Grade: VIII

Advantages and disadvantages of different Graphs:

Types of Graphs Advantages Disadvantages

Bar graph • Visually strong • Graph categories can be
Is used to make • Shows relative changes in reordered to emphasize certain
comparisons of discrete the dataset effects
data • Can easily compare two or • Use only with discrete data
three data sets • Plotting too many bars makes
A bar graph displays • Can show positive and it appear cluttered - less easy to
independent data in negative values interpret
separate columns. • Simple to construct and read • If there is a wide range of
data, it is difficult to read
accurately
Line graph • Good visual impression of • Use only with continuous data
Represents continuous trends
data or value that changes • Can compare multiple
over time. continuous data sets easily
• Interim data can be
A line graph plots extrapolated from graph line
continuous data as points • Can show positive and
and then joins them with negative values
a line. Multiple data sets • Simple to construct and read
can be graphed together,
but a key must be used.
Pie chart • Visually appealing • No exact numerical data
Is used for multivariate • Shows percent of total for • Hard to compare 2 data sets
data analysis. each category • "Other" category can be a
A pie chart displays data • Visually easy to understand problem
as a percentage of the the parts of the whole • Total unknown unless
whole. Each pie section specified
should have a label and • Best for 3 to 7 categories
percentage. A total data • Use only with multivariate
number should be data
included. • If used with low number of
total observation pie chart
creates wrong impression
Factors affecting the distribution of world’s climate
Let’s predict…
1. Do you think the climate is the same or different in other parts of the world? Why
or why not?
2. List three factors that you think might be responsible for these differences in
temperatures.

What factors affect temperature?

• You should be able to explain a variety of factors that affect temperature on
a global scale, including:
✓ latitude (distance from the equator)
✓ altitude (height)
✓ continentality (distance from the sea)
✓ Prevailing wind

Latitude
Latitude is the main factor affecting global climate - the further you go from the equator,
the cooler it gets (all other factors remaining constant). This is because the earth in
curved which means that the sun’s energy is more concentrated at the equator. This,
and the thinner atmosphere at the equator, means that the earth gets hotter here.

Solar radiation and greenhouse effect

During the day when the Sun’s energy reaches Earth’s atmosphere, most of it goes
right through. Some bounces off, back into space.
At night, most of the Sun’s energy escapes back into space. But some is trapped inside
the atmosphere by the greenhouse gases, further warming Earth.

Altitude
Temperatures decrease by 1 degree Celsius for every 150 metres increase in altitude.
Mountainous areas are therefore cooler.
Normal Lapse rate- Decrease in temp by 1d Celsius with an increase of 150 m

• Moisture laden wind rises up

• Condensation causing rainfall
• Dry wind is not capable of causing much rain
• Windward side = wet side
• Leeward side / rain shadow area
Continentality (distance from the sea)
The sea is cooler than the land in summer, but warmer in winter. This is because it
takes the sea a long time to heat up, but it is slower to cool down than land.

Temperature range
Temperature range: Highest temperature – Lowest temperature
What is Range?
the area of variation between upper and lower limits on a particular scale.

Pressure and Wind

Lower the pressure
Higher the temperature
The influence of the Pressure Gradient Force
High Pressure → Low Pressure

Sea Breeze & Land Breeze

A sea breeze describes a wind that blows from the ocean inland towards land. This
breeze occurs because of the greater temperature differences between the ocean and
nearby land.
During the day, the sun heats up both the ocean surface and the land. Water is a good
absorber of the energy from the sun. While trying to create a heat balance within the
layers, water heat up very slowly. On the other hand, as land is not a good conductor of
heat it reflects the heat back into the atmosphere making the air warm and light near the
surface compared to the air over the ocean. The warm and light air over the land will
rise throughout the day, causing low pressure at the surface. Over the water, high
surface pressure will form because of the colder air. The wind will blow from the higher
pressure over the water to lower pressure over the land causing the sea breeze. To
compensate, the air that has risen and cooled down will sink over the ocean. The sea
breeze strength will vary depending on the temperature difference between the land and
the ocean.
At night, the roles reverse. As there is no heat source in the night and the land does not
have much of absorbed energy to release the air above the land will cool down very
quickly. The air over the ocean is now warmer than the air over the land as water will
release all the energy it has absorbed throughout the day. This causes the low surface
pressure to shift over the ocean during the night and the high surface pressure to move
over the land. This causes a temperature gradient between the ocean surface and the
nearby land at night and the wind will blow from the land to the ocean creating the land
breeze.
THE MEDITERRANEAN BIOME

