UNIT 4: PARTICLE PHYSICS

DSE 8-6 | BSc Physics (Programme) 4th Year

Comprehensive Exam Notes
Based on MSCPH-558 (Particle Physics) PDF Textbook

UNIT 4 SYLLABUS OVERVIEW (12 Hours)

Topics covered in Unit IV as per your syllabus:
• Overview of Particle Spectrum and their interactions in the Standard Model
• Range, time-scale and relative strength of interactions
• Interactions at a distance mediated by virtual particles (Exchange Force)
• High Energy Colliders: Linear and Circular; LHC, ALICE, CMS
• Inelastic collisions at Hadron colliders
• Kinematics for 2→2 scattering processes and Crossing symmetries
• Angular and energy distributions of decaying particles in 1→3 decay processes (muon/beta
decay)
• Lepton and Baryon quantum numbers, Isospin, Strangeness, Hypercharge
• Gell-Mann-Nishijima formula
• Parity and Charge Conjugation of a particle state
• Time Reversal and General CPT Theorem
• Valence quark model of Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman
• Current and constituent masses of quarks, Flavor symmetry, Isospin triplets
• Baryon Octet and Decuplet, Meson Octet
• Antisymmetric Delta++ state and necessity for Color quantum number
• Evidence for color triplet quarks from e+e- annihilation experiment

1. STANDARD MODEL — PARTICLE SPECTRUM &

INTERACTIONS
1.1 What is the Standard Model?
The Standard Model (SM) is the fundamental theory describing all known elementary particles and
their interactions (except gravity). All particles are either matter particles (fermions) or force-carrying
particles (bosons).

PARTICLES IN THE STANDARD MODEL:

• Quarks: u, d, c, s, t, b (feel strong, weak, EM forces)
• Leptons: e, μ, τ, νe, νμ, ντ (do NOT feel strong force)
• Gauge Bosons: photon (γ), W+, W-, Z0, gluons (g) — force carriers
• Higgs Boson: responsible for mass
1.2 The Four Fundamental Interactions
Interaction Carrier Relative Strength Range Characteristic Time
(α)
Strong Gluons / Pions 1 ~10⁻¹⁵ m 10⁻²³ s
Electromagnetic Photon (γ) 10⁻² Infinite (1/r²) 10⁻²¹ s
Weak W±, Z⁰ (Intermediate 10⁻⁷ (or 10⁻¹⁴) Almost zero 10⁻¹⁰ s
Bosons)
Gravitational Graviton (undetected) 10⁻³⁸ or 10⁻³⁹ Infinite (1/r²) 10¹⁶ s

KEY FORMULA — Relative strengths:

αStrong : αEM : αWeak : αGrav = 1 : 10⁻² : 10⁻⁷ : 10⁻³⁸

EXAM TIP: The strong interaction is characterized by coupling constant g²/ℏc ≈ 1; EM by fine
structure constant α = e²/4πε₀ℏc ≈ 1/137 ≈ 10⁻²; Weak by GF/ℏc³ ~ 10 ⁻⁵/mp².

2. EXCHANGE FORCE — VIRTUAL PARTICLES

2.1 Concept of Exchange Force
All fundamental forces are mediated by the exchange of virtual particles — this is the quantum field
theory (QFT) picture of force.

YUKAWA'S IDEA (1935):

Yukawa proposed that the nuclear (strong) force is due to exchange of a massive particle (later
identified as the pion). By analogy, the photon mediates EM force.

VIRTUAL PARTICLES — KEY POINTS:

• Virtual particles are not directly observable — they exist only during the exchange
• They can violate energy-mass conservation TEMPORARILY within ΔE·Δt ~ ℏ (Heisenberg
uncertainty)
• Heavier exchange particle → shorter range of force
• Massless exchange particle (like photon) → infinite range

RANGE OF FORCE FORMULA:

R ≈ ℏ/mc where m = mass of exchange particle, c = speed of light
• Photon (m=0): R → ∞ (EM force is long-range)
• Pion (m ≈ 140 MeV/c²): R ≈ ℏ/mπc ≈ 1.4 × 10⁻¹⁵ m (nuclear range!)
• W/Z boson (m ≈ 80–91 GeV/c²): R ≈ 10⁻¹⁸ m (weak force very short-range)

