Chapter: Solutions

These short notes cover every topic of the Solutions chapter with a strong focus on numerical problem-solving.
Each numerical type includes 5 fully solved examples, followed by a consolidated formula sheet and 50 subjective
practice questions with an answer key at the end.

1. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components. The component present in larger quantity is the
solvent; the other(s) are solute(s). Solutions can be classified by physical state of solute and solvent (solid, liquid,
gas) into 9 types, e.g., solid in liquid (sugar in water), gas in liquid (soda water), liquid in liquid (alcohol in water),
etc.

2. IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Ideal solutions obey Raoult's law over the entire range of concentration, with ΔHmix = 0 and ΔVmix = 0 (e.g.,
benzene-toluene, n-hexane-n-heptane). Non-ideal solutions show positive deviation (A–B interactions weaker than
A–A/B–B, e.g., ethanol-acetone) or negative deviation (A–B interactions stronger, e.g., acetone-chloroform). Large
deviations can lead to azeotropes — mixtures that boil at constant composition and cannot be separated by simple
distillation.

3. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES — OVERVIEW

Colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles, not their nature. The four colligative properties
are: (i) relative lowering of vapour pressure, (ii) elevation of boiling point, (iii) depression of freezing point, (iv)
osmotic pressure. For solutes that dissociate or associate, colligative properties are modified using the van't Hoff
factor (i).

4. VAN'T HOFF FACTOR — OVERVIEW

The van't Hoff factor i accounts for the extra (or fewer) particles produced by dissociation (or association) of solute
in solution: i > 1 for dissociation, i < 1 for association, i = 1 for non-electrolytes that neither dissociate nor
associate. All colligative property formulas are modified by multiplying with i: ΔTb = iKbm, ΔTf = iKfm, π =
iCRT, and relative lowering = i·x(solute).

5. NUMERICAL PROBLEM TYPES WITH SOLVED EXAMPLES

Type 1: Concentration Terms (Mass %, Molarity, Molality, Mole Fraction, ppm)
Key Formula(s): Mass % = (mass of solute/mass of solution)×100 | Molarity (M) = moles of solute / volume of
solution (L) | Molality (m) = moles of solute / mass of solvent (kg) | Mole fraction (x) = n(component)/n(total) |
ppm = (mass of solute/mass of solution)×10⁶
Example 1: Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 4 g of NaOH dissolved to make 500 mL of
solution.
Moles of NaOH = 4/40 = 0.1 mol.
Volume of solution = 500 mL = 0.5 L.
Molarity = 0.1/0.5 = 0.2 M.

Example 2: Calculate the molality of a solution containing 18 g of glucose (M = 180 g/mol) dissolved in 500 g
of water.
Moles of glucose = 18/180 = 0.1 mol.
Mass of solvent = 500 g = 0.5 kg.
Molality = 0.1/0.5 = 0.2 m.
Example 3: A solution contains 5 moles of water and 1 mole of ethanol. Calculate the mole fraction of each
component.
Total moles = 5 + 1 = 6.
Mole fraction of ethanol, xE = 1/6 = 0.167.
Mole fraction of water, xW = 5/6 = 0.833.
Check: xE + xW = 1. ✓

Example 4: 15 g of NaCl is dissolved in 135 g of water to prepare 150 g of solution. Calculate the mass
percentage of NaCl.
Mass % = (mass of solute/mass of solution)×100 = (15/150)×100 = 10%.

Example 5: 2 mg of Pb²⁺ is present in 1 kg of a sample of water. Express the concentration in ppm.

ppm = (mass of solute/mass of solution)×10⁶.
Mass of solute = 2 mg = 0.002 g; mass of solution ≈ 1000 g.
ppm = (0.002/1000)×10⁶ = 2 ppm.

Type 2: Solubility of Gases in Liquids (Henry's Law)

Key Formula(s): Henry's Law: p = KH·x, where p is the partial pressure of the gas, x is its mole fraction in
solution, and KH is the Henry's law constant.
Example 1: The Henry's law constant for CO2 in water at 298 K is 1.67×10⁸ Pa. Calculate the mole fraction
of CO2 in a soft drink bottled under a CO2 pressure of 2.5 atm at 298 K.
p = 2.5 atm = 2.5×101325 Pa = 2.533×10⁵ Pa.
x = p/KH = 2.533×10⁵ / 1.67×10⁸ = 1.517×10⁻³.

