later to bear his
name. Diesel has made a major contribution to a more economical utilization of the
internal-combustion engine.
Historical Development
Henry Ford (1863–1947)
In 1908, Ford introduced the legendary “Model T”, which was mass-produced on
assembly lines from 1913 onward. Ford built approximately 15 million Model T cars
between 1908 and 1927. This immense production volume made the Model T the most
produced car in the world until the Volkswagen Beetle surpassed it in 1972.
Specification Details
Engine Type 2.9 L inline 4 cyl
Horsepower 20 hp
Top speed 64-72 km/h
Fuel Petrol
Fuel economy 5.5-9.0 km/l
Range 300-350 km
Price (1908) ~$850
Price (1925) ~$300
IC Engine Applications
Automotive (Passenger vehicles, Commercial vehicles, Rail and Marine)
Aviation (Drones, Small aircraft)
Agricultural sector (Tractors, Harvesters, Threshers, Tillers, etc.)
Industrial equipment (Excavators, Bulldozers, Concrete mixers, Drilling rigs, etc.)
Power generation (Diesel generators)
Miscellaneous (Lawn mowers, Chainsaws, Firefighting pumps, etc.)
Size versatility
WinGD marine engine
Engine displacement volume
can be up to 2000 litres/cylinder
An engine may contain 12-14
individual cylinders
Ronald Valentine Engines
Engine displacement volume ~ 1-2 cc
Can be used in remote-controlled (RC) aeroplanes
Fuel versatility
Energy Content Maturity Application
Fuel Type Phase Engine Type
(MJ/kg) Level Example
Gasoline ~44 Liquid Spark-Ignition (SI) Mature Cars, bikes
Compression-
Diesel ~43 Liquid Mature Trucks, ships
Ignition (CI)
CNG (CH₄) ~50 Gas SI / Dual-fuel Mature Buses, fleet
Ethanol (E100) ~27 Liquid SI / Flex-fuel Mature Cars (Brazil)
Methanol ~20 Liquid SI / CI (mod.) Emerging Cars, trucks
Agricultural &
Biodiesel ~37 Liquid CI Mature
fleet vehicles
Experimental
Hydrogen ~120 Gas SI / CI (mod.) Emerging
cars, drones
Ammonia ~18.6 Gas/Liquid SI / Dual-fuel Emerging Marine engines
DME ~28 Vapor CI (mod.) Emerging Clean bus trials
FT Synthetic ~43 Liquid CI Emerging Military
Well to Tank (WTT) analysis: 2 wheelers in India
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
𝑊𝑇𝑇 𝜂 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
% Share of electricity generated by various
energy sources for India (FY 2019–20).
Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy 324 (2025): 135911.
Tank to Wheel (TTW) analysis: 2 wheelers in India
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑇𝑇𝑊 𝜂 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy 324 (2025): 135911.
Well to Wheel (WTW) analysis: 2 wheelers in India
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑊𝑇𝑊 𝜂 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy 324 (2025): 135911.
Well to Tank (WTT) analysis: Passenger cars in India
Energy generation scenarios
Wind, solar,
hydro, nuclear
Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy (2025): 139427.
Well to Tank (WTT) analysis: Passenger cars in India
WTT efficiency for various energy pathways WTT CO2 emissions for various energy pathways
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
𝑊𝑇𝑇 𝜂 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy (2025): 139427.
Well to Tank (WTT) analysis: Passenger cars in India
Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy (2025): 139427.
Tank to wheel (TTW) analysis: Passenger cars in India
𝑇𝑇𝑊 𝜂
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
=
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy (2025): 139427.
Well to wheel (WTW) analysis: Passenger cars in India
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑊𝑇𝑊 𝜂 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy (2025): 139427.
Comparison of various well-to-wheel analysis
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑊𝑇𝑊 𝜂 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Nandola, Yash, et al. Energy (2025): 139427.
