Evolution

Introduction to Evolution in MDCAT

This lecture serves as a revision session for the Evolution chapter, focusing on key concepts and frequently
tested topics for the MDCAT exam. The primary goal is to provide conceptual clarity and an examiner-
focused explanation to aid in revision and past paper practice.

Key Areas of Focus for MDCAT Evolution

The following topics are identified as crucial for the MDCAT exam, with a high likelihood of appearing in
questions:

Contributions of Scientists: Understanding the specific contributions of various scientists to

evolutionary theory is a must.
Lamarckism: The theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics is a recurring theme.
Darwinism: This includes Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and his key publications.
Evidences of Evolution: Particularly focusing on comparative anatomy, which consistently features in
exams.
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: Although not explicitly in the syllabus, questions can arise from this
topic, including definitions and problem-solving.

Scientists and Their Contributions

A detailed understanding of scientists' contributions is essential. Key figures and their theories/concepts
include:

Hutton: Concept of Uniformitarianism (or Theory of Unifiterianism).

Cuvier: Concept of Catastrophism; also associated with Paleontology (the study of fossils).
Haeckel: Biogenetic Law, also known as "Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny."
Thomas Malthus: Principle of Population, stating that populations increase geometrically.
Aristotle: Concept of Spontaneous Generation.
August Weismann: Germ Plasm Theory.
Lynn Margulis: Endosymbiotic Hypothesis.
Lamarck: Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics.
Charles Darwin: Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection; authored "On the Origin of Species" (1859)
and "The Descent of Man" (1871).

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 Alfred Russel Wallace: Co-contributor to Darwin's theory of evolution; co-authored papers with
Darwin.

Evidences of Evolution: Embryology

Embryology is a significant evidence for evolution, highlighting similarities in embryonic development across
different species.

Biogenetic Law (Haeckel): "Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny." This concept suggests that an
organism's developmental stages (ontogeny) reflect its evolutionary history (phylogeny).
Ontogeny: Refers to the developmental stages of an organism.
Phylogeny: Refers to the ancestral history of a species.
The idea is that as an organism develops from a zygote through various embryonic stages (e.g.,
blastula, gastrula, neurula), these stages can show similarities to the adult forms of ancestral
organisms.

Evidences of Evolution: Comparative Anatomy

Comparative anatomy provides crucial evidence through the study of structural similarities and differences
in organisms.

Homologous Organs: Structures with the same underlying anatomical plan and evolutionary origin,
but different functions. They arise from divergent evolution.
Example: The forelimbs of humans, horses, and bats, despite different functions (grasping,
running, flying respectively), share a common bone structure inherited from a common
ancestor.
Analogous Organs: Structures with different evolutionary origins and anatomical plans but similar
functions. They arise from convergent evolution.
Example: The wings of birds and flying lizards. Both are adapted for aerial locomotion, but their
underlying structures are different, reflecting adaptation to a similar environment (aerial) from
different ancestral groups.
Vestigial Organs: Reduced or rudimentary structures that were functional in ancestral organisms but
have little to no function in the present-day organism.
Examples in Humans: Ear muscles, vermiform appendix, coccyx (tailbone), wisdom teeth, body
hair, nictitating membrane, Plica semilunaris. Humans possess approximately 90 such organs.
Example in Whales: Hind leg bones (pelvic bones) are vestigial structures, indicating ancestral
terrestrial mammals.
Terms used: Organs of marginal use, rudimentary organs.

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 Determining Homologous vs. Analogous:

1. Habitat/Environment: If the environment is the same (e.g., aerial, aquatic), the structures are
likely analogous. If the environment is different, they are likely homologous.
2. Group/Class: If organisms belong to the same class (e.g., mammals), their structures are more
likely homologous. If they belong to different classes (e.g., birds and reptiles), structures with
similar functions are likely analogous.
3. Function vs. Structure: Analogous organs have similar functions but different
structures/origins. Homologous organs have different functions but similar structures/origins.
Convergent vs. Divergent Evolution:
Convergent Evolution: Leads to analogous organs. Organisms with different ancestors evolve
similar traits due to similar environmental pressures.
Divergent Evolution: Leads to homologous organs. Organisms with a common ancestor evolve
different traits due to adaptation to different environments.