Introduction
Extraordinary adaptations made by both plants and animals in this biome make it
one of the most unique, sparse and yet diverse environments on Earth.

Location
• Mainly the Mediterranean region of Europe, the western part of the United
States, and Australia.
• It can be found in mainly the northern latitudes of the western side of continents.
• This is the same area where many wildfires occur.

Climate
• The Chaparral has mild and wet winters and hot, dry summers.
• Droughts are extremely common. The average annual rainfall reaches only 6-9
inches.
• Most of that rainfall arrives during the winter , bringing in electric storms which
can spark a natural wildfire easily due to the dryness of the land.
• Average temperatures range from 10-12 degrees Celsius (around 50°
Fahrenheit) in the winter, to 30-40 degrees Celsius (86-104° Fahrenheit).

Chemical Characteristics
• Fire has a major role
− Certain seeds are inhibited from germination by chemicals given off from leaf
litter which is only released after they have been burned. When fire burns
these compounds from the soil, the seeds germinate at once.
− Seeds that have been dormant for even 100 years can retain their
germination adaptations to fire and may grow after a fire sweeps through.

Plants
• Plant communities of the Chaparral biome mainly consist of shrub land such as
that of California’s Chaparral.
• Similar plant communities can be found in other Mediterranean climates such as
the Maquis in the Mediterranean basin, the matorral in Chile, and the fynbos in
South Africa as well as western and southern Australia.
 • The shrub land has different names in these countries, but have similar
adaptations to fire and heat.
• The plants are the primary producers and the animals which either eat the plants
or use them for shelter have also amazingly adapted to this fire prone
environment.

Animals
• The animals are mainly grassland and desert types adapted to hot, dry weather.
• They include the jack rabbits, mule deer and scrub jays, which rely on the plants
for food and shelter respectively.
• Coyotes are a good example of secondary consumers in the California chaparral
which hunt the deer, rabbits and birds amongst the shrubbery.

Environmental Concerns
• Both the Mediterranean Basin and Californian Chaparral biomes are facing
serious environmental concerns.
• Humans have hurt the Chaparral by cutting down trees that shelter birds and
animals in order to build new suburbs.
• Fires also started by humans are considered necessary by many to cut back on
vegetation that could be fuel for fire.
• However, that’s a common misconception as the Chaparral is naturally adapted
to its own dry vegetation which is used as extra shade and the leaf litter is
absorbed by the soil and brought back to the live plants as natural food.

Environmental Concerns (continued)

• Another false argument for controlled fires is to rid backyards of “ugly shrubs.”
Many of these homes have been built upon Chaparral which has existed
perfectly without the “help” of controlled fires.
• Another misunderstanding about the Chaparral biome is that the old growth is
considered fuel for wildfires. It’s possible for there to be some wildfires over the
years, however, “trashy and unproductive” growth is actually needed for some
plants to germinate, meaning that even a 30 year old Chaparral is just beginning
a new life cycle!

What You Can Do

• The beautiful Chaparral relies on its own vegetation to renew and recycle itself.
Without the brush, plants and already small amount of land, it’s inevitable that it
will no longer be an existing biome.
 • Controlled fires mostly do harm to the Chaparral, so reduce or stop the amount of
brush you burn because you may be destroying plant, and ultimately, animal
species which might never be able to return and will eventually die off.
• New suburban neighborhoods being built on top of once thriving Chaparral are
now cutting off animals from their food sources and reducing the important plant
population. Don’t plan on buying a home in the new neighborhoods which are
actually embedded in old Chaparral which is ripe for new wildfires.