EV production value chain
MCQ 1
The well-to-tank (WTT) efficiency is higher for
(a) IC engine vehicles
(b) Battery electric vehicles
MCQ 2
The tank-to-wheel (TTW) efficiency is higher for
(a) IC engine vehicles
(b) Battery electric vehicles
MCQ 3
Advantages of biofuels over petroleum-based fuels:
(a) Net-zero CO2 emission
(b) Minimizes supply chain risk due to geopolitical volatility
(c) Both (a) and (b)
Engine components
Four-stroke operating cycle (Common to both SI and CI engines)
Spark ignition (SI) Petrol/Gasoline engine
Compression ignition (CI) Diesel engine
Engine Components – 4-cylinder inline SI engine
Cylinder block
Cylinder head
Crankcase
Air filter
Crank
Connecting rod
Crankshaft
Flywheel
Pistons and piston rings
Intake and exhaust valves
Camshaft
Rocker arm and pushrod
Ignition system
Timing belt
Timing belt tensioner
Lubricating oil pump
Coolant
Fixed Parts - Cylinder Block and Cylinder Head
Cylinder Head Cylinder Block
Made of cast iron/aluminium
On the intake and exhaust valve diameters
The design of intake and exhaust valve diameters in an internal
combustion engine is governed by principles of flow dynamics,
thermal loading, and mechanical constraints.
The pressure difference driving the flow during the intake
stroke is lower (10-20 kPa) compared with the exhaust stroke
(> 100 kPa).
The diameter of the intake valve is typically larger (30-50
mm) compared with the exhaust valve (25-45 mm) to allow
smooth airflow into the cylinder. 𝑚ሶ = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 2𝜌Δ𝑝
The intake valve is exposed to a lower temperature compared to the exhaust valve. Hence, the
exhaust valve diameter is kept as small as possible to reduce the thermal load.
The design of the exhaust valve is also influenced by flow choking. The pressure ratio across the
exhaust valve is often higher than the critical pressure ratio, which leads to flow choking, thus
restricting the maximum flow rate allowable through the valve. The design of the exhaust valve aims
to minimize flow choking.
Moving Parts
Crankshaft
Push-rod mechanism
Piston and Connecting Rod Assembly
On the piston rings
Piston rings seal the combustion chamber. Prevents the
loss of high-pressure gases to the crankcase. Also
prevents lubricating oil from entering the combustion
chamber.
The rings also spread the lubricating oil on the
cylinder wall.
The gaps in the piston ring allow for thermal expansion
during operation.
The exact number of rings is a compromise between
effective sealing and friction. A greater number of rings
would improve sealing but increase sliding friction.
Most modern commercial engines use 3 piston rings.
The top two (towards the piston crown) are compression
rings, and the bottom one is an oil control ring.
Multi-cylinder engine arrangements
Inline engines Opposed cylinder engines
• Simple design • Good balance, efficient
• Engine balancing can be cooling
challenging • Niche uses: Porsche 911,
• Use: cars, small trucks BMW motorcycles
V engines U engines
• Compact design • Compact design
• Increased no of parts • Mechanically complex
• Use: Luxury cars, bikes and heavy
• Only legacy use
Radial engines Opposed piston engines
• High power-to-weight ratio • High efficiency
• Maintenance is difficult • Complex, two
• WWII-era aircraft crankshafts
• Used in military
engines
Multi-cylinder engine arrangements – Rotary engine
Radial engines
• WWI-era aircraft
• Excellent inherent cooling
• Low speed.
Basic geometry of a reciprocating IC engine
Top centre (TC)/ Top dead centre (TDC) These are the most
extreme positions that
Bottom centre (BC)/ Bottom dead centre (BDC) the piston can access.
Bore is the piston diameter
Stroke is the axial traverse between TDC and BDC
Displacement volume (Vd) is Bore * Stroke
Clearance volume (Vc) is the volume between the cylinder
head and the piston when the piston is at TDC.
Total volume (Vt) = Vd + Vc
r for SI engines: 8-12
Compression ratio (r) = Vt / Vc r for CI engines: 14-22
Variation of the chamber volume
From simple trigonometry,
𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐿2𝑟 − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
TDC
In engine modeling, we typically care about how far the piston has Cylinder
moved down from Top Dead Center, not its absolute distance from 𝑥(𝜃) boundary
the crankshaft. At TDC (𝜃 = 0), the piston is at its absolute highest
point. So, we have 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝐿𝑟 . The instantaneous downward
displacement of the piston from the TDC (𝑥 𝜃 ) is given by: Piston
𝑥 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑠(𝜃).
