C L AS S 9 C IVI C S C HA P TE R N OTES

Elections

Table of Contents

1. Why Elections Matter?

2. Inside India's Election Machinery
3. The Electoral System
4. The Laws Governing Elections
5. Delimitation Commission
6. Election Commission of India (ECI)
7. State-Level Electoral Machinery
8. Political Parties
9. Challenges to Free and Fair Elections

1. Why Elections Matter?

Periodic elections form the heart of any democratic system. They give citizens the power to choose
representatives and hold them accountable for their actions. Without regular elections, the idea of self-
governance becomes hollow.

• Representatives at all levels - national, state, and local - are chosen by the people through elections.

• Direct elections: Citizens vote directly for their representatives (e.g., Lok Sabha, Vidhan Sabha, local
bodies).

• Indirect elections: Citizens elect representatives who then choose leaders (e.g., President, Vice
President, Rajya Sabha).

• An elected government cannot continue beyond its five-year term without seeking a fresh mandate.

• A single-party contest or absence of choice is incompatible with genuine democracy.

Key Concept: Elections uphold Equality, Accountability, Representation, and Legitimacy in democracy.

Interesting Fact - Psephology: The scientific study of elections. The word comes from the Greek
'psephos' (pebble), because ancient Greeks voted using pebbles.

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 2. Inside India's Election Machinery
Running elections in a country as large and diverse as India requires robust laws, systems, and multiple
stakeholders working in coordination at every level - national, state, and local.

Key stakeholders include:

• Election Commission of India (ECI)

• Political parties

• Civil society and media

• Voters

The Constitution and various parliamentary laws define the roles and powers of all these stakeholders.

3. The Electoral System

India primarily uses the First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) system, also called the plurality system, chosen by the
framers of the Constitution.

First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)
• Used for: Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha elections.

• Each voter votes for one candidate in their constituency.

• The candidate with the most votes wins, even if that is less than 50% of total votes cast.

• Simple and quick, but a candidate can win without majority support.

Proportional Representation (PR)

• Used for: Rajya Sabha, President, Vice President, and Vidhan Parishad elections.

• Voters vote for a party; seats are allotted proportional to the total votes received.

• The Vidhan Parishad uses the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system - a form of PR.

Majority System
• A candidate must receive more than 50% of votes to win outright.

• If no candidate reaches 50%, a second round between the top two candidates is held.

• Not used in Indian general/assembly elections.

Bicameral Legislatures
Six states - Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh - have bicameral
legislatures with both a Vidhan Sabha (lower) and Vidhan Parishad (upper house).

• Vidhan Parishad members are elected by Vidhan Sabha members, local bodies, graduates, and teachers.

• The Governor nominates some members representing fields like art, science, and social service.

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 4. The Laws Governing Elections

Representation of the People Act, 1950

• Deals with allocation of seats and delimitation of constituencies.

• Governs preparation and revision of electoral rolls.

• Guarantees the right to vote to every citizen above 18 years without discrimination.

Representation of the People Act, 1951

• Covers all other aspects of election conduct and post-election disputes.

• Lays down rules for nomination, campaigns, voting procedures, and dispute resolution.

• Lists electoral offences and corrupt practices:

◦ Offering gifts, bribes, or promises to influence voting.

◦ Appealing to vote/abstain based on religion, caste, race, community, or language.

◦ Candidates seeking help from government officials (gazetted officers, judges, police, armed forces,
excise officers).

Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952

Governs the conduct of elections for the President and Vice President of India.

5. Delimitation Commission
• Constituency boundaries are not fixed permanently - they change as population density shifts.

• Delimitation: The process of determining the number of seats and fixing territorial boundaries for Lok
Sabha and Vidhan Sabha elections in each state.

• Goal: To maintain an equal ratio of seats to population across all constituencies. Without it, one MP might
represent 5 lakh people while another represents 25 lakh - defeating the principle of equal representation.

• Article 82 of the Constitution mandates the Delimitation Commission.

• India has had four Delimitation Commissions: 1952, 1963, 1973, and 2002.

6. Election Commission of India (ECI)

The ECI is an autonomous, permanent, constitutional body established on 25 January 1950. Articles 324-329
of the Constitution define its powers and duties.

It conducts elections to: Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, Vidhan Sabha, Vidhan Parishad, President, and Vice
President.

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Key Functions of the ECI
a) Creating Electoral Rolls

• ECI sends enumerators to every household to collect data on eligible voters.

• Electoral rolls are prepared constituency-wise, organised polling-station-wise.

