GLOBALIZATION

Meaning, Features, Theories, Capitalism, and the Bangladesh /

North-South Context
A complete, easy-English study note covering: definition and features of globalization; how different theorists
explain it; the four approaches — Traditionalist, Globalist, Transformationalist, and Reformist; how global
capitalism developed; North-South power relations; protectionism; and the uneven flow of capital, technology,
and labor.

1. Introduction
Globalization is one of the most talked-about ideas in the modern world. It is used by teachers,
journalists, and policy-makers, but people often do not agree on what it really means. Some
scholars say globalization is very real and changing everything. Some say it is exaggerated. Some
say it is just a new name for old capitalism. This note explains globalization in simple language,
step by step: what it means, its main features, how thinkers analyze it, and how it connects to
capitalism, North-South relations, protectionism, and labor migration.

2. A Short History: How Old Is Globalization?

Before we define globalization, it helps to see that the world has been slowly connecting for a very
long time.
● About six thousand years ago, when early city-states formed in Mesopotamia, their area of
control was only about two or three hundred miles wide.
● About two thousand years ago, the Roman Empire controlled an area with a radius of around
one thousand miles around the Mediterranean Sea.
● At the same time, civilizations were also growing and spreading in China and India. Historian
William McNeill calls the joining of these separate regions into one connected zone the
"closure of the Eurasian ecumene," which happened between roughly 500 BC and 200 AD.
● Diseases (epidemics) that spread across the ancient world around this time are seen as one
of the first real effects of these early connections. But for a long time, contact between distant
regions stayed occasional, indirect, and not political — not yet truly global.

This shows that connections between distant parts of the world are not new. What changed in the
twentieth century is the speed, scale, and depth of these connections.

2.1 The Turning Point: End of the Cold War

Many scholars say that globalization, as we understand it today, became a major force after the
Cold War ended. Two big events mark this turning point:
● The reunification of West Germany and East Germany, ending decades of Cold War division.

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● The introduction of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) by Soviet leader
Mikhail Gorbachev, which opened the door to major political and economic change.

Along with these events, the collapse of state socialism (the fall of the Soviet-led communist
system) and the strengthening of capitalism as the dominant world economic system pushed the
process of globalization forward very fast in the 1990s.

3. Meaning and Definitions of Globalization

In simple words, globalization means the growing connection between people, countries,
economies, and cultures across the whole world. Money, goods, ideas, and information now move
across borders much faster and more easily than before.

3.1 Globalization on a Continuum

One useful way to understand globalization is to picture it on a line, or continuum, running from the
Local to the Regional:

Local ————————————————— Regional

At one end of this line, social and economic relationships are based only on the local or national
level. At the other end, social and economic relationships and networks stretch out and crystallize
on a wider, regional or global scale. Globalization is not a fixed point — it is a continuum, and
different activities (trade, culture, politics) can sit at different points on this line at the same time.

3.2 Key Definitions

● David Held and Anthony McGrew define globalization as a process (or set of processes)
that brings a transformation in the spatial organisation of social relations and transactions.
This transformation can be measured by looking at its extensity (how widespread it is),
intensity (how deep it is), velocity (how fast it moves), and impact — and it produces flows
and networks of activity, interaction, and the use of power that cross continents or regions.
● Globalization is also described simply as the intensification of economic, political, social,
and cultural relations across borders.
● Some scholars describe globalization as a historical period, or historical epoch, that
began after the end of the Cold War.
● Others describe it as the transformation of the world economy, marked (in their critical
view) by what they call the "anarchy" of global financial markets — meaning financial markets
that move quickly and are hard for any single government to control.
● A more critical definition describes globalization as the triumph of Western (especially US)
values, spread through the combined agenda of economic neoliberalism (free markets) and
political democracy — in other words, an ideology that treats the free market's growth as the
natural and unavoidable result of history, alongside a technological revolution with wide
social effects.
● Anthony Giddens describes globalization as the intensification of worldwide social relations
that connect distant places, so that events happening far away start to shape what happens
locally, and local events can also affect distant places.

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● Roland Robertson describes globalization as both the compression of the world into a
single place and the growth of people's awareness of the world as one place.

Example: Bangladesh and the definitions above

When a change in EU trade rules or a rise in global cotton prices affects garment factories in Dhaka
or Gazipur, this shows Giddens' idea in action: something happening far away shapes daily life at
home. This is a simple, local example of what "intensification of worldwide social relations" really
means.