𝐿𝑟
𝑥 𝜃 = 𝐿𝑟 + 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐿2𝑟 − 𝑎 2 sin2 𝜃
𝑠(𝜃)
To convert distance to volume, we multiply 𝑥 𝜃 by the piston area
𝜋𝐵 2
. Finally, the cylinder volume is obtained by adding the clearance 𝜃
4
volume. The final expression is shown below. a
𝜋𝐵 2 O
𝑉𝑐𝑦𝑙 𝜃 = 𝑉𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝐿𝑟 + 𝑎 − acos 𝜃 − 𝐿2𝑟 − 𝑎 2 sin2 𝜃
4
Variation of the chamber volume
The variation of the chamber volume is not a simple harmonic motion. Due to the finite length of the
connecting rod, the piston passes the TDC very quickly, whereas it dwells longer near the BDC. At
the limit of an infinitely long connecting rod, the piston motion approaches SHM.
𝐿𝑟
Normalized cylinder volume vs a SHM =2
𝑎
𝐿
The graph uses 𝑟 = 2
𝑎
to differentiate the
engine motion from an
SHM. Modern
gasoline engines use a
value between 3.0 and
3.5. A lower value of
𝐿𝑟
is suitable for
𝑎
reducing the engine
size, but it increases
the frictional wear of
the pison.
Piston Offset
During the power stroke, cylinder pressure is at its absolute peak. By offsetting the crankshaft, the
connecting rod remains much closer to vertical during this high-pressure phase. Since side thrust is a
function of the connecting rod angle, a straighter rod drastically reduces the normal force exerted
against the major thrust cylinder wall.
Trade-off: The rod angle becomes steeper during
the compression stroke (higher angle), increasing
friction there. However, because the cylinder
pressures during compression are vastly lower
than during combustion, the net result is a
significant reduction in total engine friction.
Crankshaft offset is common in inline engines. But
not used in V-engines, boxer engines, and others.
Four-stroke engine animation
4-stroke SI Engine 4-stroke CI engine
[Link]
Comparison – SI vs CI engines
Description SI Engine CI Engine
Fuel Gasoline is a highly volatile fuel. Self- Diesel oil, a non-volatile fuel. Self-
ignition temperature is high. ignition temperature is comparatively low.
Introduction Fuel is injected either into the manifold or Fuel is injected directly into the
of fuel directly into the engine. A gaseous mixture combustion chamber at the end of the
of fuel-air is drawn in during the suction compression stroke.
stroke.
Load Throttle controls the quantity of fuel-air The fuel quantity is regulated to control
control mixture entrained into the combustor to the load. Air quantity is not controlled.
control the load.
Ignition Requires an ignition system (battery, spark Does not require an ignition system. The
plug etc.) fuel auto-ignites.
Comparison – SI vs CI engines
Description SI Engine CI Engine
Compression 8 to 12. Upper limit is fixed by the 14 to 22. Upper limit is limited by the weight
ratio anti-knock quality of the fuel. increase of the engine.
Thermal Because of the lower CR, the Because of the higher CR, the maximum
efficiency maximum value of thermal efficiency value of thermal efficiency that can be
that can be obtained is lower. obtained is higher.
Weight Lighter due to comparatively lower Heavier due to comparatively higher peak
peak pressures. pressures.
Speed Due to light weight and homogeneous Heavy-weight and heterogeneous combustion
combustion, these are high-speed make these slow-speed engines.
engines
The two-stroke operating cycle (Common to both SI and CI engines)
Two-stroke vs Four-stroke SI engines
2-stroke SI Engine Higher power-to-weight ratio: One power stroke per revolution
provides ~30% more power than a comparable 4-stroke engine.
Simpler construction: No valves or valve-actuating mechanism;
uses ports, making it mechanically simpler and cheaper.
Maintenance cost is also lower due to fewer moving parts.
More uniform torque: Due to one power stroke every revolution.
Lower thermal efficiency: Fuel-air mixture may escape during
scavenging, increasing fuel consumption. Complete combustion
is difficult to attain due to the shorter time available.
Lack of flexibility: Poor efficiency and irregular operation at
part-load conditions.
Greater cooling and lubrication needs: Due to one power
stroke per revolution, leading to higher temperatures. In 4-stroke
engines, lubricant is introduced to the cylinder through the
crankcase; however, in 2-stroke engines, the crankcase contains
premixed reactants. Hence, lubricant is directly added to the fuel,
[Link] leading to greater CO emissions.
Two-stroke CI engines
2-Stroke cycles Are More Feasible in CI Engines than SI Engines.
