Fundamentals of Calculus
A Comprehensive Reference Guide to Limits, Derivatives, and Integrals
Subject: Mathematics / Analysis Level: Undergraduate / Advanced Placement
1. Limits and Continuity
Calculus is fundamentally the study of continuous change. The foundation of calculus rests upon the
concept of a limit, which describes the behavior of a function near a particular input value rather than at
the value itself.
Formal Definition of a Limit (ε - δ)
Let f(x) be defined on an open interval containing c (except possibly at c). We say that:
limx → c f(x) = L
if for every ε > 0, there exists a corresponding δ > 0 such that whenever 0 < |x − c| < δ, then |f(x) − L| < ε.
Key Limit Properties
Given that limx → c f(x) = L and limx → c g(x) = M:
• Sum/Difference Law: limx → c [f(x) ± g(x)] = L ± M
• Product Law: limx → c [f(x) · g(x)] = L · M
• Quotient Law: limx → c [f(x) / g(x)] = L / M (provided M ≠ 0)
• Squeeze Theorem: If g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x) near c, and limx → c g(x) = limx → c h(x) = L, then limx → c f(x) = L.
Continuity
A function f(x) is continuous at a point x = c if and only if three conditions are satisfied:
1. f(c) is defined.
2. limx → c f(x) exists.
3. limx → c f(x) = f(c).
2. Differential Calculus
Differentiation is the process of finding the rate at which a function changes with respect to its variable.
The derivative represents the instantaneous rate of change and geometrically corresponds to the slope of
the tangent line.
Definition of the Derivative
The derivative of a function f(x) at x is defined as the limit of the difference quotient:
f'(x) = df/dx = limh → 0 [f(x + h) − f(x)] / h
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Fundamental Differentiation Rules
Rule Name Mathematical Formula Description / Notes
Power Rule d/dx [xn] = n · xn−1 For any real number n
Product Rule (u · v)' = u'v + uv' Derivative of a product of two functions
Quotient Rule (u / v)' = (u'v − uv') / v2 Denominator cannot be zero
Chain Rule d/dx [f(g(x))] = f'(g(x)) · g'(x) Derivative of composite functions
Exponential d/dx [ex] = ex, d/dx [ax] = ax ln(a) Base e is its own derivative
Logarithmic d/dx [ln(x)] = 1 / x Defined for x > 0
Trigonometric Derivatives
• d/dx [sin(x)] = cos(x) • d/dx [csc(x)] = −csc(x)cot(x)
• d/dx [cos(x)] = −sin(x) • d/dx [sec(x)] = sec(x)tan(x)
• d/dx [tan(x)] = sec2(x) • d/dx [cot(x)] = −csc2(x)
3. Applications of Differentiation
Derivatives provide crucial tools for analyzing function behavior, finding extreme values, and
approximating non-linear systems.
Mean Value Theorem (MVT)
If f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), then there exists at least one number c ∈ (a, b)
such that:
f'(c) = [f(b) − f(a)] / (b − a)
• Critical Points: Values of x in the domain of f where f'(x) = 0 or f'(x) is undefined.
• First Derivative Test: If f'(x) changes sign from positive to negative at c, f(c) is a local maximum. If
from negative to positive, a local minimum.
• Second Derivative & Concavity: If f''(x) > 0 on an interval, f is concave up (∪). If f''(x) < 0, f is concave
down (∩). Points where concavity changes are inflection points.
• L'Hôpital's Rule: For indeterminate limit forms 0/0 or ∞/∞:
limx → c [f(x) / g(x)] = limx → c [f'(x) / g'(x)]
4. Integral Calculus
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation (antidifferentiation) and is used to compute areas,
volumes, central points, and many other quantities.
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Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC)
Let f be continuous on [a, b].
Part 1: If g(x) = ∫ax f(t) dt, then g'(x) = f(x).
Part 2: If F is any antiderivative of f (i.e., F' = f), then:
∫ab f(x) dx = F(b) − F(a)
Common Integration Techniques
1. Integration by Substitution (u-substitution): Undoes the Chain Rule.
∫ f(g(x)) g'(x) dx = ∫ f(u) du, where u = g(x)
2. Integration by Parts: Undoes the Product Rule.
∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du
3. Partial Fractions: Used to integrate rational functions P(x)/Q(x) by decomposing them into simpler
fractions.
Standard Indefinite Integrals
Function f(x) Antiderivative ∫ f(x) dx
xn (for n ≠ −1) (xn+1 / (n + 1)) + C
1/x ln|x| + C
ex ex + C
cos(x) sin(x) + C
sin(x) −cos(x) + C
1 / (1 + x2) arctan(x) + C
5. Infinite Series & Taylor Expansions
Functions can be approximated by polynomials through Taylor and Maclaurin series.
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Taylor Series Expansion
The Taylor series of a smooth function f(x) centered at x = a is given by:
f(x) = Σn=0∞ [f(n)(a) / n!] · (x − a)n
When a = 0, it is termed a Maclaurin series.
Standard Maclaurin Series
• ex = 1 + x + x2/2! + x3/3! + ... = Σ ∞ xn/n! (for all x)
n=0
• sin(x) = x − x3/3! + x5/5! − ... = Σ ∞ n 2n+1 / (2n+1)! (for all x)
n=0 (−1) x
• cos(x) = 1 − x2/2! + x4/4! − ... = Σ ∞ n 2n (for all x)
n=0 (−1) x / (2n)!
• 1 / (1 − x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ... = Σ ∞ n
x (for |x| < 1)
n=0
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