Example 2: The partial pressure of ethane over a saturated solution containing 6.56×10⁻² g of ethane is 1
bar. Calculate the partial pressure of ethane when the solution contains 5.00×10⁻² g of ethane (same KH,
same solvent amount).
By Henry's law, p ∝ mass of gas dissolved (at constant amount of solvent).
p2 = p1 × (w2/w1) = 1 × (5.00×10⁻²/6.56×10⁻²) = 0.762 bar.

Example 3: At 298 K and 1 bar pressure, the solubility of a gas in water is found to correspond to a mole
fraction of 0.035. Calculate the Henry's law constant.
KH = p/x = 1/0.035 = 28.57 bar.

Example 4: At 298 K, the partial pressure of a gas over its solution is 0.3 atm when its mole fraction is 0.002.
Calculate the Henry's law constant of the gas.
KH = p/x = 0.3/0.002 = 150 atm.

Example 5: A gas has a Henry's law constant of 5×10⁴ atm at 298 K. Find the mole fraction of the gas
dissolved in water when the pressure of the gas above the solution is 1 atm.
x = p/KH = 1/(5×10⁴) = 2×10⁻⁵.

Type 3: Raoult's Law and Vapour Pressure of Solutions

Key Formula(s): For a non-volatile solute: p = x(solvent)·p°(solvent). For two volatile liquids (ideal solution):
p(total) = p°A·xA + p°B·xB. Relative lowering: (p°−p)/p° = x(solute).
Example 1: The vapour pressure of pure water at 25°C is 23.8 mm Hg. Calculate the vapour pressure of a
solution containing 18 g of glucose (M = 180) in 178 g of water.
Moles of glucose = 18/180 = 0.1 mol; moles of water = 178/18 = 9.888 mol.
x(water) = 9.888/(9.888+0.1) = 0.98999.
p(solution) = x(water)×p° = 0.98999×23.8 = 23.56 mm Hg.

Example 2: Two liquids A (p°A = 100 mm Hg) and B (p°B = 200 mm Hg) form an ideal solution with xA =
0.4 and xB = 0.6. Calculate the total vapour pressure of the solution.
pA = xA×p°A = 0.4×100 = 40 mm Hg.
pB = xB×p°B = 0.6×200 = 120 mm Hg.
p(total) = pA + pB = 40+120 = 160 mm Hg.

Example 3: 30 g of urea (M = 60) is dissolved in 846 g of water. Calculate the vapour pressure lowering if the
vapour pressure of pure water at that temperature is 23.75 mm Hg.
Moles of urea = 30/60 = 0.5 mol; moles of water = 846/18 = 47 mol.
x(urea) = 0.5/47.5 = 0.01053.
Δp = x(urea)×p° = 0.01053×23.75 = 0.250 mm Hg.

Example 4: 5 g of a non-volatile solute is added to 100 g of benzene (p° = 640 mm Hg), lowering the vapour
pressure to 600 mm Hg. Find the molar mass of the solute (M of benzene = 78).
(p°−p)/p° = wB·MA / (MB·wA)
(640−600)/640 = (5×78)/(MB×100)
0.0625 = 390/(100 MB) ⟹ MB = 390/6.25 = 62.4 g/mol.

Example 5: 6 g of urea (M = 60) is dissolved in 90 g of water at 350 K. If the vapour pressure of pure water at
this temperature is 26.32 mm Hg, find the vapour pressure of the solution.
Moles of urea = 6/60 = 0.1 mol; moles of water = 90/18 = 5 mol.
x(urea) = 0.1/5.1 = 0.0196.
Δp = 0.0196×26.32 = 0.516 mm Hg.
p(solution) = 26.32 − 0.516 = 25.80 mm Hg.

Type 4: Determining Molar Mass from Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure

Key Formula(s): (p°−p)/p° = wB·MA / (MB·wA), where wA, wB are masses of solvent and solute, and MA,
MB are their molar masses.
Example 1: 1.00 g of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in 50 g of benzene (M = 78), lowering the vapour
pressure from 640 to 631.9 mm Hg. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.
(640−631.9)/640 = (1×78)/(MB×50)
0.01266 = 78/(50 MB) ⟹ MB = 78/0.633 = 123.2 g/mol.

