Unit 3: Basics of Solar Energy

Civil Engineering | 2nd Semester | Lumbini Engineering College

1. Introduction to Solar Energy

The sun delivers energy in two main forms: heat and light. Solar energy is derived from
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun, including visible light, ultraviolet (UV) rays, and
infrared (IR) rays.

Two Main Types of Solar Power Systems:

• Solar Thermal: Solar Thermal Systems — trap heat from the sun to warm water or generate
steam. Installed by a plumber.
• Solar PV: Solar PV (Photovoltaic) Systems — convert sunlight directly into electricity using
semiconductor materials. Installed by an electrician.

Advantages of Solar Energy:

• Clean and environmentally friendly — produces no greenhouse gases or air pollutants
during operation
• Reduces reliance on fossil fuels, mitigating climate change
• Abundant — sun provides an enormous, freely available supply of energy
• Scalable — from small rooftop installations for homes to large-scale grid-connected power
plants
• Works off-grid — standalone solar systems can provide electricity in remote areas without
grid access
• Energy can be stored in batteries for use at night or during cloudy periods
• Grid-connected systems can export excess electricity back to the grid (Net Metering)
• Increasingly cost-effective due to advances in technology

⭐ Exam Tip: 'Clean, Abundant, Scalable, Storable, Versatile' — memorize these 5 keywords for
advantages questions.

2. Sun Path Diagram

A sun path diagram (also called a sun chart or solar path diagram) is a graphical representation that
shows the path of the sun across the sky at different times of the year, relative to a specific location
on Earth.

Key Elements of a Sun Path Diagram:

• Purpose: Shows the sun's position in the sky at different hours of the day and different
months of the year
• Azimuth: Horizontal angle of the sun measured clockwise from true north. Ranges from 0°
(north) to 360°, with 180° representing due south.
• Altitude: Vertical angle of the sun above the horizon. Ranges from 0° (on the horizon) to 90°
(directly overhead/zenith).
• Equinox paths: Show the sun's position during spring and autumn equinoxes — times
when day and night are of equal length.
• Solstice paths: Show the sun's position during summer solstice (longest day) and winter
solstice (shortest day).
 • Annotations: Diagrams include dates, time markers, and labels for cardinal directions (N, S,
E, W).

Uses of Sun Path Diagrams:

• Determine building orientation to maximize natural daylighting
• Optimize placement and tilt angle of solar panels
• Assess potential shading from buildings or trees
• Help architects and urban planners with passive solar design

⭐ Exam Tip: Sun path diagrams are tools used by architects, solar designers, and urban planners —
explain its practical uses if asked.

3. Solar Constant
The solar constant refers to the amount of solar electromagnetic radiation received per unit area at
the outer atmosphere of Earth, on a surface perpendicular to the sun's rays, when the Earth is at its
average distance from the sun.

Key Facts:
• Accepted value: approximately 1361 W/m² (watts per square meter)
• Not truly constant — it varies slightly due to solar activity, Earth's elliptical orbit, and
atmospheric conditions
• Represents average power per unit area at the outer atmosphere
• Actual radiation reaching Earth's surface is less due to atmospheric absorption, scattering,
and reflection

Formula:
Solar Constant = Power / Area = Watts / m²
Value = 1361 W/m²

Importance:
• Used as a fundamental reference value in solar energy calculations
• Used in climate studies and astrophysics
• Baseline for measuring and comparing solar radiation levels on Earth

⭐ Exam Tip: 1361 W/m² is the standard value. The question may ask you to state the formula or the value
— know both.

4. Solar Radiation Data

Solar radiation data gives information about the amount, intensity, and characteristics of solar
energy received at a particular location over time. It is essential for solar system design, climate
studies, and agricultural planning.

Types of Solar Radiation:

 • GHI – Global Horizontal Irradiance: Total amount of solar radiation (direct + diffuse)
received on a horizontal surface at a given location. Most commonly used parameter.
◦ DNI – Direct Normal Irradiance: Solar radiation received directly from the sun without any
scattering. Measured on a surface perpendicular to the sun's rays.
◦ DHI – Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance: Radiation that has been scattered by the
atmosphere and reaches the surface from all directions except directly from the sun.
• GTI – Global Tilted Irradiance: Total solar radiation received on a surface tilted at a
specific angle. Useful for estimating performance of tilted solar panels.