4. Problems with Defining Globalization

Scholars warn that we should be careful when reading any single definition of globalization, for a
few reasons:
● There are at least four different aspects or angles from which globalization can be explained
(economic, political, cultural, and technological), and different writers pick different angles.
● A good definition needs to be precise, concise (short), explicit (clear), and measurable —
many popular definitions fail this test because they are too vague.
● No definition of a concept or idea is completely neutral. Every definition of globalization
carries some ideological or political position, whether it favours free markets, is critical of
capitalism, or takes a middle path.

5. Related Ideas: Localization, Nationalization,

Regionalization, and Internationalization
Before calling something "globalization," scholars separate it from four related but different ideas:
● Localization — activity that is concentrated in one particular local area.
● Nationalization — activity that is concentrated within one fixed national territory.
● Regionalization — activity that is concentrated in one particular geographical region (such
as South Asia or the European Union).
● Internationalization — transactions and interaction between two or more separate states,
wherever they are located geographically.

Globalization goes further than all four of these — it is not fixed to one locale, one nation, or one
region, and it is more than simple state-to-state interaction; it creates networks that stretch across
the whole planet.

5.1 Five Conceptions of Globalization

Beyond "internationalization," globalization is often explained using four more ideas. Together,
these five conceptions are commonly used to evaluate and criticise how globalization is
understood:

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● 1. Globalization as Internationalization — simply more transactions and interdependence
between countries, without anything fundamentally new happening.
● 2. Globalization as Liberalization — the removal of government-imposed restrictions on
movement between countries, to create an open, borderless world economy (fewer tariffs,
freer trade, fewer capital controls).
● 3. Globalization as Westernization — the spread of Western (often American) social
structures, culture, and economic models across the globe, sometimes described as a form
of modernization built on Western patterns.
● 4. Globalization as Universalization — the process by which objects, experiences, and
ideas spread to people in all parts of the world, so that everyone eventually shares similar
goods and experiences (for example, fast food or smartphones reaching almost every
country).
● 5. Globalization as Respatialization — the deeper idea that globalization is reorganizing
social space itself, creating a new geography where distance and borders matter less, and
where transworld or supraterritorial connections are built (for example, instant digital
communication that ignores physical distance).

Example: Applying the five conceptions to Bangladesh

Bangladesh joining the WTO and cutting import tariffs is liberalization. Bangladeshi youth watching
the same shows and buying the same phone brands as people elsewhere is universalization (and,
some argue, westernization). A Bangladeshi freelancer working online for a client in another country
in real time, without ever needing a visa, is a clear example of respatialization.

6. Main Features of Globalization

6.1 Core Features (from the theory of Held and McGrew)
● It creates transregional interconnectedness — the widening reach of networks of social
activity and power, and the growing possibility of "action at a distance" (a decision made in
one country having an effect on people in another).
● Globalization is not random or occasional. It is a regular, repeated pattern marked by the
intensification of interconnectedness that crosses the borders and frontiers of states and
regions.

6.2 Some Common Discourses (Ways of Talking About Globalization)

● Time-space compression — modern transport and communication make distant places feel
much closer in terms of time.
● Accelerating interdependence — countries and people increasingly depend on each other,
and this dependence is growing faster than before.
● A shrinking world — the erosion (wearing away) of borders and geographical barriers to
economic and social activity.

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6.3 Broader Features Commonly Taught
● Economic integration — trade, investment, and production link countries together through
multinational corporations (MNCs) and global supply chains.
● Technological connectivity — the internet and mobile technology allow instant
communication and business across the world.
● Cultural exchange — ideas, food, fashion, and media move across borders, creating both
shared global culture and local blending (sometimes called "glocalization").
● Political and governance change — international bodies like the UN, WTO, IMF, and
World Bank play a bigger role, and questions arise about whether the nation-state is losing
power.
● Uneven mobility — capital, goods, and information move very freely, but the movement of
workers across borders is still tightly controlled (explained more in Section 13).
● Shared global risks — problems like financial crises, pandemics, and climate change
spread across borders and affect the whole world together.

Example: Globalization of production

A single smartphone may be designed in one country, have parts made in two or three other
countries, be assembled somewhere else, and then sold worldwide. This is what scholars call the
Global Commodity Chain (GCC) — production spread across many countries instead of just one.

Data also supports these features: the volume of world trade and business (exports and imports)
has grown enormously compared with the years before the Second World War, and thanks to
greater connectivity, global production has increased a great deal through such global commodity
chains.