Example 2: 2.5 g of a non-volatile solute dissolved in 25 g of ether (M = 74) lowers the vapour pressure from
442 mm to 426 mm Hg. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.
(442−426)/442 = (2.5×74)/(MB×25)
0.0362 = 185/(25 MB) ⟹ MB = 185/0.905 = 204.4 g/mol.

Example 3: 15 g of a substance dissolved in 250 g of water lowers the vapour pressure of water from 17.535
mm Hg to 17.35 mm Hg at 20°C. Calculate the molar mass of the substance.
(17.535−17.35)/17.535 = (15×18)/(MB×250)
 0.01055 = 270/(250 MB) ⟹ MB = 270/2.6375 = 102.4 g/mol.

Example 4: The vapour pressure of pure benzene (M = 78) is 750 torr. 2 g of a non-volatile solid is added to
78 g of benzene, and the vapour pressure of the solution becomes 745 torr. Calculate the molar mass of the
solid.
(750−745)/750 = (2×78)/(MB×78)
0.00667 = 2/MB ⟹ MB = 2/0.00667 = 299.85 g/mol.

Example 5: The vapour pressure of a solvent (M = 92) is 60 mm Hg. Dissolving 4 g of a solute in 90 g of the
solvent gives a solution with vapour pressure 58 mm Hg. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.
(60−58)/60 = (4×92)/(MB×90)
0.0333 = 368/(90 MB) ⟹ MB = 368/3 = 122.5 g/mol.

Type 5: Elevation in Boiling Point

Key Formula(s): ΔTb = Kb·m = Kb×(1000·wB)/(MB·wA), where wA, wB are masses (g) of solvent and
solute, MB is molar mass of solute, Kb is molal elevation constant.
Example 1: 1.5 g of a non-volatile solute dissolved in 60 g of water raises the boiling point by 0.15 K. Given
Kb (water) = 0.52 K kg/mol, calculate the molar mass of the solute.
MB = (Kb×wB×1000)/(ΔTb×wA) = (0.52×1.5×1000)/(0.15×60) = 780/9 = 86.67 g/mol.

Example 2: 18 g of glucose (M = 180) is dissolved in 500 g of water. Calculate the elevation in boiling point
(Kb = 0.52 K kg/mol).
m = (18/180)×(1000/500) = 0.1×2 = 0.2 mol/kg.
ΔTb = Kb×m = 0.52×0.2 = 0.104 K.
Boiling point = 100.104°C.

Example 3: 4 g of a substance dissolved in 100 g of water raises the boiling point by 0.2 K. Calculate the
molar mass of the substance (Kb = 0.52 K kg/mol).
MB = (Kb×wB×1000)/(ΔTb×wA) = (0.52×4×1000)/(0.2×100) = 2080/20 = 104 g/mol.

Example 4: Calculate the boiling point of a solution containing 10 g of urea (M = 60) in 200 g of water (Kb =
0.52 K kg/mol).
m = (10/60)×(1000/200) = 0.1667×5 = 0.833 mol/kg.
ΔTb = 0.52×0.833 = 0.433 K.
Boiling point = 100.433°C.

Example 5: A solution containing 0.5 g of a non-volatile solute in 39 g of benzene (Kb = 2.53 K kg/mol) boils
0.2 K above pure benzene's boiling point. Find the molar mass of the solute.
MB = (Kb×wB×1000)/(ΔTb×wA) = (2.53×0.5×1000)/(0.2×39) = 1265/7.8 = 162.2 g/mol.

Type 6: Depression in Freezing Point

Key Formula(s): ΔTf = Kf·m = Kf×(1000·wB)/(MB·wA), where Kf is the molal depression constant.
Example 1: 1.00 g of a non-electrolyte dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowers the freezing point by 0.40 K. Given
Kf (benzene) = 5.12 K kg/mol, calculate the molar mass of the solute.
MB = (Kf×wB×1000)/(ΔTf×wA) = (5.12×1×1000)/(0.4×50) = 5120/20 = 256 g/mol.
Example 2: 45 g of ethylene glycol (M = 62) is mixed with 600 g of water. Calculate the freezing point
depression (Kf = 1.86 K kg/mol).
m = (45/62)×(1000/600) = 0.7258×1.667 = 1.2097 mol/kg.
ΔTf = 1.86×1.2097 = 2.25 K.
Freezing point = −2.25°C.