Sources of Solar Radiation Data:

• From the site itself (most accurate but rarely available)
• From a nearby site with similar irradiance
• From official solar atlas or database (most commonly used)
• Geostationary satellites (operational since ~1990) — measure incoming and reflected
radiation from space, providing continental maps of estimated insolation without using
sunshine-hour data as an intermediary

⭐ Exam Tip: GHI = Direct + Diffuse. GTI is used for calculating performance of tilted panels. These
definitions are commonly asked in short answer questions.

5. Solar Geometry and Angles

Solar geometry involves calculating the position of the sun in the sky relative to a specific location
on Earth. Solar angles are critical for designing solar energy systems and understanding solar
radiation distribution.

Key Solar Angles:

• Solar Altitude Angle (α): The angle between the horizon and the center of the sun. It
determines the height of the sun above the observer. Ranges from 0° (horizon) to 90°
(directly overhead).
• Solar Azimuth Angle: The horizontal angle measured from true north (0°) to the point on
the horizon directly below the sun. Indicates the direction from which sunlight is coming.
• Zenith Angle: The complementary angle to the altitude angle. It represents the angle
between the zenith (directly overhead) and the center of the sun. Zenith angle = 90° –
Altitude angle.

Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface (Important Formulas):

The power output of a PV module depends on both the sunlight power and the angle between the
module and the sun. Maximum power is produced when the module is perpendicular to the sun.

S_horizontal = S_incident × sin(α)

S_module = S_incident × sin(α + β)

• S_incident = Solar radiation measured perpendicular to the sun

• S_horizontal = Solar radiation on a horizontal surface
• S_module = Solar radiation on the tilted module surface
• α = Elevation (altitude) angle of the sun
• β = Tilt angle of the module from horizontal
 ⭐ Exam Tip: These formulas are very likely to be asked numerically. Know what α and β represent —
elevation angle and tilt angle respectively.

6. Solar Radiation Measurement Instruments

Solar radiation measurements quantify the solar energy reaching a location. They are recorded at
regular intervals (every minute or hour) over long periods to capture seasonal variations.

Types of Instruments:
• Pyranometer: Most widely used instrument. Measures GHI — total solar radiation (direct +
diffuse) from the entire sky hemisphere. Installed horizontally on a flat surface.
• Pyrheliometer: Measures DNI — direct solar radiation from the sun. Equipped with a
tracking mechanism to follow the sun throughout the day. Used in solar resource
assessment and CSP applications.
• Albedometer: Measures reflected solar radiation from Earth's surface. Has two sensors —
one facing up (incoming) and one facing down (reflected). The difference gives the surface
albedo.
• Pyrgeometer: Measures longwave (infrared) radiation emitted by the Earth's surface and
atmosphere. Used to calculate net radiation balance (incoming solar minus outgoing
thermal). Important in energy balance and climate research.
• Sun Trackers: Mechanical systems that continuously orient sensors toward the sun to
separately measure direct and diffuse components throughout the day.

Instrument Measures Radiation Type

Pyranometer Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) Direct + Diffuse
Pyrheliometer Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) Direct only
Albedometer Reflected radiation / Surface albedo Reflected
Pyrgeometer Longwave infrared radiation Thermal (IR)
Sun Tracker Orients sensors toward sun Both direct & diffuse

⭐ Exam Tip: Pyranometer = Horizontal surface, GHI. Pyrheliometer = Direct sun tracking, DNI. These are
the two most commonly asked instruments.

7. Solar Thermal Energy Conversion Devices

Solar thermal devices use sunlight to generate heat or produce mechanical power. They are used
for water heating, space heating, cooking, distillation, and electricity generation.