Conclusion
Without the Chaparral, there will be no more beautiful, rolling hills and lands of
California or thriving European islands and cities. Many unique species will be lost if we
continue to decrease this truly adaptable biome. It’s amazing that the only real threat to
the Chaparral isn’t the hot sun or wildfires.
It is man and his insatiable need for more land.

Draw a climograph…

Climate data for Sydney, Australia

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Av. monthly 100 115 131 125 123 133 104 81 69 76 78 79

rainfall (mm)

Av. monthly 22 22 21 18 15 13 12 13 15 18 19 21
temp. (°C)
WHAT IS A RAINFOREST?
• Tropical rainforests are forests with tall trees, warm climate, and lots of
rain. In some rainforests it rains more than one inch every day!
• Rainforests are found in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Central and South
America.
• The largest rainforest in the world is the Amazon rainforest.

RAINFOREST LEVELS
Emergent Level
• Emergent trees are also called the pavilion trees which can withstand the burning
sun, strong wind and torrential rainfall.
Canopy Level
• As the upper canopy gets constant sunlight the leaves are much smaller than the
lower layers.
• Because the lower canopy layer is very warm throughout the day many animals
are nocturnal.
The Understory
• Drip tips are long and pointy leaves which allows excess water to flow out
(Understory).
• Understory is dark and humid because light cannot penetrate the canopy layer
but the heat is trapped.
• The understory rises to about 20 meters and is made up of the trunks of canopy
trees, shrubs, plants and smaller trees.
• Some of the young saplings in this layer are very slow growing, just waiting for an
emergent tree to come crashing down to give them sunlight and space to grow
larger.
• Most of them remain in the shadows, growing tall pointed crowns as they grow
upwards seeking light.
• Many of the plants living in this level have adapted to growing in the shade and
don't need much light for photosynthesis.
• Others, like woody vines called lianas, attach themselves to young trees. As the
saplings grow, the vines get a free ride towards the light and once the reach the
canopy they will spread out among the trees.
The Forest Floor
• The forest floor is wet because only 1% to 2% of light that can reach the forest
floor. The forest floor is covered in a thick blanket of dead and decaying roots
and leaves, known as humus.
• Buttress roots are essential as rainforests have a shallow layer of fertile soil, so
trees only need shallow roots to reach the nutrients. However, shallow roots can't
support huge rainforest trees, so they have grown buttress roots to support them.
 • Since very little sunlight reaches the forest floor, plant life is quite sparse in this
level of the rainforest.
• Soil quality in the rainforest is also very poor although a lot of "litter" falls to the
ground from the upper levels of the rainforest.
• The many leaves, limbs of trees and remains of dead animals that fall fall to the
forest floor break down quickly because of the high temperature, humidity, and
the activity of termites, earthworms and fungi.
• This organic material, recycled into nutrients stays on the surface of the soil
where it is quickly absorbed by the shallow roots of the many rainforest trees.

WHY ARE RAINFORESTS IMPORTANT?

• Provide a home to many plants and animals.
• Help stabilize the world's climate
• Protect against flood, drought, and erosion
• Are a source for medicines and foods
• Support tribal people
• Interesting place to visit.

RAINFORESTS ARE BEING DESTROYED!

• Wood for both timber and wood for making fires
• Agriculture for both small and large farms
• Land for poor farmers who don't have anywhere else to live
• Grazing land for cattle
• Road construction
 GEOGRAPHY NOTES

1. Pressure Belts and Biomes

Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric
pressure.
The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure,
setting the air in motion. Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or sink.
Air in horizontal motion is wind. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across latitudes, thereby,
maintaining a constant temperature for the planet as a whole.
The vertical rising of moist air forms clouds and bring precipitation.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

• Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction and speed.
• There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes or 'pressure
belts'. On the earth's surface, there are in all seven pressure belts.
• The seven pressure belts are:
◦ equatorial low,
◦ the sub-tropical highs,
◦ the sub-polar lows, and
◦ the polar highs.
• Except the equatorial low, all others form matching pairs in the northern and southern
hemispheres.

