Name: Ngô Nguyễn Bình Xuyên
Student ID: 0023410537
Class: ĐHSANH23B
ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
CHAPTER 10: STRESS
Stress refers to the relative prominence of syllables in words. This chapter
examines the nature and levels of stress, the placement of stress in simple words, and
the stress patterns of complex words formed with affixes or by compounding.
10.1 Stress in Simple Words
10.1.1 The Nature of Stress
A stressed syllable is more prominent than the surrounding syllables. Speakers
usually recognize stress intuitively, although prominence results from a combination
of several phonetic factors.
Factor Description Example or effect
A shouted syllable is more
A stressed syllable may be produced with
Loudness prominent than a softly
greater intensity.
spoken one.
A prolonged stressed vowel
Length The vowel or syllable may last longer.
attracts attention.
The stressed syllable often
A pitch movement or pitch difference is a
Pitch carries a noticeable pitch
strong cue to stress.
change.
Strong syllables contain full vowels, while
about /əˈbaʊt/: /ə/ is weak
Vowel quality unstressed syllables often contain reduced
and /aʊ/ is strong.
vowels.
Examples of stress placement include father /ˈfɑːðə/ with first-syllable stress,
potato /pəˈteɪtəʊ/ with medial stress, and about /əˈbaʊt/ with final-syllable stress.
10.1.2 Levels of Stress
Stress is not adequately described by a simple stressed-versus-unstressed
opposition. English commonly distinguishes primary stress, secondary stress, and
unstressed syllables.
Level Symbol Description Example
The strongest and most prominent
Primary stress ˈ around /əˈraʊnd/
stress in the word.
A weaker stress that is more
photographic /ˌfəʊtə
Secondary stress ˌ prominent than an unstressed
ˈɡræfɪk/
syllable.
the first syllable /ə/ in
Unstressed — A weak syllable without stress.
around
10.1.3 Placement of Stress within Simple Words
Stress placement in English is relatively complex and cannot be predicted by one
fixed rule. Analysis normally considers the word's grammatical category, the number
of syllables, the phonological structure of each syllable, and the historical or
morphological pattern of the word.
Word type General tendency Examples Notes
A strong final
Final stress if the second syllable contains a
Two-syllable apply /əˈplaɪ/, arrive /ə
syllable is strong; otherwise long vowel,
verbs ˈraɪv/; enter /ˈentə/
initial stress. diphthong, or final
consonant cluster.
Initial stress is common; final The pattern is a
Two-syllable table /ˈteɪbl/, money
stress may occur when the tendency rather than
nouns /ˈmʌni/; design /dɪˈzaɪn/
second syllable is strong. an absolute rule.
Two-syllable correct /kəˈrekt/, Exceptions are
Patterns often resemble verbs.
adjectives happy /ˈhæpi/ common.
The final syllable is
Stress depends on the final
Three-syllable potato /pəˈteɪtəʊ/, often unstressed in
syllable, penultimate syllable,
words cinema /ˈsɪnəmə/ nouns and
and grammatical category.
adjectives.
10.2 Complex Word Stress
A complex word contains more than one grammatical unit. It may consist of a
stem plus one or more affixes, or it may be a compound formed from two independent
words.
10.2.1 Simple and Complex Words
Type Description Examples
Contains one grammatical unit and no
Simple word care /keə/, book /bʊk/, run /rʌn/
productive prefix or suffix.
Type Description Examples
Contains a stem plus one or more careful /ˈkeəfəl/, careless /ˈkeələs/,
Complex word
affixes. carefully /ˈkeəfəli/
Can be analyzed into two words that
Compound word typewriter, desk lamp, fruit-cake
may also occur independently.
10.2.2 Suffixes and Stress
Suffixes may affect stress in three principal ways: they may carry the primary
stress themselves, shift stress to a particular syllable of the stem, or leave the stress
pattern unchanged.
Suffix type Effect Examples Observation
refugee /ˌrefjuˈdʒiː/, Common with -ee, -
Stress-bearing The suffix receives
Japanese /ˌdʒæpəˈniːz/, eer, -ese, -ette, -
suffix primary stress.
employee /ɪmˈplɔɪiː/ esque.
Common patterns
Primary stress is placed photographic /ˌfəʊtə
Stress-shifting occur with -ic, -ion,
on a syllable before the ˈɡræfɪk/, electricity /ɪˌlek
suffix -ity and related
suffix. ˈtrɪsəti/
endings.
Many suffixes such
comfortable /ˈkʌmftəbl/,
Stress-neutral The original stem stress as -ful, -less, -ly, -
careless /ˈkeələs/,
suffix is normally preserved. ness are broadly
quietly /ˈkwaɪətli/
stress-neutral.
10.2.3 Prefixes
Prefixes are less regular than suffixes in their effect on stress. No common one-
or two-syllable prefix invariably carries primary stress. In many prefixed words, stress
follows the general pattern of the base word, as in unhappy /ʌnˈhæpi/.
10.2.4 Compound Words
Compounds may be written as one word, with a hyphen, or as two separate
words. Stress frequently falls on the first element, especially in noun compounds,
although other patterns occur.
Compound type Typical stress Examples Comment
The first element
Usually first-element typewriter, armchair,
Noun + noun identifies the type or
stress. desk lamp
purpose of the second.
Compound type Typical stress Examples Comment
May have first-
element or final- Stress can distinguish
blackbird versus black
Adjective + noun element stress a compound from an
bird
depending on ordinary phrase.
meaning.
Patterns are less
Verb or adverbial Often final-element understand, bad-
uniform than noun
compounds stress. tempered
compounds.
10.2.5 Variable Stress and Word-Class Pairs
Stress may vary because of connected-speech rhythm or speaker preference. In
addition, many two-syllable words with identical spelling show a systematic stress
difference between nouns or adjectives and verbs.
Noun or adjective Verb Stress contrast
First syllable versus second
'record /ˈrekɔːd/ re'cord /rɪˈkɔːd/
syllable
First syllable versus second
'present /ˈpreznt/ pre'sent /prɪˈzent/
syllable
First syllable versus second
'conduct /ˈkɒndʌkt/ con'duct /kənˈdʌkt/
syllable
First syllable versus second
'import /ˈɪmpɔːt/ im'port /ɪmˈpɔːt/
syllable