Types of Solar Thermal Devices:

• Solar Water Heaters: Use solar thermal collectors to heat water for domestic or industrial
use. Can be passive (natural convection) or active (pumps/fans circulate fluid).
• Solar Air Heaters: Collect solar energy to heat air for space heating or drying. Use a black
heat-absorbing surface; heated air is circulated by fans or natural convection.
• Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Systems: Use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight
onto a receiver, converting it to heat. Heat generates steam to drive a turbine and produce
 electricity. Technologies include parabolic troughs, linear Fresnel reflectors, solar power
towers, and dish Stirling systems.
• Solar Cookers: Use sunlight to cook food or heat water. Types include box cookers,
parabolic cookers, and panel cookers. Use reflective surfaces to concentrate sunlight onto a
cooking vessel.
• Solar Stills: Use solar energy to distill and purify water. A transparent sloped cover lets
sunlight in, water evaporates, condenses on the cooler surface, and is collected as purified
water.
• Solar Thermal Power Plants: Generate electricity by using solar energy to heat a working
fluid (water or heat transfer fluid), which drives a turbine. Use parabolic troughs or power
towers.

8. Types of Solar Collectors

A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar radiation from the sun. They are
primarily used for active solar heating and water heating, and are generally mounted on rooftops.

1. Flat Plate Collectors

The most common type used in residential applications.
• Metal box with a transparent glazing (glass/plastic) cover on top of a dark-coloured absorber
plate
• Sides and bottom are insulated to minimize heat loss
• Solar radiation passes through the glazing, hits the absorber plate, which heats up and
transfers heat to water or air
• Absorber plates are often coated with special coatings to absorb and retain more heat
• Usually made of copper or aluminum (good conductors)

2. Evacuated Tube Collectors

More efficient than flat plate, especially in cold climates.
• Series of vacuum-sealed glass tubes that minimize heat loss to surroundings
• Inner metal tube acts as the absorber plate, connected to a heat pipe
• Heat pipe uses phase change (boiling/condensing) to efficiently transfer heat from the hot
end to the water
• More effective in cold and cloudy conditions than flat plate collectors

3. Line Focus Collectors (Parabolic Trough)

Used for industrial and power plant applications, not residential.
• Parabolically shaped reflective sections connected into a long trough
• Highly reflective material focuses sunlight onto a central pipe carrying water or heat transfer
fluid
• Very high-powered; used to generate steam for solar thermal power plants
• Can pivot to track the sun across the sky for maximum collection

4. Point Focus Collectors

Highest concentration; used to drive Stirling engines or concentrated PV.
• Large parabolic dishes made of reflective material
• Focus all collected sunlight onto a single point
• Heat is used to drive Stirling engines for electricity generation
 • Must actively track the sun — cannot work without sun-tracking mechanism
• Can be used alone or combined in arrays for more energy

Collector Type Working Principle Application Tracking

Flat Plate Absorber plate heats water Residential water heating No
Evacuated Tube Vacuum minimizes heat loss Residential (cold No
climates)
Line Focus (Parabolic Reflective trough focuses on Industrial / Power plants Optional
Trough) pipe
Point Focus Dish focuses on single point Stirling engines / CSP Required
(Parabolic Dish)

⭐ Exam Tip: Flat plate and evacuated tube are used residentially. Line focus and point focus are for
power plants. Know the working principle of each.

9. Photovoltaic (PV) System — Fundamentals

9.1 How a PV Cell Works
A photovoltaic (PV) cell, also called a solar cell, is a non-mechanical semiconductor device that
converts sunlight directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect.

Step-by-step Process:
• Sunlight is composed of photons — particles of solar energy with varying amounts of energy
corresponding to different wavelengths
• Photons strike the PV cell and are absorbed by the semiconductor material (usually silicon)
• Absorbed photons dislodge electrons from their atoms in the semiconductor
• Free electrons migrate to the front surface of the cell due to special surface treatment during
manufacturing
• This creates an electrical imbalance (charge difference) between front and back surfaces —
like positive and negative terminals of a battery
• Electrical conductors on the cell collect the electrons; when connected to an external circuit,
current flows — this is electricity

9.2 PV System Hierarchy

• PV Cell: Smallest unit. Size: 0.5 to 4.0 inches across. Produces only 1–2 Watts.
• PV Module (Panel): Weather-tight package of PV cells electrically connected together. Size:
5 to 25 sq. ft. Generating capacity increases with number of cells or surface area.
• PV Array: Group of PV panels connected together. Can range from 2 to hundreds of panels.
Total electricity generated depends on number of panels.