Equatorial Low Pressure Belt

• Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.
• Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and 20°S.
• This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds from two hemispheres from sub-
tropical high pressure belts.
• This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the extremely calm air movements.
• The position of the belt varies with the apparent movement of the Sun.
• As this region lies along the equator, it receives highest amount of insolation.
• Due to intense heating, air gets warmed up and rises over the equatorial region (convection).
• Whenever there is vertically upward movement of air, the region at the surface will be at low
pressure. Thus the belt along the equator is called equatorial low pressure belt.
• This belt is characterized by extremely low pressure with calm conditions.
• This is because of the absence of Surface winds since winds approaching this belt begin to rise near
its margin. Thus, only vertical currents are found.
• As the larger part of the low pressure belt passes along the oceans, the winds obtain huge amount
of moisture.
• Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture form clouds and lead to thunderstorms (convectional
rainfall).
• In spite of high temperatures, cyclones are not formed at the equator.

Geography Notes | Page 1

Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt
• The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35°N and S.
• After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the ITCZ, the air moving away from equatorial low-
pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes dry and cold.
• This dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.
• So, the high pressure along this belt is due to subsidence of air coming from the equatorial region
which descends after becoming heavy.
• The subsiding air is warm and dry, therefore, most of the deserts are present along this belt, in both
hemispheres.
• A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds is created in this high pressure belt.
• The descending air currents feed the winds blowing towards adjoining low pressure belts.
• This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-tropical disturbances.

Factors Controlling Pressure Systems

• There are two main causes, thermal factor and deflection of wind due to the rotation of the earth.

Mediterranean Region
In winter season, when Intertropical Convergence Zone shifts southward all the northern hemisphere
wind belts becomes broader in their coverage and extends southward as well. Mediterranean regions
location happens to be in the margins of Westerlies and when ITCZ moves southward, Westerlies also
shifts southward thereby covering the Mediterranean regions. These winds move in west to east direction
and hence the name. Coming from west, they pick up moisture from Atlantic Ocean / Mediterranean Sea
and precipitates on Middle-west and Middle-east regions. Similarly, Mediterranean regions in Americas
also receive moisture from Pacific Ocean in the same fashion.

2. Desert Ecosystem
A Desert's Characteristics
Topics covered: Climate, Animals, Plants, Seasons, Adaptations, Significance to humans

Hot Deserts: Location

Areas with hot desert climate are found at the edge of the tropics and on the western side of continents.
The largest hot desert is the Sahara in north Africa and the only continent not to have a hot desert is
Europe.
Location of the worlds hot deserts:
• Along the tropic of Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn.
• Along the west side of continents and they follow the flow of ocean currents.
• In areas of the rainshadow effect. For example the Gobi desert.
[Slide showed diagram of Major Pressure Belts and Wind System and convection rain process]
[Slide showed map: Other Factors Determining Desert Formation — cold ocean current adjacent to a
tropical coast, showing Baja Desert, Atacama Desert, Morocco Desert, Namibia Desert]

Climate
• The desert has the extreme temperature (hottest and coldest) on Earth.
• It can be over 100 degrees during the day and below 32 degrees at night.
• Less than 25 cm or rainfall every year.

Geography Notes | Page 2

 • The amount of rainfall varies, but when it rains…it POURS!!!!
• After a storm, the desert may not see any rain for weeks, months and years.
[Slide showed climate graph for Touggourt, Algeria: a hot desert climate]

Animals
• There are hundreds of different animals that live in deserts.
• Most of them can only be found at dawn or dusk, when it is much cooler.
• The animals include snakes, owls, mice, armadillo lizards, fennec foxes, Gila monsters, bats, and
vultures.