• Only those listed on the roll may vote.

• Special Intensive Revision (SIR): Updates, verifies, and corrects electoral rolls.
◦ Adds new voters (especially those who just turned 18).

◦ Removes entries on account of death, change of residence, duplicate enrolment, or being permanently
untraceable.

b) Deciding Election Schedule

• ECI triggers the election machinery when a legislature completes its five-year term or is dissolved earlier.

• Factors considered: weather, agricultural cycles, examination schedules, festivals, and local conditions.

c) Registering Political Parties and Allocating Symbols

• Only ECI-registered parties can contest elections; independent candidates may also contest.

• ECI ensures inner-party democracy by requiring parties to hold organisational elections.

• Classifies parties as: National Party, State/Regional Party, or Registered Unrecognised Party (RUPP).

• Allots election symbols; acts as a quasi-judicial body for disputes over recognition and symbols.

d) Ensuring Free and Fair Elections

• Uses EVMs (Electronic Voting Machines) with Braille for visually impaired voters.

• VVPAT (Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail) for transparency in vote counting.

• Inclusive initiatives for PwDs, senior citizens (85+), transgender persons, and Particularly Vulnerable Tribal
Groups (PVTGs).

• Home voting introduced for senior citizens above 85 and PwDs with 40%+ disability - first implemented
nationwide in 2024 General Elections.

• Digital ecosystem: Apps like cVIGIL, Saksham, Suvidha, Voter Helpline, ETPBS, ERONET, and Sugam
support voters, candidates, and election officials.

Note: India has over 96.8 crore eligible voters (2024), making its electoral exercise unparalleled in the
world.
National Voters' Day: Celebrated every year on 25 January.

7. State-Level Electoral Machinery

• Chief Electoral Officer (state level): appointed by ECI.

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 • District Magistrates, Sub-Divisional Magistrates, and Tahsildars serve as District Election Officers,
Returning Officers, and Electoral Registration Officers.

8. Political Parties
Political parties are the primary link between citizens and governance. Voters learn about candidates, policies,
and development visions mainly through parties.

Roles of Political Parties

• Organise public opinion.

• Campaign on specific issues.

• Offer voters meaningful choices.

• Enable informed voting decisions.

• Winning party: Forms government and implements policies.

• Opposition party: Ensures accountability through debates and committee participation.

Multi-Party System
India has a multi-party system reflecting its diversity of languages, cultures, religions, and regions.

Defection
• Defection: When an elected member abandons the party on whose ticket they were elected - by joining
another party or voting against party instructions.

• Anti-Defection Law (1985, 52nd Constitutional Amendment): A member who voluntarily gives up party
membership or defies the party whip can be disqualified from the House. The Speaker/Chairman decides
such cases.

Classification of Political Parties

Criteria for National Party Recognition (any one):

• Secures at least 6% of valid votes in four or more states in a Lok Sabha/assembly election AND wins four
Lok Sabha seats.

• Wins at least 2% of Lok Sabha seats with candidates from at least three states.

• Recognised as a State Party in at least four states.

Criteria for State Party Recognition (any one):

• Secures at least 6% of valid votes in state assembly elections AND wins at least two assembly seats.

• Secures at least 6% of valid votes in Lok Sabha elections from the state AND wins at least one Lok Sabha
seat.

• Wins at least 3% of assembly seats or at least three seats (whichever is more).

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 • Wins at least 1 Lok Sabha seat for every 25 seats allotted to the state.

• Secures at least 8% of valid votes in a Lok Sabha or assembly election from the state.

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPPs):

• Parties that have not secured the required vote percentage in elections.

• Parties that have never contested elections since registration.

Political Alliances
Single-party dominance ended by 1967; coalition politics began. The first national coalition - the Janata
Government - came to power in 1977. Since the late 1990s, NDA (led by BJP) and UPA/INDIA alliance (led by
INC) have been the major groupings.

9. Challenges to Free and Fair Elections

With over 96.8 crore voters across diverse regions, conducting free and fair elections is a massive challenge.
Key challenges include:

• Misinformation and fake news - especially through social media.

• Voter intimidation and booth capturing.

• Misuse of money power by candidates.

• Appealing to religion, caste, or community.

• Logistical challenges in remote/difficult terrain.

• Ensuring accessibility for marginalised groups.

The ECI addresses these through the Model Code of Conduct, EVMs, VVPAT, cVIGIL App, RPA 1950 and
1951, and voter awareness campaigns.