EXAM Q: Why is strong nuclear force short-range? — Because the exchange particles
(pions/gluons interact with each other) are massive.
3. HIGH ENERGY COLLIDERS
3.1 Why High Energy Colliders?
To probe the internal structure of nucleons (quarks, gluons), particles must be given very high
energies so their de Broglie wavelength λ = h/p is small enough to resolve sub-nuclear distances.
• Resolution ~ λ = ℏc/E → larger E → smaller λ → probe smaller structures
• To create heavy particles (like W, Z, Higgs, top quark): E must exceed their rest mass
energy (E = mc²)

3.2 Types of Colliders

Type Description Example Advantage
Linear Collider Accelerates particles in a SLAC (Stanford) No synchrotron
(LINAC) straight line radiation loss
Circular Collider Particles go in circles; LHC, Tevatron Particles can be re-
(Synchrotron) magnets bend path accelerated many
times
e⁺e⁻ Collider Electron-positron LEP (CERN) Well-defined initial
collision; clean events state; precise energy
Hadron Collider Proton-proton or p-pbar LHC (CERN) Achieve highest
collisions center-of-mass
energies

3.3 Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

• Located at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
• Circumference: ~27 km underground ring
• Collides proton-proton beams at √s = 13-14 TeV center-of-mass energy
• Key experiments: ATLAS, CMS, ALICE, LHCb

ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment):

• Studies heavy-ion (Pb-Pb) collisions at the LHC
• Purpose: Recreate conditions just after the Big Bang — Quark-Gluon Plasma (QGP)
• Studies properties of strongly interacting matter at extreme temperature and density

CMS (Compact Muon Solenoid):

• General purpose detector at LHC
• One of two experiments that discovered the Higgs Boson (2012) — together with ATLAS
• Strong magnetic field (3.8 T) from superconducting solenoid

INELASTIC COLLISIONS AT HADRON COLLIDERS:

• At high energies, proton-proton collisions are mostly inelastic — quarks and gluons inside
protons collide
• These quark/gluon sub-collisions are described by Parton Distribution Functions (PDFs)
• Resulting in: jets, heavy particles, multiple particle production
4. KINEMATICS OF SCATTERING & DECAY
4.1 Kinematics for 2→2 Scattering
In a 2→2 process: A + B → C + D, the kinematics is described using Lorentz-invariant Mandelstam
variables:

Variable Definition Physical Meaning

s (CM energy²) s = (pA + pB)² = (pC + pD)² Total energy² in center-of-
mass frame; √s = CM
energy
t (momentum t = (pA - pC)² = (pB - pD)² 4-momentum transfer; t <
transfer) 0 for physical scattering
u (crossed u = (pA - pD)² = (pB - pC)² Crossed channel
momentum) momentum transfer

USEFUL RELATION: s + t + u = mA² + mB² + mC² + mD² (in natural units with c=1)

Crossing Symmetry
Crossing symmetry states that the scattering amplitude for different processes (s, t, u channels) are
related by analytical continuation:
• s-channel: A + B → C + D (particle A and B collide, C and D produced)
• t-channel: A + C̄ → B̄ + D (exchange of momentum t between particles)
• u-channel: A + D̄ → B̄ + C (exchange of momentum u)

This means: if M(s,t,u) is the amplitude for A+B→C+D, then the amplitude for A+C̄ →B̄ +D is
obtained by substituting s ↔ t (replacing s by t and t by s).

4.2 Angular and Energy Distributions in 1→3 Decay

In a 1→3 body decay process (e.g., muon decay or beta decay): M → m₁ + m₂ + m₃

Muon Decay: μ⁻ → e⁻ + ν̄e + νμ

• This is a 3-body decay (1→3 process)
• Energy is shared among three final-state particles
• Energy spectrum of the electron is CONTINUOUS (not discrete) — evidence for 3 decay
products
• The electron energy distribution peaks below the maximum energy and falls to zero

Beta Decay: n → p + e⁻ + ν̄e

• Also a 1→3 process (equivalently, d → u + e⁻ + ν̄e at quark level)
• Historical puzzle: continuous electron energy spectrum (Pauli postulated neutrino to explain
this)
 • Maximum electron energy Emax = (mₙ - mₚ)c² = 0.782 MeV
• The energy and angular distribution of the emitted electron depends on the V-A structure of
weak interaction

KEY DIFFERENCE from 2-body decay:

• 2-body decay (1→2): Each particle has a FIXED energy (monoenergetic) — discrete
spectrum
• 3-body decay (1→3): Energy is shared among 3 particles — CONTINUOUS energy
spectrum

5. LEPTON AND BARYON QUANTUM NUMBERS

5.1 Classification of Particles
Group Type Examples Interactions
Leptons Fermions (spin 1/2), light e⁻, μ⁻, τ⁻, νe, νμ, EM + Weak (NOT
ντ Strong)
Baryons Fermions (spin 1/2), p, n, Λ, Σ, Ξ, Ω Strong + EM + Weak
heavy (≥ nucleon mass)
Mesons Bosons (integral spin), π, K, η Strong + EM + Weak
intermediate mass
Photon Boson (spin 1), massless γ Electromagnetic only

NOTE: Baryons + Mesons = Hadrons (strongly interacting particles)

5.2 Baryon Number (B)

• Each baryon: B = +1; each antibaryon: B = -1; all other particles: B = 0
• B is conserved in ALL interactions (strong, EM, weak)
• Ensures proton stability (proton is lightest baryon, cannot decay without violating B
conservation)

Example: Proton decay p → e⁺ + π⁰ is FORBIDDEN (B: 1 ≠ 0 + 0)

Pair production p + p → p + p + p + p̄ is ALLOWED (B: 1+1 = 1+1+1-1 ✓)

5.3 Lepton Number (L)

Three separately conserved lepton numbers: Le, Lμ, Lτ
Particle Le Lμ Lτ
e⁻, νe +1 0 0
e⁺, ν̄e -1 0 0
μ⁻, νμ 0 +1 0
μ⁺, ν̄μ 0 -1 0
 τ⁻, ντ 0 0 +1
Quarks, γ, W, Z 0 0 0

Example — Muon decay: μ⁻ → e⁻ + ν̄e + νμ

• Le: 0 → +1 + (-1) + 0 = 0 ✓
• Lμ: +1 → 0 + 0 + 1 = +1 ✓

6. ISOSPIN, STRANGENESS, HYPERCHARGE

6.1 Isospin (I)
Isospin is a quantum number based on the approximate symmetry between protons and neutrons
(they have nearly equal masses and same strong interactions — charge independence).

• The proton-neutron pair forms an isospin doublet with I = 1/2

• I₃ = +1/2 for proton (p), I₃ = -1/2 for neutron (n)
• Three pions form an isospin triplet with I = 1: π⁺ (I₃=+1), π⁰ (I₃=0), π ⁻ (I₃=-1)
• Total isospin |I| is conserved in strong interactions only
• I₃ (third component) is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions
• Neither I nor I₃ conserved in weak interactions

ISOSPIN FORMULA (charge multiplicity):

Number of charge states = 2I + 1
• I = 1/2 → 2 states (doublet): p, n
• I = 1 → 3 states (triplet): π⁺, π⁰, π⁻
• I = 3/2 → 4 states (quartet): Δ++, Δ+, Δ⁰, Δ⁻
• I = 0 → 1 state (singlet): Λ, η

6.2 Strangeness (S)

Introduced by Gell-Mann and Nishijima (1950s) to explain 'strange particles' — heavy unstable
particles (Λ, Σ, Ξ, K) that are:
• Produced RAPIDLY (in ~10⁻²³ s, via strong interaction)
• But decay SLOWLY (in ~10⁻¹⁰ s, via weak interaction)

KEY RULES FOR STRANGENESS:

• ΔS = 0 in strong and electromagnetic interactions
• |ΔS| = 1 in weak interactions (strangeness changes by ±1)
• S = 0 for u, d quarks; S = -1 for s quark; S = +1 for s̄ antiquark

Particle S Particle S
K⁺ (us̄ ) +1 K⁻ (ūs) -1
Λ (uds) -1 Σ⁺,Σ⁰,Σ⁻ -1
 Ξ⁻ (dss) -2 Ω⁻ (sss) -3
p, n, π 0 All non-strange 0

6.3 Hypercharge (Y)

Hypercharge Y is defined as: Y = B + S
(For particles with charm, bottom, top quarks: Y = B + S + C + B̃ + T)

• Y = S + B (where B = Baryon number, S = Strangeness)

• Y is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions
• Y is NOT conserved in weak interactions
• The antiparticle has Y of opposite sign