Animal Feature: Desert Jack Rabbit

• The desert jack rabbit eats plants, such as the cactus. It is very careful to avoid the prickly spines! Its
ears pick up any sound of danger. They also help keep the rabbit cool because heat can escape
through the tiny blood vessels that are found there.

Endangered Animals
The major causes of endangered animals in the desert are poachers and unexpected drought.
• Black Rhino
• Grevy's Zebra
• King Cheetah

Plant Life of Deserts

• There are several plants that are able to survive in the desert.
• Most plants survive by their long roots to reach underground water sources.
Desert plant examples: A Variety of cactuses, Prickly Pear, Dragon Tree, Octillo Plant, Desert Spoon,
Boojum
The vegetation of the Desert Biome is characterized by dominance of annual plants (often annual grasses)
This means that after a season with rarely abundant rains, the desert plains can be covered with a sea of
short annual grass. Whereas in more normal years, the plains can appear bare with the annual plants
persisting in the form of seed.

Seasons
• The seasons are generally warm throughout the year and very hot in the summer. The winters
usually bring little rainfall. Temperatures exhibit daily extremes because the atmosphere contains
little humidity to block the Sun’s rays.

Adaptations
• Many of the animals in the desert have become nocturnal because of the extreme heat.
• Both plants and animals have learned to store water, avoid heat by staying underground, and taking
water from nearby plants.

Human Effects
• Poachers are a main cause of dying animals. Poachers catch animals of all kinds to make money for
usually just one part, like the elephant tusk.
• With the growing popularity of transportation, many roads are being built in not only the desert,
but all the other biomes.
• The main problem with these roads are the fact that they destroy habitats and endanger animals.
Road kill is also a main factor in these dying animals.

Geography Notes | Page 3

 • These problems can be easily taken care of if other means of transportation were encouraged.
[Slide showed world map: Locations around the World — deserts marked in yellow]

Oasis
• Oases are parts of the desert where plants grow and water is almost always available.
• An oasis is formed by a pool of water trapped between layers of rock and the desert floor.
• The water can allow people to settle and even grow crops in the desert.

3. Tundra Biome
A tundra is a vast, treeless plain in the arctic region.
Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes

Location
The tundra biome is found somewhere between 60° and 75° latitude, mostly around the Arctic coast of
North America and Eurasia.

Characteristics of Tundra
• Extremely cold climate
• Low biotic diversity
• Simple vegetation structure
• Limitation of drainage
• Short season of growth and reproduction
• Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic material
• Large population oscillations

Two Types of Tundra Biomes

The Arctic/Polar Tundra:
Found near the north and south polar regions.
The Alpine Tundra:
Found on mountainsides and high-elevation plateaus
Both types of tundra are not restricted to any specific region or zone

Specific Traits of the Polar Tundra

• Found in the Northern Hemisphere
• Makes up 5.5% of the earth's total surface
• Lies north of 70 degrees North latitude – some tundra is found on islands as far north as 55 degrees
North
• Is very dry and gets up to 4-20 inches of precipitation each year, but mostly in the form of snow.
Much of it is compared to a desert because it gets less than 10 inches of rain a year.

Specific Traits of the Alpine Tundra

• Absolutely no trees can grow here because of the elevation being so high.
• The growing season is only about 180 days
• Is usually found at an altitude of 10,000 feet or higher.

Geography Notes | Page 4

 • Some tundra can even be found near the equator if the mountains are high enough
• There are only warm blooded animals in the alpine tundra

Tundra Climate
The Tundra has freezing winter temperatures and cool, short summers. In terms of precipitation, drought-
like conditions are the usual. There is a layer of frozen soil called permafrost which is frozen all year
round. Summer temperatures remain below 10 degrees Celsius and in the winter temperatures can drop
below -56 degrees Celsius.
• Strong, dry winds increase the coolness of the drastic tundra temperatures
• Water is unavailable during most of the year
• Average winter temperature: -34˚ C
• Average summer temperature: 12˚ C
• Average overall temperature: -16˚ C

Precipitation and Permafrost

Precipitation:
The tundra gets an annual precipitation of 15 centimeters. That’s not much compared to the rainforest
that gets 90 centimeters.
Permafrost:
Permafrost is a permanent layer of ice. This layer is temporarily melted in the summer months for a short
6-10 week growing season.