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7. How Different Theorists Analyze Globalization
Scholars from sociology, economics, and political science look at globalization from different
angles. Here are some of the most important ones:

7.1 Anthony Giddens — Time-Space Distanciation

Giddens says globalization happens because modern life separates time from space. Because of
this separation, social relationships can be "lifted out" of one local place and connected with people
and events far away.

7.2 Roland Robertson — Glocalization

Robertson says the global and the local mix together rather than replacing each other. He calls this
mixture "glocalization." He also says people are becoming more aware that they are part of one
single world.

7.3 Immanuel Wallerstein — World-Systems Theory

Wallerstein argues globalization is not new. It is the latest stage of a capitalist "world-system" that
has existed since around the sixteenth century. In this system, countries are divided into core (rich,
powerful), semi-periphery, and periphery (poorer, less powerful) zones, with unequal exchange
between them.

7.4 Kenichi Ohmae — The Borderless World

Ohmae believes national borders matter less and less for economic activity. In his view, global
market forces are now stronger than the power of national governments.

7.5 Manuel Castells — The Network Society

Castells says today's world runs on global networks of information, finance, and production. Power
flows through these networks, not only through the territory controlled by states.

7.6 David Harvey — Capitalism's "Spatial Fix"

Harvey, building on Marx, argues that capitalism always needs to expand into new places to find
new markets, resources, and cheap labor. Globalization, in his view, is capitalism's way of solving
its own crises by expanding across space — he calls this the "spatial fix."

7.7 Ulrich Beck — World Risk Society

Beck argues that in a globalized world, risks such as financial crises, pandemics, and
environmental disasters no longer stay inside one country's borders — they become shared, global
risks.

7.8 David Held and Anthony McGrew

Held and McGrew's biggest contribution is not one single theory but a way of organizing all the
different views on globalization into separate approaches or "schools" of thought. This is explained
in detail in the next section.

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8. Four Approaches to Globalization: Traditionalist,
Globalist, Transformationalist, and Reformist
This is one of the most important topics for exams. Scholars disagree strongly about whether
globalization is real, who benefits from it, and what should be done about it. Their views can be
grouped into four main approaches.

8.1 Traditionalist / Radicalist / Rejectionist Approach

This approach is skeptical and critical of globalization. Its main arguments are:
● The division between the "First World" (rich countries) and the "Third World" (poor countries)
is a real and lasting fact, not something globalization has removed.
● Most ordinary people are actually excluded from the benefits of the globalization process.
● Globalization is deepening or increasing global inequality, not reducing it.
● The division between the North (developed countries) and the South (developing countries)
cannot be ignored — it still shapes world politics and economics.
● About half of the world's population, and roughly two-thirds of the world's governments, are
subject to the discipline (rules and conditions) of International Financial Institutions (IFIs)
such as the IMF and World Bank.
● There is growing polarization (a widening gap) between the rich and the poor in the global
economy.
● Because of all this, traditionalists suggest deglobalization and localization — turning away
from global integration and focusing more on local economies instead.

8.2 Globalist / Neoliberal Approach

This approach sees globalization very positively, as a new and mostly beneficial reality. Its main
arguments are:
● The world is moving toward a single global market.
● There is a progressive denationalization of economies — meaning national economies are
slowly merging into one connected world economy.
● Globalization is closely linked with liberalization — opening up trade and finance across
borders.
● Globalists argue that many countries in different continents have achieved industrial and
economic growth through globalization, which has helped reduce poverty and support social
development.

8.3 Transformationalist Approach

This approach takes the middle path between the Traditionalists and the Globalists. Its main
arguments are:

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● Globalization is a real and powerful process, but it is not leading to one single, predictable
outcome.
● It causes a reconfiguration (reshaping) of global power relations — power is being
rearranged, not simply lost by states or simply gained by markets.
● States are adapting to globalization by changing their roles, rather than disappearing.

8.4 Reformist Approach

This approach accepts that globalization is a reality, but argues that it needs to be managed and
improved. Its main arguments are:
● We cannot ignore the reality of globalization, but the direction of the process needs to be
redirected toward fairer outcomes.
● Capitalism could be a force for social good, if it is guided properly.
● There is a need for establishing control over corporate forces (multinational companies and
global finance) so that they serve people, not just profit.
● Reformists call for the democratization of globalization — giving ordinary people and poorer
countries more voice in how global rules are made.