Example 3: How many grams of urea (M = 60) must be dissolved in 500 g of water to lower its freezing point
by 0.2 K? (Kf = 1.86 K kg/mol).
m = ΔTf/Kf = 0.2/1.86 = 0.1075 mol/kg.
Moles required = 0.1075×0.5 = 0.05376 mol.
Mass = 0.05376×60 = 3.23 g.

Example 4: 1.5 g of a substance dissolved in 15 g of a solvent (Kf = 3.9 K kg/mol) lowers its freezing point by
0.4 K. Find the molar mass of the substance.
MB = (Kf×wB×1000)/(ΔTf×wA) = (3.9×1.5×1000)/(0.4×15) = 5850/6 = 975 g/mol.

Example 5: A 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar (M = 342) in water freezes at 271 K. Find the freezing
point of a 5% (by mass) glucose (M = 180) solution in water. (Freezing point of pure water = 273.15 K).
For cane sugar: ΔTf1 = 273.15−271 = 2.15 K.
m1 = (5/342)×(1000/95) = 0.01462×10.526 = 0.1538 mol/kg.
Kf = ΔTf1/m1 = 2.15/0.1538 = 13.98 K kg/mol.
For glucose: m2 = (5/180)×(1000/95) = 0.0278×10.526 = 0.2924 mol/kg.
ΔTf2 = Kf×m2 = 13.98×0.2924 = 4.088 K.
Freezing point of glucose solution = 273.15−4.088 = 269.06 K.

Type 7: Osmotic Pressure

Key Formula(s): π = CRT = (n/V)RT, where C is molar concentration, R is the gas constant, T is absolute
temperature. For dissociating/associating solutes, π = iCRT.
Example 1: Calculate the osmotic pressure of a solution containing 34.2 g of sucrose (M = 342) per litre of
solution at 300 K (R = 0.0821 L atm/mol K).
n = 34.2/342 = 0.1 mol.
π = CRT = (0.1/1)×0.0821×300 = 2.463 atm.

Example 2: At 300 K, 200 mL of an aqueous solution containing 1.26 g of a protein exerts an osmotic
pressure of 2.57×10⁻³ atm. Calculate the molar mass of the protein.
n = πV/RT = (2.57×10⁻³×0.2)/(0.0821×300) = 5.14×10⁻⁴/24.63 = 2.087×10⁻⁵ mol.
M = mass/n = 1.26/2.087×10⁻⁵ = 6.04×10⁴ g/mol.

Example 3: Calculate the osmotic pressure of a solution containing 6 g of urea (M = 60) dissolved in 1 L of
solution at 300 K.
n = 6/60 = 0.1 mol.
π = CRT = (0.1/1)×0.0821×300 = 2.463 atm.

Example 4: Calculate the mass of NaCl to be dissolved in 500 mL of water to obtain a solution with osmotic
pressure of 3 atm at 300 K, assuming complete dissociation (i = 2, M(NaCl) = 58.5).
π = iCRT ⟹ C = π/(iRT) = 3/(2×0.0821×300) = 3/49.26 = 0.0609 mol/L.
n = C×V = 0.0609×0.5 = 0.03045 mol.
 Mass = n×M = 0.03045×58.5 = 1.78 g.

Example 5: A glucose solution contains 18 g/L (M = 180) and a urea solution contains 6 g/L (M = 60). Show
whether the two solutions are isotonic at the same temperature.
C(glucose) = 18/180 = 0.1 mol/L.
C(urea) = 6/60 = 0.1 mol/L.
Since molar concentrations are equal, the osmotic pressures are equal at the same temperature — the two
solutions are isotonic.