General Latitude
The tundra stretches between the latitude known as the tree line, which is the farthest extent to which
trees can grow, and the latitude where snow and ice cover becomes permanent, preventing plant growth.

Flora (Plants)
The Polar tundra is characterized by low shrubs, sedges, reindeer mosses, liverworts, grasses, lichen,
arctic willow, and caribou moss.
The Alpine tundra is characterized by tussock grasses, dwarf trees, small-leafed shrubs, and heaths.

Fauna (Animals)
The fauna in the Polar Tundra consists of lemmings, voles, caribou, arctic hares, squirrels, arctic foxes,
wolves, polar bears, ravens, caribou, snow buntings, falcons, loons, sandpipers, tems, snow birds, and
various species of gulls, mosquitoes, flies, moths, grasshoppers, black flies, and arctic bumble bees, cod,
flatfish, salmon, and trout.
The fauna in the Alpine Tundra consists of pikas, marmots, mountain goats, sheep, elk, grouse like birds,
springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, and butterflies.
[Slide showed images of main species: Lichen, Caribou, Caribou Moss, Arctic Fox, Arctic Hare]

Flora Adaptations
• Adapted their life cycles to be completed in a single summer season.
• Some grow very low to the ground to protect from frost damage.
• Some grow horizontally and send up many branches to keep away from dry winds and still absorb as
much sunlight as possible.
• They group together to resist cold temperatures and be protected from the snow.
• Many of them develop thick, leathery or waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss.

Geography Notes | Page 5

 • Some grow hairs along the stems, leaves, and flowers to hold heat and protect against the wind.
• Not many plants can survive the harsh climate of the tundra
• Most tundra plants survive by growing low to the ground
• They grow between rocks to protect themselves from the wind
• Some plants survive because they possess the ability to reproduce quickly, which is helpful during a
short growing season
• Some plants, such as lichens, are able to grow on bare rock

Fauna Adaptations
• The most common adaption is a thick layer of fur or feathers to hold the heat close to their bodies.
• Some of the animals fur turns white during the winter to hide in the snow and protect them from
predators.
• Many large animals have compact body shapes that help them retain more heat than if their bodies
were long and thin.
• Many animals avoid the cold by migrating and some animals build up a layer of fat over the
summer, which provide energy and food while also keeping them warm during the harsh winters.
• Some may burrow into the snow to avoid harsh, frigid temperatures and winds.

Featured Animals
Arctic Hare:
• Their small shape conserves heat, this explains their unusually small ears
• They have a thick coat of fur
• White in the winter, blue-gray in the spring protects them from predators
• Dig snow shelters and huddle together to keep warm
Arctic Wolf:
• Arctic wolves have thick foot pads on their feet to protect them from the wet and cold
• Arctic wolves have extremely good hearing. They can hear another wolf from 5 miles away. This
intense hearing helps when your hunting scarce prey.
Polar Bear:
• Giant, partially webbed paws with long, non-retractable nails help the polar bear dig in snow and ice
to create dens it uses for shelter
• These paws are also used as paddles, with which polar bears use to swim for many hours
• Use glossy guard hairs, a thick undercoat, and a layer of fat to protect themselves from the cold
Musk Oxen:
• Musk oxen have two thick layers of fur.
• One is used to trap heat and insulate the body
• The second is to protect the musk ox from wind and water
• Large, hard hooves allow the musk ox to break ice and drink water during the winter months

Human Effects on Tundra

In history, humans have had a very small impact on the tundra.
But recently, people have obtained modernized tools and technology to make better use of the land. This
technology has a big impact on tundra ecosystem. The slightest disturbance can drastically alter the
environment and make it unlivable for plants and animals.
• Oil drilling is an example of a harmful technology. If there was an oil spill an entire ecosystem could
be eradicated.