Evidences of Evolution: Embryology (Detailed)

Embryological similarities provide evidence for common ancestry.

Similarities in Vertebrates: Embryonic stages of vertebrates often show remarkable similarities,

including:
Notochord
Gill slits
Post-anal tail These features may be transient and disappear or modify during development.

Evidences of Evolution: Endosymbiotic Hypothesis

Proposed by: Lynn Margulis.

Concept: Explains the evolution of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic ancestors. It suggests that certain
organelles within eukaryotic cells originated from symbiotic relationships between prokaryotes.
Key Organelles:
Flagella: Derived from spirochetes.
Chloroplasts: Derived from cyanobacteria.
Mitochondria: Derived from aerobic bacteria.
Characteristics supporting the hypothesis:
Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain 70S ribosomes, similar to prokaryotes.
They are semi-autonomous organelles, capable of self-replication.
Self-replication occurs via binary fission, similar to bacteria.
Terms: "Organelles of symbiotic origin."

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Mechanisms of Evolution

Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence. Gene mutations are the primary source of new variations
within a gene pool.
Non-random Mating: Mating patterns that are not random, influencing genotype frequencies.
Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies within a population, often occurring by chance
events. It is not related to the fitness of the alleles.
Botteleneck Effect: Occurs when a natural disaster (e.g., earthquake, flood) drastically reduces
a population's size, leading to a loss of genetic diversity and significant changes in allele
frequencies.
Founder Effect: Occurs when a small group of individuals migrates to a new area, establishing
a new population with allele frequencies that may differ from the original population.
Speciation: The evolutionary process by which new biological species arise.
Allopatric Speciation: Occurs due to geographical isolation.
Sympatric Speciation: Occurs without geographical isolation, often due to reproductive
isolation.
Parapatric Speciation: Occurs when populations develop in adjacent geographic areas, with
limited gene flow.
Natural Selection: The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to
survive and produce more offspring.
Key aspects:
It acts on heritable variations.
It improves adaptations of a species.
It is regional and temporal (varies from place to place and time to time).
Distinction from Artificial Selection: Natural selection is not guided by a breeder; artificial
selection is.
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (Lamarckism): Proposed that traits acquired during an
organism's lifetime could be passed on to its offspring. This is a core tenet of Lamarck's theory of
evolution.
Survival of the Fittest (Darwinism): This phrase, often associated with Darwin, refers to the
reproductive success of individuals. "Fitness" is defined as the ability to produce more offspring.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

This principle describes a non-evolving population. It states that allele and genotype frequencies in a
population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary
influences.

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Key Equations:
Allele frequencies: p + q =1
p: frequency of the dominant allele
q : frequency of the recessive allele
Genotype frequencies: p2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1
p2 : frequency of homozygous dominant individuals
2pq : frequency of heterozygous individuals
q 2 : frequency of homozygous recessive individuals

Example Problem: If the frequency of the dominant allele (p) in a population is 0.7, what is the
percentage of heterozygous individuals (2pq ) in that population?

1. Given: p = 0.7
2. Find q : Use the allele frequency equation: p + q
= 1 0.7 + q = 1 q = 1 − 0.7 = 0.3
3. Find 2pq : Use the genotype frequency equation for heterozygotes. 2pq = 2 × (0.7) × (0.3)
2pq = 2 × 0.21 2pq = 0.42
4. Convert to percentage: Multiply by 100. 0.42 × 100 = 42%

Therefore, the percentage of heterozygous individuals in the population is 42%.

Additional Calculations (from the example):

2 2
Percentage of homozygous dominant individuals (p ): p = (0.7)2 = 0.49 or 49%.
Percentage of homozygous recessive individuals (q 2 ): q 2 = (0.3)2 = 0.09 or 9%.
Check: p2 + 2pq + q 2 = 0.49 + 0.42 + 0.09 = 1.00. The sum of genotype frequencies
should always be 1.

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