Type 8: van't Hoff Factor (Dissociation and Association)

Key Formula(s): i = observed colligative property / calculated (normal) colligative property = normal molar
mass / observed molar mass. For dissociation into n ions: i = 1+α(n−1). For association into n units: i =
1−α(1−1/n).
Example 1: A 0.6 mol/kg aqueous solution of KCl freezes at −2.05°C. Given Kf (water) = 1.86 K kg/mol,
calculate the van't Hoff factor and the degree of dissociation of KCl (n = 2).
ΔTf(observed) = 2.05 K; ΔTf(calculated) = Kf×m = 1.86×0.6 = 1.116 K.
i = ΔTf(obs)/ΔTf(calc) = 2.05/1.116 = 1.837.
Since i = 1+α(n−1) with n = 2: 1.837 = 1+α ⟹ α = 0.837, i.e., 83.7% dissociation.

Example 2: A 0.1 m solution of K3[Fe(CN)6] (which dissociates into 4 ions) freezes at −0.68°C. Given Kf =
1.86 K kg/mol, calculate the van't Hoff factor.
ΔTf(observed) = 0.68 K; ΔTf(calculated) = Kf×m = 1.86×0.1 = 0.186 K.
i = 0.68/0.186 = 3.656, close to the ideal value of 4 for near-complete dissociation into 4 ions.

Example 3: Benzoic acid (M = 122) dissolved in benzene shows a van't Hoff factor of 0.5, indicating
dimerization. Calculate the observed (apparent) molar mass of benzoic acid in benzene.
i = Normal molar mass/Observed molar mass ⟹ Observed molar mass = Normal molar mass/i = 122/0.5 = 244
g/mol (matches the dimer mass, 2×122 = 244).

Example 4: 2 g of benzoic acid (M = 122) dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a freezing point depression of
1.62 K. Given Kf (benzene) = 4.9 K kg/mol, find the van't Hoff factor and the degree of association, assuming
dimerization (n = 2).
m = (wB×1000)/(MB×wA) = (2×1000)/(122×25) = 0.6557 mol/kg.
ΔTf(calculated, no association) = Kf×m = 4.9×0.6557 = 3.213 K.
i = ΔTf(obs)/ΔTf(calc) = 1.62/3.213 = 0.504.
Using i = 1−α(1−1/n) with n=2: 0.504 = 1−0.5α ⟹ α = 0.992, i.e., ~99.2% association.

Example 5: 19.5 g of CH2FCOOH (M = 78) is dissolved in 500 g of water. The observed depression in
freezing point is 1°C. Calculate the degree of dissociation of the acid (Kf = 1.86 K kg/mol, n = 2).
m = (19.5/78)×(1000/500) = 0.25×2 = 0.5 mol/kg.
ΔTf(calculated, no dissociation) = Kf×m = 1.86×0.5 = 0.93 K.
i = ΔTf(obs)/ΔTf(calc) = 1/0.93 = 1.075.
Since i = 1+α (n=2): α = 0.075, i.e., 7.5% dissociation.

FORMULA SHEET
● Mass % = (mass of solute / mass of solution) × 100
 ● Volume % = (volume of solute / volume of solution) × 100
● Mass by Volume % = (mass of solute in g / volume of solution in mL) × 100
● ppm = (mass of solute / mass of solution) × 10⁶
● Mole fraction, x = n(component) / n(total)
● Molarity (M) = moles of solute / volume of solution (in L)
● Molality (m) = moles of solute / mass of solvent (in kg)
● Henry's Law: p = KH·x
● Raoult's Law (volatile solute): p(total) = p°A·xA + p°B·xB
● Raoult's Law (non-volatile solute): p(solution) = x(solvent)·p°(solvent)
● Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure: (p° − p)/p° = x(solute)
● Molar Mass from VP Lowering: (p° − p)/p° = wB·MA / (MB·wA)
● Elevation in Boiling Point: ΔTb = Kb·m = Kb×(1000·wB)/(MB·wA)
● Depression in Freezing Point: ΔTf = Kf·m = Kf×(1000·wB)/(MB·wA)
● Osmotic Pressure: π = CRT = (n/V)RT
● Van't Hoff Factor: i = observed colligative property / calculated colligative property = normal molar mass /
observed molar mass
● Dissociation: i = 1 + α(n − 1)
● Association: i = 1 − α(1 − 1/n)
● Modified Colligative Properties with i: ΔTb = iKbm; ΔTf = iKfm; π = iCRT; Relative lowering =
i·x(solute)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (50 Numerical Questions)

1. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5.85 g of NaCl (M = 58.5) dissolved to make 250 mL of solution.
2. Calculate the molality of a solution containing 9.2 g of glycerine (M = 92) dissolved in 100 g of water.
3. A solution contains 3 mol ethanol and 7 mol water. Find the mole fraction of ethanol.
4. Calculate the mass percentage of glucose in a solution containing 25 g glucose dissolved in 225 g water.
5. Express the concentration of a solution containing 5 mg of solute in 2 kg of solution in ppm.
6. 20 g of NaOH (M = 40) is dissolved to prepare 500 mL of solution. Find the molarity.
7. 1 L of ethanol solution (density 0.96 g/mL) contains 23 g of ethanol (M = 46). Find its molality.
8. Calculate the mole fraction of NaCl in a solution containing 1 mol NaCl and 9 mol water.
9. The Henry's law constant for a gas is 1×10⁵ atm. Calculate the mole fraction of the gas dissolved in water at a
partial pressure of 0.5 atm.
10. At 1 atm pressure, the solubility of a gas corresponds to a mole fraction of 0.02. Calculate the Henry's law
constant.
11. The partial pressure of a gas over its saturated solution containing 4×10⁻² g of gas is 1.2 bar. Find the partial
pressure when the solution contains 3×10⁻² g of the gas.
12. The Henry's law constant for a gas is 4×10⁴ atm at 298 K. Find the mole fraction of gas dissolved under a
pressure of 2 atm.
13. At a certain temperature, the partial pressure of a gas is 0.8 atm at a mole fraction of 0.004. Calculate the
Henry's law constant.
14. A gas has KH = 1.67×10⁸ Pa at 298 K. Find the mole fraction of gas dissolved when the partial pressure is
1.5×10⁵ Pa.
15. The vapour pressure of pure water at 25°C is 23.8 mm Hg. Calculate the vapour pressure of a solution
containing 34.2 g sucrose (M = 342) in 90 g water.
16. Two liquids A (p° = 120 mm Hg) and B (p° = 180 mm Hg) form an ideal solution with xA = 0.5 and xB = 0.5.
Find the total vapour pressure.
17. 10 g of a non-volatile solute dissolved in 200 g of benzene (M = 78, p° = 640 mm Hg) gives a solution with
vapour pressure 620 mm Hg. Find the molar mass of the solute.
18. Calculate the vapour pressure lowering for a solution containing 0.2 mol solute in 0.8 mol solvent (p° = 100 mm
Hg).
19. 12 g urea (M = 60) is dissolved in 108 g water. Calculate the vapour pressure lowering if the pure water vapour
pressure is 17.5 mm Hg at that temperature.
20. If the mole fraction of solute in a solution is 0.05 and the vapour pressure of the pure solvent is 40 mm Hg, find
the vapour pressure of the solution.
21. 5 g of a solute (M = 180) is dissolved in 90 g of water. Find the vapour pressure of the solution if the pure water
vapour pressure is 24 mm Hg.
22. The vapour pressure of a solvent decreases from 800 mm Hg to 780 mm Hg on adding a non-volatile solute of
mole fraction 0.03. Calculate the vapour pressure expected by Raoult's law.
23. 5 g of a non-volatile solute dissolved in 100 g water elevates the boiling point by 0.3 K. Find the molar mass
(Kb = 0.52 K kg/mol).
24. Find the elevation in boiling point of a solution containing 12 g urea (M = 60) in 200 g water (Kb = 0.52 K
kg/mol).
25. What mass of glucose (M = 180) should be dissolved in 250 g of water to raise the boiling point by 0.416 K?
(Kb = 0.52 K kg/mol).
26. 2 g of a solute dissolved in 100 g of benzene (Kb = 2.53 K kg/mol) raises the boiling point by 0.4 K. Find the
molar mass.
27. Calculate the boiling point of a solution containing 6 g of a non-volatile solute (M = 120) in 100 g of water (Kb
= 0.52 K kg/mol).