7. GELL-MANN-NISHIJIMA FORMULA
This is one of the most important formulas in particle physics. It relates the electric charge Q to
isospin I₃, baryon number B, and strangeness S:

Q = I₃ + (B + S)/2 = I₃ + Y/2
Where: Q = electric charge, I₃ = third component of isospin, B = baryon number, S = strangeness, Y
= B + S = hypercharge

VERIFICATION EXAMPLES:
Particle I₃ B S Y = B+S Q = I₃ + Y/2 Actual Q
Proton (p) +1/2 +1 0 +1 +1/2 + 1/2 = +1 +1 ✓
Neutron (n) -1/2 +1 0 +1 -1/2 + 1/2 = 0 0✓
π⁺ +1 0 0 0 +1 + 0 = +1 +1 ✓
π⁰ 0 0 0 0 0+0=0 0✓
K⁺ (us̄ ) +1/2 0 +1 +1 +1/2 + 1/2 = +1 +1 ✓
Λ (uds) 0 +1 -1 0 0+0=0 0✓
Ω⁻ (sss) 0 +1 -3 -2 0 + (-1) = -1 -1 ✓

EXAM TIP: The formula Q = I₃ + Y/2 = I₃ + (B+S)/2 must be memorized. It is a LINEAR equation —
all quantities are additive quantum numbers.
8. PARITY (P), CHARGE CONJUGATION (C) AND TIME
REVERSAL (T)
8.1 Parity (P)
Parity transformation reverses all spatial coordinates: (x, y, z) → (−x, −y, −z). It is like a mirror
reflection.

• Nucleons, electrons have POSITIVE intrinsic parity (+1)

• Pions, K-mesons have NEGATIVE intrinsic parity (−1)
• Parity of a system = product of intrinsic parities × (−1)^L where L = orbital angular
momentum

CONSERVATION OF PARITY:
• Parity IS conserved in: strong interactions, electromagnetic interactions
• Parity is NOT conserved in: weak interactions

PARITY VIOLATION (Wu Experiment, 1956):

• Chien-Shiung Wu measured β-decay of aligned ⁶⁰Co nuclei in a magnetic field
• Found electrons preferentially emitted OPPOSITE to the nuclear spin direction
• In mirror image world, electrons would be emitted in the OTHER direction → asymmetry →
parity violation
• Led to V−A (vector minus axial vector) theory by Feynman and Gell-Mann for weak
interactions

8.2 Charge Conjugation (C)

Charge conjugation transforms a particle into its antiparticle — it reverses the sign of ALL internal
quantum numbers (charge, baryon number, lepton number, strangeness), while keeping spin, mass,
and lifetime unchanged.

• C: particle ↔ antiparticle
• Example: electron (e⁻) ↔ positron (e⁺) under C
• C is conserved in: strong and electromagnetic interactions
• C is NOT conserved in: weak interactions
• Only particles that are their own antiparticle (like π⁰, η, γ) have a definite C-parity

8.3 Time Reversal (T)

• Time reversal reverses the direction of time: t → −t
• Under T: momenta and spins are reversed
• T was believed to be conserved in all interactions
• In 1964, CP violation was discovered in K⁰ → 2π decay (Cronin & Fitch, Nobel Prize 1980)
• Since CPT must be conserved (CPT Theorem), CP violation implies T violation
8.4 CPT Theorem
The CPT Theorem is a fundamental theorem of quantum field theory:
ALL relativistic quantum field theories are invariant under the combined CPT
operation

CONSEQUENCES OF CPT THEOREM:

1. Every particle has a corresponding antiparticle
2. Particle and antiparticle have the SAME mass and lifetime
3. Particle and antiparticle have OPPOSITE charges and quantum numbers
4. CPT invariance is preserved even when C, P, T individually are violated

TABLE — Conservation laws for different interactions:

Quantity Strong EM Weak
Charge (Q) Yes Yes Yes
Baryon Number (B) Yes Yes Yes
Lepton Number (L) Yes Yes Yes
Isospin (I) Yes No No
I₃ (3rd component) Yes Yes No
Strangeness (S) Yes Yes No (|ΔS|=1)
Parity (P) Yes Yes No
Charge Conj. (C) Yes Yes No
Time Reversal (T) Yes Yes No
CPT Yes Yes Yes

9. THE QUARK MODEL — GELL-MANN AND NE'EMAN

9.1 The Eightfold Way
In 1961, Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman independently proposed the 'Eightfold Way' — a
scheme to organize hadrons into geometric patterns based on their quantum numbers.