CI engines (diesel) intake only air during the suction/scavenging phase. In a 2-stroke SI engine,
the intake charge is an air-fuel mixture, and during scavenging, some of this fresh charge can escape
with the exhaust due to the overlap of intake and exhaust ports. This leads to fuel wastage and lower
thermal efficiency in SI engines, a problem that does not occur in CI engines.
Diesel fuel also has better lubricating properties than petrol due to its higher viscosity. Thus,
eliminating the issue of lubrication in 2-stroke engines to some extent.
2-stroke CI engines commonly find usage in marine, industrial, and heavy-duty applications. In such
applications, the engine speed is typically < 100 RPM. At such a low speed, there is typically
sufficient time available for complete combustion.
Various methods of scavenging in 2-stroke cycles
Cross scavenging Uniflow scavenging
Wankel engine animation
• 3 power strokes per rotation of the rotor, leading
to a very smooth torque profile. This design was
introduced by Mazda in 1967.
• Wankel engines contain fewer moving parts.
The elimination of reciprocating mass and the
elimination of the most highly stressed and
failure-prone parts of piston engines gives the
Wankel engine high reliability, a smoother flow
of power, and a high power-to-weight ratio.
• The main challenge is sealing between the
chambers. Leakage across chambers reduces
engine efficiency. Also, the unreacted mixture
gets trapped in the crevices and does not burn
efficiently, leading to large UHC and CO
emissions.
[Link]
MCQ 1
The intake charge in a 4-stroke diesel engine consists of
(a) Air alone
(b) Air + lubricating oil
(c) Air + fuel
(d) Air + fuel + lubricating oil
MCQ 2
In a four stroke IC engine cam shaft rotates at
(a) At the Same speed as the crankshaft
(b) Twice the speed of the crankshaft
(c) Half the speed of the crankshaft
MCQ 3
The thermal efficiency of the CI engine is higher than that of the SI engine due to
(a) Fuel used
(b) Ignition strategy
(c) Higher compression ratio
(d) Constant pressure combustion
MCQ 4
The advantage of a two-stroke engine over a four-stroke engine is
(a) More uniform torque on the crankshaft
(b) More power/weight ratio
(c) Absence of valves
(d) All of the above
MCQ 5
The disadvantage of a two-stroke engine over a four-stroke engine is
(a) Higher fuel consumption due to incomplete combustion
(b) Greater emission due to the mixing between intake and exhaust
(c) Reduced engine life due to the absence of a dedicated lubrication system
(d) All of the above
MCQ 6
The intake charge in a 2-stroke petrol engine consists of
(a) Air alone
(b) Air + lubricating oil
(c) Air + fuel
(d) Air + fuel + lubricating oil
Engine Performance
Parameters
Engine Torque
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑅𝑐 sin(𝜃 + 𝜙)
Generally, peak pressure and hence, the peak torque, occur at 10°-15° aTDC. If the peak pressure
appears at the TDC, the power transfer to the crank would be extremely inefficient.
Indicated power
Indicated Power is the rate of work transfer from the gas within the cylinder to the piston. The
indicated work per cycle (or power) represents the sum of the useful work (or power) available at the
drive shaft plus the work (or power) required to overcome all the engine’s frictional losses.
Gross Indicated Power = Area enclosed by the + loop of the P-v diagram * No. of cycles/second
Net indicated Power = Net area enclosed by both loops of the P-v diagram * No. of cycles/second
Net Indicated power = Chemical energy stored in fuel
- energy lost due to incomplete combustion
- energy lost to the combustor walls and head
- energy lost with the exhaust gases
- pumping work
+
-
Brake power
Brake Power is the usable power output measured at the crankshaft (or output shaft). It accounts for
mechanical losses (friction, pumping, etc.) and is what the engine can deliver to external systems (like
wheels or generators). Brake power is measured directly at the engine’s output shaft, without
accounting for downstream transmission losses (e.g., in the gearbox).
Brake power = Indicated power
- sliding friction between piston rings and cylinder wall
- transmission losses due to bearing friction
- energy required to drive auxiliary devices (valves,
ignition system, feed pump etc.)
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑝 − 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑝 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑓𝑝)
Engine heat balance for a typical SI engine
Approximately 1/3rd of the fuel energy is lost as exhaust enthalpy.
Another 1/3rd is lost as heat rejected to the coolant.
Frictional losses are generally manifested as additional heat transfer to coolant or oil.
Brake work is generally 60-70% of the indicated work.
Pumping losses comprise approximately 5% of the total fuel energy.