28. 3.42 g of sucrose (M = 342) is dissolved in 100 g of water. Find the elevation in boiling point (Kb = 0.52 K
kg/mol).
29. A solution shows a boiling point elevation of 0.1 K when 1 g of solute is dissolved in 50 g of water (Kb = 0.52
K kg/mol). Find the molar mass.
30. Find the mass of NaCl needed in 250 g of water to raise its boiling point by 0.104 K, assuming complete
dissociation (i = 2, Kb = 0.52 K kg/mol, M = 58.5).
31. 3 g of a substance dissolved in 100 g of water lowers the freezing point by 0.279 K. Find the molar mass (Kf =
1.86 K kg/mol).
32. 20 g of ethylene glycol (M = 62) is dissolved in 200 g of water. Find the depression in freezing point (Kf = 1.86
K kg/mol).
33. What mass of urea (M = 60) should be added to 500 g of water to lower the freezing point by 0.372 K? (Kf =
1.86 K kg/mol).
34. 1 g of a non-electrolyte dissolved in 20 g of benzene (Kf = 5.12 K kg/mol) lowers the freezing point by 0.4 K.
Find the molar mass.
35. Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 34.2 g sucrose (M = 342) in 500 g water (Kf = 1.86 K
kg/mol); pure water freezes at 0°C.
36. 6 g of a compound dissolved in 100 g of water shows a freezing point depression of 1.86 K. Find the molar
mass (Kf = 1.86 K kg/mol).
37. 0.5 g of a solute is dissolved in 25 g of a solvent (Kf = 3.9 K kg/mol), lowering the freezing point by 0.15 K.
Find the molar mass.
38. Find the mass of glucose (M = 180) required in 1000 g of water to produce the same freezing point depression
as 6 g of urea (M = 60) in 1000 g of water.
39. Calculate the osmotic pressure of a 0.05 M solution at 300 K (R = 0.0821 L atm/mol K).
40. A solution containing 3.42 g sucrose (M = 342) per 250 mL exerts what osmotic pressure at 300 K?
41. Calculate the concentration of a solution having an osmotic pressure of 4.92 atm at 300 K.
42. 200 mL of a solution contains 0.02 mol of solute. Find its osmotic pressure at 300 K.
43. 2 g of a solute dissolved in 500 mL of solution shows an osmotic pressure of 0.6 atm at 300 K. Find the molar
mass of the solute.
44. Calculate the mass of glucose (M = 180) required to prepare 1 L of solution having the same osmotic pressure
as a 0.1 M NaCl solution (assume i = 2 for NaCl) at the same temperature.
45. Two solutions of urea and glucose are found to be isotonic. If the urea solution has a concentration of 0.15 M,
what is the concentration of the glucose solution?
46. Calculate the osmotic pressure of a 0.01 M KCl solution (assume complete dissociation, i = 2) at 300 K.
47. A 0.1 m KCl solution shows an observed ΔTf of 0.35 K. Calculate the van't Hoff factor (Kf = 1.86 K kg/mol).
48. Acetic acid dimerizes in benzene with a van't Hoff factor of 0.6. Calculate the degree of association (n = 2).
49. A salt AB dissociates completely into 2 ions in a 1 m solution. Calculate the expected van't Hoff factor.
50. Calculate the observed molar mass of acetic acid (M = 60) in benzene if the van't Hoff factor is 0.5 due to
complete dimerization.

ANSWER KEY
1. 0.4 M
2. 1 m
3. 0.3
4. 10%
5. 2.5 ppm
6. 1 M
7. 0.534 m
8. 0.1
9. 5×10⁻⁶
10. 50 atm
11. 0.9 bar
12. 5×10⁻⁵
13. 200 atm
14. 8.98×10⁻⁴
15. 23.33 mm Hg
16. 150 mm Hg
17. 124.8 g/mol
18. 20 mm Hg
19. 0.565 mm Hg
20. 38 mm Hg
21. 23.87 mm Hg
22. 776 mm Hg
23. 86.67 g/mol
24. 0.52 K
25. 36 g
26. 126.5 g/mol
27. 100.26°C
28. 0.052 K
29. 104 g/mol
30. 1.46 g
31. 200 g/mol
32. 3.0 K
33. 6 g
34. 640 g/mol
35. −0.372°C
36. 60 g/mol
37. 520 g/mol
38. 18 g
39. 1.232 atm
40. 0.985 atm
41. 0.2 mol/L
42. 2.463 atm
43. 164.2 g/mol
44. 36 g
45. 0.15 M
46. 0.493 atm
47. 1.882
48. 80%
49. 2
50. 120 g/mol