9.3 Components of a PV System

• PV Array: Converts sunlight to DC electricity. Environmentally sealed collection of PV cells.
• Inverter: Converts DC electricity from the array to AC electricity used in homes and
exported to the grid. Sizes range from a few hundred watts to 2000 kW central inverters.
 • Battery: Stores DC electricity for use at night or during cloudy days. Lead-acid or lithium-ion
batteries are used. 'Days of autonomy' for common applications: 2–6 days; for critical
applications: more than 10 days.
• Charge Controller: Connected between solar panels and batteries. Prevents overcharging
or discharging. Can also enable metering and payment for electricity.
• Balance of System (BOS): All additional components: mounting structures, tracking
systems, meters, cables, power optimizers, protection devices, transformers, combiner
boxes, switches, etc.

9.4 System Sizing Formula

(Daily kWh ÷ Average Peak Sun Hours) × 1.15 = DC System Size (kW)

Example: If daily usage = 33 kWh and average sun hours = 6.1 hours/day:
(33 ÷ 6.1) × 1.15 = 6.2 kW DC system required
6.2 kW × 1000 = 6200 Watts of solar panels needed

Steps to Size a PV System:

• Calculate kWh usage: Gather 12 months of electricity bills. Add all monthly kWh, divide by
12 to get monthly average, then divide by 30 for daily average.
• Look up peak sun hours for your location from a sun hours chart
• Apply the formula: (Daily kWh ÷ Peak Sun Hours) × 1.15 efficiency factor = Required DC
size (kW)
• Select mount type: Roof mount (simplest and cheapest) or ground mount (flexible
orientation)
• Choose solar panels based on roof area and efficiency needs

⭐ Exam Tip: System sizing formula is very commonly asked numerically. Remember the 1.15 efficiency
factor and know the units (kW, kWh, W/m²).

10. Grid-Connected vs Off-Grid PV Systems

10.1 Grid-Connected (On-Grid) PV System
The PV array is directly connected to the grid-connected inverter without a storage battery. When
the system generates more electricity than needed, the excess is exported to the grid, and the
meter runs backwards. This is called Net Metering.

How it works:
• During the day, solar panels generate DC electricity, inverter converts it to AC
• If solar generation > demand: excess electricity exported to grid (utility credits you)
• If solar generation < demand: electricity drawn from the grid
• At night: power grid supplies all the building's demand
• Energy flows in and out through a single bidirectional meter (Net Metering)

Benefits:
• Reduces dependence on utility power and increases renewable energy use
• Does not need to cover all electrical needs
 • No batteries required — less surface area, lower cost
• Less expensive overall

Drawbacks:
• Does not prevent grid power failures — system shuts off during outages for safety of utility
workers
• Requires connection to utility grid — not suitable for remote areas

BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaics): PV modules replace building components such as window
glass, roof tiles, or wall cladding — serving a dual purpose and offsetting some costs.

10.2 Off-Grid (Standalone) PV System

Off-grid PV systems have no connection to the electricity grid. They produce DC power to charge
battery banks during the day, which then supply electricity at night or during cloudy weather.

System Components:
• Solar panels → charge controller → battery bank → inverter → AC loads
• Deep-cycle lead-acid batteries used — can be repeatedly discharged to low charge
• Charge controller prevents overcharging/discharging of batteries
• Inverter converts DC to AC for household appliances

Benefits:
• Works in completely remote locations without grid access
• Meets all electrical needs independently
• Protection against grid power failures

Drawbacks:
• Significantly more expensive than grid-connected systems
• Requires a much more powerful system — must produce more than average consumption
• Could run out of power during extended periods with low sunlight
• Battery efficiency decreases as battery bank ages

10.3 Grid-Tied with Battery Backup

A hybrid system — connected to the grid AND has a battery bank. During power outages, the
battery supplies electricity. Ideal for areas with unreliable grid supply or frequent power cuts (like
load shedding in Nepal).

Feature Grid-Connected Off-Grid

Grid required? Yes No
Battery needed? No (optional) Yes (essential)
Cost Lower Higher
Efficiency High (draws directly from Decreases as battery ages
sunlight)
 Energy storage needed Less Large amount required
Best for Urban areas with reliable grid Remote/rural areas

⭐ Exam Tip: Net metering and BIPV are important terms for short answer questions. Know the difference
between on-grid and off-grid systems clearly — it is a common 5-mark question.

