OxfordAQA International AS English Language

(9670)

Chapter 2: Language Frameworks

Introduction
Every text can be broken down into different “layers” of language. Linguists call these
language frameworks — the different levels at which you can analyse how a text is built
and how it creates meaning. In Chapter 1, you learned to ask who, why, how. This chapter
gives you the precise toolkit for answering the “how” in real analytical detail.

There are seven core frameworks: Lexis, Grammar, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics,
Discourse, and Graphology.

1. Lexis (Vocabulary)
Definition: Lexis refers to the vocabulary of a text — the actual words a writer chooses, and
why.

What to look for:

Formal vs informal lexis

Technical/specialist vocabulary (jargon)

Colloquialisms and slang

Emotive language

Connotation (the associations a word carries beyond its literal meaning)

Example:

“The politician’s plan was criticised by opponents.” vs. “The politician’s scheme was
criticised by opponents.” “Plan” is neutral; “scheme” carries a negative connotation of
dishonesty — the same event, but the lexical choice shapes the reader’s judgement.
Example:

A car advert describing a vehicle as “sleek,” “powerful,” and “effortless” uses emotive,
positive-connotation adjectives to create desire, rather than neutral technical terms like
“aerodynamic” or “high-torque,” which would suit a technical review instead.

Exam Tip: Don’t just say “emotive language is used.” Name the specific word, identify its
connotation, and link it to the effect on the reader.

2. Grammar
Definition: Grammar is the overall system of rules governing how words are formed and
combined — it’s the umbrella term that includes both morphology (word forms) and syntax
(word order).

What to look for:

Word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns)

Verb tense and aspect (past, present, continuous, perfect)

Modal verbs (can, must, should, might) — showing certainty, obligation, or possibility

Example:

“You must submit the form by Friday” (modal verb “must” = obligation, authoritative
tone) “You might want to submit the form by Friday” (modal verb “might” = suggestion,
softer, more polite tone)

Example:

A recipe uses the imperative mood consistently: “Chop the onions. Add the garlic. Stir for
two minutes.” — this grammatical choice creates clear, direct instructions appropriate for
the instructional purpose.

3. Syntax (Sentence Structure)

Definition: Syntax refers to how words are arranged into phrases and sentences —
sentence length, type, and structure.

Key sentence types:

Type Structure Effect

 Simple
One main clause Clarity, directness, impact
sentence

Compound Two main clauses joined by

Balance, adds information
sentence “and/but/or”

Complex Main clause + subordinate Shows detailed, layered relationships

sentence clause(s) between ideas

Minor Incomplete grammatical Dramatic emphasis, informal/spoken

sentence structure tone

Example:

“She ran. She didn’t look back.” — Two short simple sentences create a sense of urgency
and tension. Compare: “She ran, refusing to look back despite the shouting behind her,
her heart pounding as the distance grew.” — One long complex sentence creates a
flowing, breathless, immersive effect instead.

Example:

“Never again.” — a minor sentence used at the end of a speech for dramatic, memorable
emphasis.

Exam Tip: Always connect sentence length/type to its effect — short sentences aren’t
automatically “for tension”; consider what’s actually happening in that specific text.

4. Semantics (Meaning)
Definition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language — how words, phrases, and
sentences convey meaning, including literal and figurative meaning.

What to look for:

Denotation (literal, dictionary meaning) vs connotation (implied, associative meaning)

Figurative language: metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole

Semantic fields (groups of related words on a theme)

Example:

“The company’s profits exploded this quarter.” — literal meaning of “exploded” doesn’t
apply here (profits didn’t literally explode); it’s a metaphor implying dramatic, sudden,
forceful growth.
Example:

A travel article uses a semantic field of adventure: “explore,” “discover,” “venture,”

“uncharted,” “journey” — reinforcing the article’s purpose of inspiring readers to travel.

5. Pragmatics (Meaning in Context)

Definition: Pragmatics is the study of how context affects meaning — how what is said (or
written) is actually interpreted, including implied meaning that goes beyond the literal
words.