Measurement of heat losses – Exhaust calorimeter
The exhaust calorimeter is used to measure the heat loss via the exhaust gases. It is essentially a heat
exchanger with two streams. Heat is transferred from the hot exhaust gases to the cooling water
flowing over the tube. The liquid flow rate is closely monitored such that the temperature of the
exhaust gases does not fall below 60°C at the exit of the calorimeter. This is because the dew point
temperature of the exhaust gases is approximately 60°C.
Energy balance of the exhaust calorimeter
𝑚ሶ 𝑔 𝐶𝑝,𝑔 𝑇𝑔,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑔,𝑜 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝,𝑤 𝑇𝑤,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑤,𝑜
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝐶𝑝,𝑤 𝑇𝑤,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑤,𝑜
⇒ 𝑚ሶ 𝑔 𝐶𝑝,𝑔 =
𝑇𝑔,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑔,𝑜
Total heat carried by the exhaust gases = 𝑚ሶ 𝑔 𝐶𝑝,𝑔 𝑇𝑔,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏
This method enables the measurement of the total thermal energy carried away by the exhaust gases
without requiring information about the exhaust gas constituents.
Calorific value of fuel (CV)
The calorific value (CV) of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit quantity of the fuel when
the fuel is burned completely and the products of combustion are cooled back to the initial
temperature of the combustible mixture. Other terms used for the calorific value are heating value and
heat of combustion.
When the products of combustion are cooled to 25°C, practically all the water vapour resulting from
the combustion process is condensed. The heating value so obtained is called the higher calorific
value (HCV) or gross calorific value of the fuel. The lower or net calorific value (LCV) is the heat
released when water vapour in the products of combustion is not condensed and remains in the vapour
form.
Fuel HCV (MJ/kg of fuel) LCV (MJ/kg of fuel)
Petrol 47.3 44.0
Diesel 45.5 42.5
Kerosene 46.2 43.1
Methane 55.5 50.0
Hydrogen 141.8 120.0
Engine performance parameters
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ = =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 𝐶𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Indicated thermal efficiency (𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ )
Brake thermal efficiency (𝜂𝑏𝑡ℎ )
Mechanical efficiency (𝜂𝑚 )
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Volumetric efficiency (𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 ) 𝜂𝑏𝑡ℎ = =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚ሶ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 𝐶𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Mean effective pressure (𝑚𝑒𝑝)
Mean piston speed (𝑆𝑝 )
Specific fuel consumption (𝑠𝑓𝑐) 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Here, indicated power refers to the gross indicated power (only + loop of the P-V diagram).
Engine performance parameters – Volumetric efficiency
This is one of the very important parameters which decides the performance of four-stroke engines.
Four-stroke engines have a distinct suction stroke, and volumetric efficiency indicates the breathing
ability of the engine. It is to be noted that the utilisation of the air is what determines the power
output of the engine. The intake system must be designed in such a way that the engine must be able
to take in as much air as possible.
It is to be noted that irrespective of the engine, whether SI, CI or gas engine, the mass flow rate of
air flow is what is to be taken into account and not the mixture flow.
𝑚ሶ 𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝜌𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑉𝑑 𝑚ሶ 𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Mass of air intake during the suction stroke (kg)
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝜌𝑎𝑚𝑏 = Ambient density of air (kg/m3)
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = ; 4 − 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑉 = Displacement volume of the engine (m 3)
𝑁 𝑑
𝜌𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑉𝑑 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 = Mass of air intake per second (kg/s)
120
𝑚ሶ 𝑎 N = Engine RPM
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = ; 2 − 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑁
𝜌𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑉𝑑
60
The normal range of volumetric efficiency at full throttle for SI engines is between 80 to 85% where
whereas for CI engines it is between 85 to 90%. Gas engines have much lower volumetric efficiency
since gaseous fuel displaces air, and therefore, the breathing capacity of the engine is reduced.
Engine performance parameters – BEP, SFC
Mean effective pressure (MEP) is the average pressure inside the cylinders of an internal
combustion engine based on the calculated or measured power output. It increases as manifold pressure
increases. They are derived from the indicated and brake power, respectively.
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑒𝑝 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)
𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝(𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎) =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝(𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎) =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
The specific fuel consumption (SFC) characteristics of an engine are generally expressed in terms of
kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour. It is an important parameter that reflects how good the engine’s
performance is. It is inversely proportional to the thermal efficiency of the engine.