8.5 Comparing the Four Approaches at a Glance

Approach View of Globalization Main Concern Proposed Solution

Traditionalist / Deepens North-South inequality; Growing global inequality and Deglobalization and
Rejectionist excludes most people control by IFIs localization

Globalist / Neoliberal A positive, single global market Barriers to free trade and More liberalization and
investment open markets

Transformationalist Real but open-ended and Reshaping (not loss) of state Adapt governance to
unpredictable power manage change

Reformist Real, but needs better Corporate power and unfair Regulate markets;
management outcomes democratize global rules

Note: Many textbooks also use a simpler, three-part version of this typology — Globalists
(Hyperglobalizers), Traditionalists/Sceptics, and Transformationalists — associated with Held and
McGrew. The Reformist position above is often treated as a variation of the Transformationalist
view, or as a bridge between the Traditionalist and Transformationalist positions. In exams, it is
safest to mention both versions: the three-school version (Globalist, Sceptic/Traditionalist,
Transformationalist) and this four-part version used in your course (adding Reformist).

Example: Applying the four approaches to Bangladesh

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A Traditionalist would point to Bangladesh's continued dependence on IMF loan conditions as proof
of unequal global power. A Globalist would point to Bangladesh's RMG export boom and poverty
reduction as proof that globalization works. A Transformationalist would note that Bangladesh's
state has changed its role — for example negotiating trade preferences after Rana Plaza — without
losing power altogether. A Reformist would argue Bangladesh should keep trading globally, but
push for fairer labor standards and stronger regulation of foreign buyers.

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9. How Global Capitalism Developed and Its Link with
Globalization
9.1 Historical Stages of Global Capitalism
● Mercantile capitalism (16th-18th centuries): European trading companies, such as the
East India Company, built long-distance trade networks and colonial systems. Wallerstein
sees this period as the birth of the modern capitalist "world-system."
● Industrial and colonial capitalism (19th century): Industrial growth in Europe needed raw
materials and new markets, leading to colonial expansion into Asia, Africa, and the Indian
subcontinent (including Bengal).
● Managed capitalism after World War II (1944-1970s): Institutions like the IMF, World Bank,
and GATT (later the WTO) were created to organize and expand international trade and
finance in a more rules-based way.
● Neoliberal globalization (1980s onward): Leaders like Reagan (USA) and Thatcher (UK)
promoted deregulation, privatization, and free trade. Structural Adjustment Programs pushed
developing countries to open their economies.
● Financial and digital capitalism (1990s-present): Open financial markets, digital
technology, and global supply chains let capital move around the world almost instantly.

9.2 Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth

Economist W. W. Rostow offered an influential model called the Stages of Economic Growth, which
described how a country moves from a traditional society toward a modern, mass-consumption
economy through a series of steps (traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to
maturity, and the age of mass consumption). This model was often used to explain and encourage
developing countries to integrate into the global capitalist economy by following the same path that
industrialized Western nations had followed.

9.3 Two Development Strategies and the Actors of Globalization

● Export-Oriented Industrialization (EOI): A country grows its economy mainly by producing
goods for export to the world market. Many actors are involved in this strategy: the state,
multinational and transnational corporations, the WTO, the World Bank, the IMF, the Asian
Development Bank (ADB), international non-governmental organizations (INGOs),
international human rights organizations, and global civil society organizations.
● Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI): A country tries to grow its own industries to
replace imported goods, relying mainly on the state as the main actor, with less direct
involvement of global institutions.

Example: Bangladesh's development strategy

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 Bangladesh followed an Export-Oriented Industrialization path, especially through its ready-made
garment (RMG) sector. Multiple actors were involved: the government (through the Export
Promotion Bureau), private factory owners, foreign retail brands, and institutions like the WTO
(which set trade rules) and the World Bank/IMF (which shaped economic policy).

9.4 The Relationship Between Capitalism and Globalization

Most scholars agree capitalism and globalization are deeply connected, though they explain the
connection differently:
● Marxist and world-systems thinkers (like Wallerstein and Harvey) say capitalism, by its very
nature, must keep expanding to new places to find new markets, resources, and labor.
Globalization, in this view, is simply capitalism's expansion made global.
● Mainstream liberal economists see globalization as the natural result of free markets,
technology, and countries specializing in what they do best (comparative advantage).
● Other scholars point out that globalization did not happen automatically — governments
made deliberate policy choices (cutting tariffs, opening capital markets, signing trade
agreements) to build today's global capitalist system.