What to look for:

Implicature (meaning that is implied, not directly stated)

Politeness strategies

Irony and sarcasm (where literal meaning differs from intended meaning)

Example:

A parent says to a child: “It’s getting late.” Literally, this is just a statement of fact about
time. Pragmatically, in context, it implies “you should go to bed” — the real meaning
depends on the situation, not just the words.

Example:

A restaurant review states, “The service was wonderfully slow — we had plenty of time to
admire the empty plates.” The word “wonderfully” literally has positive connotations, but
pragmatically (in this context, paired with “empty plates”) it is understood as sarcasm
criticising poor service.

6. Discourse
Definition: Discourse refers to how a whole text is structured and organised beyond the
level of a single sentence — how ideas connect and flow together.

What to look for:

Cohesion (how sentences and paragraphs link together)

Cohesive devices: connectives (however, therefore, furthermore), pronoun reference,

repetition
 Overall text structure (e.g. introduction–argument–conclusion; problem–solution)

Example:

“Pollution levels have risen sharply. This is largely due to increased traffic. However,
new regulations may help reverse this trend.” The pronoun “this” refers back to previous
information (reference), and “however” signals a contrast — both create cohesion,
guiding the reader smoothly through the argument.

Example:

A persuasive speech follows a discourse structure of: emotional anecdote →

statistics/evidence → call to action. Recognising this staged structure — not just
individual sentences — is a discourse-level observation.

7. Graphology
Definition: Graphology refers to the visual and presentational features of a text — how it
looks on the page or screen.

What to look for:

Font choice, size, and boldness

Layout and use of white space

Images, colour, and captions

Punctuation used for visual/stylistic effect (e.g. ellipsis, exclamation marks,

capitalisation)

Headings, bullet points, columns

Example:

A tabloid newspaper uses a large, bold, capitalised headline: “CHAOS AT THE AIRPORT!”
— the graphology (size, boldness, capitals, exclamation mark) creates dramatic impact
before the reader has even read a full sentence.

Example:

A children’s book uses large, colourful fonts alongside illustrations — graphological

choices suited to a young audience who may not yet read fluently, using visuals to
support meaning.
Bringing the Frameworks Together
Key A skill:* Real texts almost never use just one framework in isolation — strong analysis
shows how frameworks combine to create an effect.

Example:

A charity advert: “Just £2 could save a life.” (bold in original)

Lexis: “save a life” — emotive, high-stakes phrase

Syntax: short, simple sentence for maximum impact

Semantics: hyperbolic framing — a small donation reframed as having a dramatic,

life-or-death outcome

Graphology: bold formatting draws the eye directly to the key phrase

Together, these choices work across multiple frameworks to persuade the reader that a
small action has an enormous impact.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Only spotting a feature (e.g. “there is a metaphor”) without naming which framework it
belongs to and why it was chosen.

2. Analysing frameworks in isolation instead of showing how they combine (e.g. lexis +
graphology working together in an advert).

3. Confusing grammar and syntax — grammar is the broader system; syntax specifically
concerns sentence structure and word order.

4. Ignoring graphology because it “isn’t language” — in multimodal and digital texts, it’s
often central to meaning.

Activities
Activity 1: Find an advertisement (print or digital). Identify one example each of lexis,
syntax, and graphology, and explain the effect of each.

Activity 2: Take a short paragraph from a newspaper article. Identify two cohesive devices
(discourse) that link its sentences together.
Activity 3: Write one sentence containing implied meaning (pragmatics) that would only
make sense with a specific context — then explain the context needed to understand it.

Homework
Choose one short text (an advert, a social media post, or a paragraph from an article).
Analyse it using all seven frameworks — even briefly for each — to practise moving
between levels of language rather than staying on just one.

Key Vocabulary
Lexis • Grammar • Syntax • Semantics • Pragmatics • Discourse • Graphology • Connotation
• Denotation • Modal verb • Cohesion • Cohesive device • Implicature • Semantic field •
Minor sentence

Lesson Summary
Language can be analysed at seven different levels: lexis (word choice), grammar (word
forms and rules), syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meaning), pragmatics (meaning in
context), discourse (whole-text organisation), and graphology (visual presentation). A*
analysis doesn’t stop at naming a feature — it identifies which framework the feature
belongs to, gives a specific example, and explains the effect, ideally showing how multiple
frameworks work together.