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 =
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Engine performance parameters - Mean piston speed
𝑆𝑝 = Mean piston speed
2𝐿𝑁
𝑆𝑝 = 𝐿 = Stroke length
60 𝑁 = Engine RPM
Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia of the moving parts limit the
maximum value of 𝑆𝑝 to within 8 to 15 m/s. Automobile engines operate at the higher end and large
marine diesel engines at the lower end of this range of piston speeds.
Undersquare engines have superior thermal efficiency
Oversquare engine
Square engine
Bore > Stroke Undersquare engine
Bore = Stroke
(high-performance Bore < Stroke
petrol engines) (Heavy-duty diesel engines)
The maximum mean piston speed is similar (~ 15 m/s) in both petrol and diesel engines due to
lubrication considerations. Since the petrol engine revs at a higher RPM, the stroke length needs to be
shorter. The undersquare design is also thermally efficient as it minimizes heat loss.
2𝐿𝑁
𝑆𝑝 = ; 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑁 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝐿
60
During peak heat load (close to TDC) surface/volume ratio is lowest in the undersquare design.
Oversquare engine Square engine Undersquare engine
Higher S/V ratio Lower S/V ratio
MCQ 6
In a reciprocating engine with a cylinder diameter of D and a stroke length of L, the cylinder volume
is
𝜋
(a) 4 𝐷 2 𝐿 + clearance volume
𝜋
(b) 4 𝐷 2 𝐿 - clearance volume
𝜋
(c) 4 𝐷 2 𝐿 * clearance volume
𝜋
(d) 4 𝐷 2 𝐿 / clearance volume
MCQ 7
The definition of frictional power is appropriately represented by the definition:
(a) 𝑓𝑝 = 𝑖𝑝 + 𝑏𝑝
(b) 𝑓𝑝 = 𝑖𝑝 − 𝑏𝑝
(c) 𝑓𝑝 = 𝑏𝑝 − 𝑖𝑝
(d) 𝑓𝑝 = 𝑏𝑝/𝑖𝑝
MCQ 8
The volumetric efficiency of the SI engine is comparatively
(a) Lower than CI engine
(b) Higher than CI engine
(c) Will be the same as CI engine
MCQ 9
A SI engine operates with both petrol and CNG as fuel. The volumetric efficiency of the engine
when it operates with CNG will be
(a) Higher than the volumetric efficiency with petrol.
(b) Lower than the volumetric efficiency with petrol.
(c) The same as the volumetric efficiency with petrol.
MCQ 10
The mechanical efficiency tends to increase with RPM.
(a) True
(b) False
MCQ 11
The mechanical efficiency is typically higher for CI compared with SI engines
(a) True
(b) False
Example 1
The cubic capacity of a four-stroke over-square (Bore > Stroke) spark-ignition engine is 245 cc. The
over-square ratio is 1.1. The clearance volume is 27.2 cc. Calculate the bore, stroke, and compression
ratio of the engine.
Ans: Bore = 6.36 cm, Stroke = 7 cm, Compression ratio = 10
Example 2
A four-cylinder engine using natural gas can develop a brake power of 50 kW working with a four-
stroke operating cycle under the following conditions. Air-fuel ratio 9:1 (by volume), calorific value
of the fuel = 34 MJ/m3, Compression ratio 10:1, volumetric efficiency = 70%, indicated thermal
efficiency = 35%, the mechanical efficiency = 80%, and the total volume of the engine is 2 litres.
Calculate the following.
(a) The energy input per cylinder per combustion event.
(b) The energy input per cylinder per second.
(c) The engine RPM.
Note: Assume air density to be constant across the engine intake manifold and ambient. Hence, the
volumetric efficiency can be simplified as 𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = Volume𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
of air intake during the suction stroke
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
(a) 1.19 kJ/combustion event
(b) 44.64 kW
(c) 4500 RPM
Example 3
The indicated thermal efficiency of a four-stroke engine is 32% and its mechanical efficiency is 78%.
The fuel consumption rate is 20 kg/h running at a fixed speed. The brake mean pressure developed is
6 bar, and the mean piston speed is 12 m/s. Assuming it to be a single-cylinder square engine,
calculate the following. Take CV = 42000 kJ/kg.
(a) The brake power of the engine.
(b) The crank radius.
(c) The speed of the engine.
Ans: (a) 58.24 kW, (b) 10.15 cm, (c) 1773.4 RPM