In short, capitalism supplied both the driving force (the constant need to grow and find profit) and
the tools (markets, corporations, and financial systems) that built globalization, while globalization
then carried capitalism into almost every corner of the world.

Example: Bangladesh in global capitalism

Bangladesh's transformation into one of the world's biggest garment exporters is a clear example of
a developing country being drawn into the global capitalist production system as a low-cost
manufacturing base — exactly the kind of relationship Wallerstein's "periphery" concept describes.

10. Globalization and North-South Power Relations

A major question is whether globalization has made the world more equal between the developed
North and the developing South, or whether it has deepened old inequalities.

10.1 The Theory: Dependency and World-Systems Thinking

Andre Gunder Frank's dependency theory says the South's underdevelopment is not accidental —
it was caused by centuries of exploitation through colonialism and unfair trade with the North.
Wallerstein's world-systems theory builds on this, describing rich "core" countries, middle-income
"semi-periphery" countries, and poorer "periphery" countries, connected by unequal exchange that
moves value from the periphery to the core.

10.2 How Globalization Has Restructured North-South Relations

● Unequal trade terms: Southern countries often export cheap raw materials or low-cost
manufactured goods, while importing expensive technology and machinery from the North.

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● Unequal global governance: Institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and WTO give more
voting power to richer Northern countries, so global economic rules often favor the North.
● Debt and conditions: In the 1980s-90s, Structural Adjustment Programs forced indebted
Southern countries to open their markets and cut government spending, often under
pressure from Northern creditors.
● Technology gap: Rules on intellectual property (like the WTO's TRIPS agreement) protect
Northern-owned patents and technology, making it harder and costlier for Southern countries
to access new technology.
● Global value chains: Multinational companies from the North usually keep the most
profitable parts of production (design, branding, and finance), while Southern countries do
the lower-value work like assembly and manufacturing.

10.3 Has the South Gained Power Too?

The picture is not entirely one-sided. Several trends show the South gaining more influence:
● The rise of large emerging economies like China, India, and Brazil, and groups like BRICS,
have created new centers of global power outside the traditional North.
● South-South trade and cooperation have grown, reducing some countries' dependence on
Northern markets alone.
● Bangladesh's graduation from Least Developed Country (LDC) status shows how sustained
global integration — especially through garment exports and remittances — can bring real
development gains.

Overall, globalization has restructured, but not fully removed, the power gap between North and
South. Some Southern countries have gained real bargaining power, but deep structural
inequalities in trade, finance, and technology still tend to favor the North.

Example: Rana Plaza and North-South relations

The 2013 Rana Plaza factory collapse in Bangladesh, which killed over one thousand garment
workers who were making clothes for Northern retail brands, is often used as a stark example of
how global supply chains can push cost and risk onto Southern workers, while the biggest profits
and consumer benefits stay in the North.

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11. Has Protectionism Impeded (Blocked) Globalization?
In recent years, many countries have introduced protectionist policies — tariffs, trade barriers, and
restrictions on foreign investment. Many scholars now say the strong forward march of globalization
has slowed down, or even entered a new phase sometimes called "slowbalization."

11.1 Arguments Supporting This View

● The US-China trade war (starting in 2018) placed heavy tariffs on billions of dollars of goods,
disrupting global supply chains between the world's two largest economies.
● Brexit saw a major economy voluntarily leave a deep regional integration project (the EU
single market), reversing decades of closer integration.
● The COVID-19 pandemic exposed weaknesses in global supply chains, pushing many
governments toward "re-shoring" (bringing production back home) or "friend-shoring" (relying
only on trusted partner countries) for critical goods like semiconductors and medicine.
● Rising economic nationalism and populist politics in many countries have led to new tariffs,
industrial subsidies, and stricter screening of foreign investment.
● Multilateral trade talks, such as the WTO's Doha Round, have been stuck for years, showing
a shift away from global rule-making and toward one-on-one or regional deals.

11.2 Arguments Against This View

● Overall trade in digital services has kept growing even during recent tariff disputes, showing
adaptation rather than a full reversal of globalization.
● Much of the current shift is toward regionalization or trading with trusted partners, not a
complete return to economic isolation.
● Cultural and technological globalization (the internet, streaming, and social media) continues
with little interruption, even where trade in physical goods faces new barriers.