Geography Notes | Page 6

 • Modern tools make it easier to eliminate a species from a certain area without even realizing it.
[Slide showed food web diagram for the Tundra Biome: Primary Producers (tiny flowering plants,
grasses, sedges, lichens, willows) → Primary Consumers (Musk Oxen, Insects, Lemmings) → Small
Predators (Snowy Owl, Arctic Fox). Permafrost ground layer with nematodes and bacteria.]

4. Development
Meaning of Development — Todaro
• Development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional process
involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic AND social system
• Development is process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally important
aspects.

Todaro's Three Objectives of Development

Objective Description

Raising Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e. incomes and

consumption, levels of food, medical services,
education through relevant growth processes

Creating Creating conditions conducive to the growth of

peoples’ self-esteem through the establishment of
social, political and economic systems and
institutions which promote human dignity and
respect

Increasing Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging

the range of their choice variables, e.g. varieties of
goods and services

Alternative Interpretations of Development

Development as Modernization:
• Emphasizes process of social change which is required to produce economic advancement;
examines changes in social, psychological and political processes;
• How to develop wealth oriented behavior and values in individuals; profit seeking rather than
subsistence and self sufficiency
• Shift from commodity to human approach with investment in education and skill training
[Slides showed images prompting discussion: What is development according to them? — showing
people in poverty, a corporate boardroom, and people queuing at a bank]

What Causes Underdevelopment?

• Very easy to focus on characteristics of development
• For example, we know that underdevelopment is usually characterized by: low per capita incomes,
low literacy and educational attainment, lack of basic services- water and power
• But how do we EXPLAIN underdevelopment?

Gross National Product (GNP)

Geography Notes | Page 7

 • Gross National Product (GNP) is the total value of all finished goods and services produced by a
country’s citizens in a given financial year, irrespective of their location.
• GNP also measures the output generated by a country’s businesses located domestically or abroad.
• It can be defined as a piece of economic statistic that comprises Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and
income earned by the residents from investments made overseas.
• Simply put, GNP is a superset of the GDP. While GDP confines its analysis of the economy to the
geographical borders of the country, GNP extends it to also take account of the net overseas
economic activities performed by its residents.

Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development can be defined as that which “meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Bruntland Report, 1989)
[Slide showed Three-Legged Stool diagram: Sustainability resting on Economy, Social Equity,
Environment]
Defined as development that is likely to achieve lasting satisfaction of human needs and improvement of
the quality of life and encompasses:
• Help for the very poorest who are left with no option but to destroy their environment to survive
• Idea of self-reliant development with natural resource constraints
• Cost effective development using different economic criteria to the traditional –i.e. development
should not degrade environment
• Important issues of health control, appropriate technologies, food self-reliance, clean water and
shelter for all
• People centered activities are necessary- human beings are the resources in the concept
Examples of sustainable development include:
• Improving public transport
• Harnessing alternative sources of fuel
[Slide showed video activity: Make notes on the video about how sustainability has been achieved in
Curitiba.]
[Slide showed the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)]

Human Development Index (HDI)

Measuring Human Development — The origins: GDP vs HDI
• HDI aggregates health education and income
• GDP (Goss domestic products) /HDI:
◦ commodity-centred vs human-centred
• Indicators need to be: relevant, internationally comparable, available for many countries
• Neglected dimensions: gender, equity, sustainability...

Dimension Indicator Index

Long and healthy life Life expectancy at birth Life Expectancy Index

Knowledge Mean years of schooling + Education Index

Expected years of schooling

A decent standard of living GNI per capita (PPP US$) GNI Index

Geography Notes | Page 8

 • The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and per
capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.
• A country scores higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, and the GDP
per capita is higher.
• The Human Development Index examines three important criteria of economic development (life
expectancy, education and income levels) and uses this to create an overall score between 0 and 1.
• 1 indicates a high level of economic development, 0 a very low level. The HDI combines: Life
Expectancy Index.