• Hadrons with same spin and parity are grouped into multiplets based on I₃ (x-axis) vs S (y-
axis)
• Meson Octet (spin-0 mesons): 8 lightest pseudoscalar mesons — π⁺, π⁻, π⁰, K⁺, K⁻, K⁰, K̄ ⁰,
η
• Baryon Octet (spin-1/2 baryons): p, n, Λ, Σ⁺, Σ⁰, Σ⁻, Ξ⁰, Ξ⁻
• Baryon Decuplet (spin-3/2 baryons): Δ++, Δ+, Δ⁰, Δ⁻, Σ*, Ξ*, Ω⁻

PREDICTION OF Ω⁻:
Gell-Mann predicted the Ω⁻ baryon (1962) from the missing spot in the baryon decuplet: S = -3, Q =
-1, mass ~1680 MeV/c². Discovered in 1964 at Brookhaven. Gell-Mann received the Nobel Prize in
Physics 1969.
9.2 The Quark Model (Gell-Mann and Zweig, 1964)
Quarks are the fundamental constituents of hadrons. Original three quarks: up (u), down (d),
strange (s).

Quark Charge B I I₃ S Y = B+S

(Q)
u (up) +2/3 +1/3 1/2 +1/2 0 +1/3
d (down) -1/3 +1/3 1/2 -1/2 0 +1/3
s (strange) -1/3 +1/3 0 0 -1 -2/3

RULES OF THE QUARK MODEL:

• Baryons = qqq (three quarks)
• Anti-baryons = q̄ q̄ q̄ (three antiquarks)
• Mesons = qq̄ (quark + antiquark)
• Each quark has baryon number B = +1/3; each antiquark B = -1/3

EXAMPLES:
Particle Quark Q (sum) B (sum) S (sum)
Content
Proton (p) uud +2/3+2/3-1/3 = +1 +1/3+1/3+ 0
1/3 = +1
Neutron (n) udd +2/3-1/3-1/3 = 0 +1 0
π⁺ ud̄ +2/3+1/3 = +1 0 0
π⁻ ūd -2/3-1/3 = -1 0 0
K⁺ us̄ +2/3+1/3 = +1 0 +1
K⁻ ūs -2/3-1/3 = -1 0 -1
Ω⁻ sss -1/3-1/3-1/3 = -1 +1 -3

9.3 Current and Constituent Quark Masses

Quark Current Mass Constituent Mass Notes
(approx.) (approx.)
u (up) ~2.3 MeV ~336 MeV Lightest quark
d (down) ~4.8 MeV ~340 MeV

s (strange) ~95 MeV ~486 MeV

c (charm) ~1.28 GeV ~1.55 GeV Proposed 1970 by GIM

mechanism
b (bottom) ~4.18 GeV ~4.73 GeV Discovered 1977 (Υ
meson)
t (top) ~173 GeV ~173 GeV Discovered 1995 at
 Tevatron

Current mass: 'bare' quark mass in the Lagrangian; Constituent mass: effective mass including
gluon cloud (used in quark model calculations).

10. FLAVOR SYMMETRY, ISOSPIN TRIPLETS, OCTETS AND

DECUPLETS
10.1 SU(3) Flavor Symmetry
The three quarks u, d, s transform as a fundamental triplet (3-representation) of the SU(3) flavor
symmetry group. This symmetry is approximate (broken by quark mass differences).

• SU(2) isospin symmetry: u and d quarks form a doublet

• SU(3) flavor symmetry: u, d, s quarks form a triplet (Eightfold Way)
• This gives rise to the octet and decuplet multiplets

10.2 Isospin Triplets

Particles with I = 1 form triplets (three members with I₃ = +1, 0, −1):
• Pion triplet: π⁺ (I₃=+1), π⁰ (I₃=0), π⁻ (I₃=−1) — all have mass ~140 MeV
• Sigma hyperon triplet: Σ⁺, Σ⁰, Σ⁻ — all have S = −1, mass ~1190 MeV
• Rho meson triplet: ρ⁺, ρ⁰, ρ⁻ (spin-1 mesons)