11.3 A Balanced Conclusion

On balance, the evidence supports the view that protectionist policies have clearly slowed and
reshaped globalization, even if they have not fully reversed it. What is happening now is sometimes
called "selective" or "fragmented" globalization: deep global integration continues in digital services
and among trusted-partner groups, while integration with rival powers is being deliberately reduced.

12. Free Flow of Capital and Technology vs. Restricted Flow

of Labor
One important and often-asked question notes a clear imbalance: globalization has hugely
increased the free flow of capital, goods, and technology, while the free movement of workers
across borders has faced growing restrictions.

12.1 The Imbalance, Explained

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● Capital flows freely: Foreign investment and financial capital move across borders with
relative ease, helped by open financial markets and digital banking.
● Goods flow freely: Trade agreements through the WTO and regional deals have lowered
tariffs and other trade barriers.
● Technology flows freely: The internet allows information, software, and digital services to
move almost instantly across borders.
● Labor does not flow freely: Cross-border movement of workers is still tightly controlled
through visa rules, work-permit quotas, and immigration limits, which are often getting
stricter, not looser.

12.2 Why This Imbalance Exists

● Sovereignty over borders: Even as states give up some control over trade and finance,
they still tightly control who can enter and live in their country, because immigration is
politically sensitive and tied to national identity.
● Protecting domestic jobs: Governments face strong pressure to protect local jobs and
wages from competition by foreign workers, so labor markets stay heavily regulated.
● Unequal bargaining power: Capital-exporting (often Northern) countries have shaped
global rules to favor free movement of capital and goods, which benefits their multinational
companies. Labor-exporting (often Southern) countries have much less influence over global
migration rules.
● Security concerns: Since the early 2000s, security worries and, more recently, populist
politics have made many destination countries tighten border and visa controls further.

Example: Bangladeshi migrant workers vs foreign capital in Bangladesh

Millions of Bangladeshi workers travel to the Gulf countries and Malaysia under strict quota
systems, recruitment rules, and visa sponsorship — and they can face sudden bans or tighter rules.
Meanwhile, foreign investors can set up businesses relatively easily inside Bangladesh's Export
Processing Zones (EPZs), thanks to generous investment incentives. This shows the clear gap
between free capital flow and restricted labor flow.

Some scholars sum this up by saying globalization has been built "for capital, not for labor" —
money and goods cross borders far more freely than the people who actually produce them.

13. Conclusion
Globalization is best understood as a long historical process of growing worldwide connection,
which has sped up enormously since the end of the Cold War. It has many features — economic,
technological, cultural, and political — and no single definition fully captures it, because definitions
are never fully neutral. Theorists disagree sharply: Traditionalists see growing inequality, Globalists
see progress and opportunity, Transformationalists see an open and unpredictable reshaping of
power, and Reformists want to keep globalization but make it fairer. Capitalism and globalization
are closely linked, each feeding the other's growth. Globalization has reshaped, but not erased, the

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power gap between the North and the South. In recent years, protectionism has slowed
globalization without fully reversing it, and one of the clearest remaining unfairness in the system is
that capital and technology move freely across borders, while ordinary workers still face many
restrictions.

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14. References
1. Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & Perraton, J. (1999). Global Transformations: Politics, Economics
and Culture. Cambridge: Polity Press.

2. Held, D., & McGrew, A. (Eds.). (2000). The Global Transformations Reader. New York: Polity Press.

3. Held, D., & McGrew, A. (2007). Globalization/Anti-Globalization: Beyond the Great Divide. Cambridge:
Polity Press.

4. Giddens, A. (1990). The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.

5. Robertson, R. (1992). Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage.

6. Wallerstein, I. (1974). The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European
World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Academic Press.

7. Ohmae, K. (1990). The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Interlinked Economy. New York:
Harper Business.

8. Castells, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network Society. Oxford: Blackwell.

9. Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1 Beck, U. (1999). World Risk Society. Cambridge: Polity Press.

0.

1 Frank, A. G. (1967). Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America. New York: Monthly Review
1. Press.

1 Rostow, W. W. (1960). The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge:

2. Cambridge University Press.

1 McNeill, W. H. Plagues and Peoples (source for the "closure of the Eurasian ecumene").
3.

1 Scholte, J. A. (2005). Globalization: A Critical Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan (source for
4. the five conceptions: internationalization, liberalization, universalization, westernization, respatialization).

1 International Monetary Fund. Globalization: A Brief Overview (IMF Issues Briefs).

5.

1 World Trade Organization and World Bank publications on trade, investment, and labor migration.
6.

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