Why is the HDI a Good Measure of Development?

• The HDI (Human Development Index) is a way to measure well being within a country.
• This is mainly a social measurement because it takes into consideration education, which is adult
literacy rate and years of schooling, health care which is judged by life expectancy and finally the
economic factor of GDP.

5. Globalisation
What is Globalisation?
• Globalisation is the increasingly interconnected nature of the world, as evidenced in a number of
different ways…

What is Trade?
• What drives trade? → Differences in tastes/ unavailability of resources
• Exchange — Exchange goods produced for goods not produced.
• Specialization — Diverting resources away from a competitive disadvantage toward a competitive
advantage.

A Tale of Two Countries (Comparative Advantage)

Country A Country B

Hourly Wage $1 $20

1 Food 40 Hours 8 Hours

1 Cloth 10 Hours 4 Hours

Cost of 1 Food $40 $160

Cost of 1 Cloth $10 $80

Country A can produce both Food and Cloth at lower cost than can Country B.

Pros and Cons of Trade

[Slides showed discussion areas: Impact on Income Distribution, Impact on Health, Impact on
Environment, Impact on Social Equality, Impact on Unemployment, Impact on Outsourcing]

Reasons for Globalisation

There are several key factors which have influenced the process of globalisation:

Geography Notes | Page 9

 • Improvements in transportation — larger cargo ships mean that the cost of transporting goods
between countries has decreased. Economies of scale mean the cost per item can reduce when
operating on a larger scale.
• Freedom of trade — organisations like the World Trade Organisation (WTO) promotes free trade
between countries.
• Improvements of communications — the internet and mobile technology has allowed greater
communication between people in different countries.
• Labour availability and skills — countries such as India have lower labour costs and also high skill
levels. Labour intensive industries such as clothing can also take advantage of reduced legal
restrictions in LEDCs.

Transnational Corporations (TNCs / MNCs)

• Companies that operate in several countries are called multinational corporations (MNCs) or
transnational corporations (TNCs).
Factors attracting TNCs to a country may include:
• cheap raw materials
• cheap labour supply
• good transport
• access to markets where the goods are sold
• friendly government policies

Globalisation: Positive and Negative

Positive Negative

Inward investment by TNCs Operates mostly in the interests of the richest

countries

Bring wealth and foreign currency to local The role of LEDCs in the world market is mostly to
economies provide the North and West with cheap labour and
raw materials.

Sharing of ideas, experiences and lifestyles of No guarantees that the wealth from inward
people investment will benefit the local community.

Globalisation increases awareness of events in far- May drive local companies out of business.
away parts of the world.

Make people more aware of global issues such as They may pollute the environment, run risks with
deforestation and global warming safety or impose poor working conditions and low
wages on local workers.

Threat to the world’s cultural diversity.

Industry may begin to thrive in LEDCs at the

expense of jobs in manufacturing in the UK and
other MEDCs, especially in textiles.

Aid
[Slide showed: Map of top 10 countries receiving U.S. Foreign Aid (FY2022) including Ukraine ($11.2B),
Israel ($3.3B), Afghanistan ($1.9B) etc., and a separate map showing Reliance on Aid in Africa — Net
overseas development assistance relative to GNI (%), 2003]

Geography Notes | Page 10

Africa's Permanent Food Crisis
[Slide showed Oxfam infographic: Food Crisis in West Africa — 18.4 million people at risk. Causes:
erratic rains, meagre harvests, diminished pastures, increased food prices, lingering effects of 2010
food crisis. Countries at risk include Mauritania (0.7M), Mali (3.5M), Niger (6.4M), Gambia (0.6M),
Senegal (0.8M), Burkina Faso (2.85M), Chad (3.6M).]

Geography Notes | Page 11