10.3 Meson Octet

The 8 lightest pseudoscalar (spin-0) mesons form the meson octet:
• π⁺, π⁻, π⁰ (I=1, S=0) — pions
• K⁺, K⁰ (I=1/2, S=+1) — K-mesons with strangeness +1
• K⁻, K̄ ⁰ (I=1/2, S=−1) — K-mesons with strangeness −1
• η (I=0, S=0) — eta meson at center

10.4 Baryon Octet

The 8 lightest spin-1/2 baryons:
• p, n (I=1/2, S=0) — nucleons
• Σ⁺, Σ⁰, Σ⁻ (I=1, S=−1) — sigma hyperons
• Ξ⁰, Ξ⁻ (I=1/2, S=−2) — xi (cascade) hyperons
• Λ (I=0, S=−1) — lambda hyperon

10.5 Baryon Decuplet

The 10 spin-3/2 baryons arranged in a triangular pattern:
• Δ++, Δ+, Δ⁰, Δ⁻ (I=3/2, S=0)
 • Σ*⁺, Σ*⁰, Σ*⁻ (I=1, S=−1)
• Ξ*⁰, Ξ*⁻ (I=1/2, S=−2)
• Ω⁻ (I=0, S=−3) — the 10th member, predicted then discovered

11. COLOR QUANTUM NUMBER AND THE Δ++ PROBLEM

11.1 The Problem with Δ++ Baryon
The Δ++ baryon has:
• Quark content: uuu (three up quarks)
• Spin: J = 3/2 (all three quark spins aligned: ↑↑↑)
• Strangeness: S = 0, Charge: Q = +2

PROBLEM: All three u-quarks are in the SAME quantum state (same flavor u, same spin ↑). This
VIOLATES the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which forbids two identical fermions from occupying the
same quantum state!

SIMILAR PROBLEM: Ω⁻ = sss (three strange quarks with same spin state)

11.2 Solution: Color Quantum Number

To resolve this, O.W. Greenberg (1964) and Han & Nambu proposed an additional quantum
number called COLOR CHARGE:

• Each quark comes in 3 colors: Red (R), Green (G), Blue (B)
• Antiquarks carry anticolors: R̄ , Ḡ, B̄
• The Δ++ = u_R u_G u_B — three up quarks with DIFFERENT colors → no Pauli violation!

FUNDAMENTAL RULE OF QCD (Quantum Chromodynamics):

All observed hadrons are COLOR-NEUTRAL (colorless / 'white')

• Mesons: q̄ q — color + anticolor (e.g., R + R̄ = colorless)
• Baryons: qqq — R + G + B = colorless (like mixing all three light colors = white)

11.3 Gluons — Carriers of Color Force

• The strong force between quarks is mediated by 8 massless spin-1 gluons
• Unlike photons, gluons carry COLOR CHARGE themselves (bi-colored: color + anticolor)
• This is why gluons interact with each other (unlike photons)
• This self-interaction leads to quark confinement — quarks cannot be isolated
12. EVIDENCE FOR COLOR: e⁺e⁻ ANNIHILATION EXPERIMENT
12.1 The R-Ratio
The most direct evidence for 3 colors of quarks comes from e⁺e⁻ → hadrons experiments.

DEFINE the ratio R:

R = σ(e⁺e⁻ → hadrons) / σ(e⁺e⁻ → μ⁺μ⁻)

Where σ denotes the cross-section (probability of interaction)

THEORETICAL PREDICTION:
If quarks have Nc colors and Nf active quark flavors at that energy:
R = Nc × Σ(Qi²) = Nc × (Q_u² + Q_d² + Q_s² + ...)

Energy Range Active Quarks R (without color, R (with color, Experimental

Nc=1) Nc=3) R
Below charm u, d, s (4/9+1/9+1/9) = 6/9 3 × 2/3 = 2 ~2 ✓
threshold = 2/3
Above charm u, d, s, c (4/9+1/9+1/9+4/9) 3 × 10/9 ≈ 3.3 ~3.3 ✓
threshold = 10/9
Above bottom u, d, s, c, b +1/9 3 × 11/9 ≈ 3.67 ~3.7 ✓
threshold

CONCLUSION: The experimental R values are 3 times larger than the prediction without color —
this is DIRECT EVIDENCE that quarks come in exactly 3 colors (Nc = 3)!

QUARK CHARGES: Qu = +2/3, Qd = -1/3, Qs = -1/3, Qc = +2/3, Qb = -1/3

So Qu² = 4/9, Qd² = 1/9, Qs² = 1/9, Qc² = 4/9, Qb² = 1/9

13. QUICK REVISION — IMPORTANT FORMULAS & TABLES

13.1 Key Formulas
Formula Expression When to Use
Gell-Mann- Q = I₃ + Y/2 = I₃ + Finding charge from quantum
Nishijima (B+S)/2 numbers
Hypercharge Y=B+S Combining baryon number and
strangeness
Range of Force R ≈ ℏ/mc Relating exchange particle
mass to force range
Charge Multiplicity 2I + 1 Number of states in an isospin
multiplet
R-Ratio (e⁺e⁻) R = Nc × Σ Qi² Evidence for 3 colors
Mandelstam s s = (pA + pB)² CM energy squared
Mandelstam t t = (pA - pC)² Momentum transfer squared
Relation s + t + u = Σmi² Connecting Mandelstam
variables

13.2 Quantum Numbers Summary

Quantum Number Symbol Conserved in In EM? In Weak?
Strong?
Electric Charge Q Yes Yes Yes
Baryon Number B Yes Yes Yes
Lepton Number L Yes Yes Yes
Isospin I Yes No No
I₃ I₃ Yes Yes No
Strangeness S Yes Yes No (|ΔS|=1)
Hypercharge Y Yes Yes No
Parity P Yes Yes No
C-Parity C Yes Yes No
CPT CPT Yes Yes Yes

13.3 Particle Properties Summary

Particl Quark B S I I₃ Q Y
e Content
p uud 1 0 1/2 +1/2 +1 +1
n udd 1 0 1/2 -1/2 0 +1
π⁺ ud̄ 0 0 1 +1 +1 0
π⁻ ūd 0 0 1 -1 -1 0
π⁰ uū/dd̄ 0 0 1 0 0 0
K⁺ us̄ 0 +1 1/2 +1/2 +1 +1
K⁻ ūs 0 -1 1/2 -1/2 -1 -1
Λ uds 1 -1 0 0 0 0
Ω⁻ sss 1 -3 0 0 -1 -2

14. EXPECTED EXAM QUESTIONS

SHORT ANSWER (2-5 marks):

5. State the Gell-Mann-Nishijima relation and verify it for the proton and neutron.
6. What is strangeness? Why is it conserved in strong interactions but not weak?
7. What is the CPT theorem? State its consequences.
 8. Distinguish between baryons, mesons and leptons.
9. Why are quarks never found free? What is color confinement?
10. What is hypercharge? Write its relation with other quantum numbers.
11. Why is the range of weak force so short? Explain using exchange particle concept.
12. State the law of conservation of isospin. In which interactions is it valid?

LONG ANSWER (8-10 marks):

13. Discuss the Standard Model of particle physics. Describe all four fundamental interactions
and compare their ranges, strengths, and carrier particles.
14. Explain the quark model of Gell-Mann and Zweig. Discuss the quark content of baryons and
mesons with examples. What problem arose with the Delta++ baryon and how was it
resolved?
15. Discuss the Eightfold Way. Explain the baryon octet, meson octet, and baryon decuplet.
How was the Omega minus predicted?
16. What are the symmetries C, P, T? Which interactions conserve them? Describe the Wu
experiment showing parity violation.
17. Explain the concept of exchange forces. How does the range of force relate to the mass of
the exchange particle?
18. Discuss the evidence for color in quarks from the e⁺e⁻ → hadrons experiment. Derive the
theoretical R ratio.

NUMERICALS (5 marks):
19. Determine the quark content of: (a) anti-proton (b) K⁰ (c) Σ⁻ (d) Ξ⁻
20. Using the Gell-Mann-Nishijima relation, find the charge of a particle with I₃ = +1, B = 0, S =
+1.
21. Determine which of the following reactions are allowed/forbidden and why: (a) p + p → p + p
+ π⁰ (b) K⁻ + p → Λ + π⁰ (c) π⁻ + p → K⁰ + Λ
22. Calculate the R-ratio value for e⁺e⁻ annihilation at an energy just above the b-quark
threshold.

DSE 8-6 | Unit 4: Particle Physics | Based on MSCPH-558 | Best of Luck in your Exam!