11. PV System Operation and Installation Steps

• a) Site Assessment: Assess sunlight availability, shading, roof orientation and tilt, structural
integrity, and local regulations/permits
• b) System Design: Determine number and type of panels, inverter capacity, battery
storage, and electrical wiring layout; consider efficiency and cost
• c) Procurement: Source solar panels, inverters, mounting structures, wiring — ensure they
meet safety standards
• d) Installation: Mount solar panels, connect with wiring, install inverter and electrical
components following the design plan
• e) Electrical Connections: Connect PV system to the grid or batteries; comply with local
utility regulations if grid-connected
• f) Testing & Commissioning: Check electrical connections, verify voltage levels, measure
energy production, test battery charging/discharging
• g) Permitting & Inspections: Obtain required permits; schedule safety inspections as
required by local regulations
• h) Operation & Maintenance: Monitor energy production, clean panels periodically,
maintain electrical components
• i) Monitoring & Performance Evaluation: Track energy production, system efficiency, and
performance over time; identify areas for optimization

12. Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Solar heating and cooling systems use solar energy to provide heating and cooling in buildings,
reducing reliance on traditional energy sources.

• Solar Water Heating: Solar thermal collectors capture sun's energy and heat water. Hot
water stored in tanks and circulated through radiant heating systems or used directly for
domestic hot water.
• Solar Air Heating: Solar air collectors heat air which is distributed through ductwork for
space heating. Particularly effective in cold winter climates.
• Solar Cooling: Solar energy powers absorption or desiccant cooling technologies. Solar
thermal collectors provide heat for the cooling process. Best for hot climates with high
cooling demand.

⭐ Exam Tip: Feasibility depends on: building location, solar resource availability, energy demand, and
budget.

13. Solar Energy in Nepal

Nepal has significant potential for solar energy due to its geographical location in a high solar
irradiation zone.
Key Facts:
• Nepal receives an average of 4 to 6 kWh/m² of solar radiation per day (especially Terai
region and hilly areas)
• Approximately 21 on-grid solar plants currently operating in Nepal
• Nuwakot Solar Power Plant — 25 MW capacity; largest in Nepal; owned by NEA
(government of Nepal)
• Butwal Solar Power Station — 8.5 MW capacity; located in Tilottama Municipality
• Mithila Solar PV Power Project — 10 MW capacity; located in Janakpur; connected to the
national grid
• Thousands of off-grid solar systems installed in rural areas across Nepal

Why Nepal has High Solar Potential:

• High solar irradiation levels, especially in Terai and hilly regions
• Large rural and off-grid population that needs electricity
• Can reduce import of fossil fuels and increase energy independence
• Government subsidies, tax incentives, and favorable regulations are in place
• Falling costs of solar panels make it increasingly affordable

Power Plant Capacity Location Owner

Nuwakot Solar 25 MW Nuwakot NEA / Govt of Nepal
Butwal Solar 8.5 MW Tilottama Municipality Private
Mithila Solar PV 10 MW Janakpur Connected to
national grid

⭐ Exam Tip: Nuwakot (25 MW), Butwal (8.5 MW), Mithila/Janakpur (10 MW) — these three power plants
and their capacities are frequently asked in Nepali university exams!

Quick Revision — Formulas and Key Definitions

Key Formulas:
Solar Constant = Power / Area = 1361 W/m²
S_horizontal = S_incident × sin(α)
S_module = S_incident × sin(α + β) [α = elevation angle, β =
tilt angle]
DC System Size (kW) = (Daily kWh ÷ Avg Sun Hours) × 1.15
Zenith Angle = 90° - Altitude Angle

One-liner Definitions (for short answer questions):

• Photovoltaic Effect: Conversion of light energy into electrical energy using semiconductor
material
• Solar Constant: Amount of solar radiation at Earth's outer atmosphere on a surface ⊥ to
sun's rays = 1361 W/m²
• Inverter: A device that converts DC electricity to AC electricity in a PV system
• Net Metering: Billing arrangement where excess solar electricity is credited by the utility
company
• GHI: Total solar irradiance on a horizontal surface = Direct + Diffuse
• DNI: Direct solar radiation measured perpendicular to the sun's rays
• Autonomy (Days of Autonomy): Number of days a battery can supply loads without any
solar input (typically 2–6 days)
• BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaics): Solar PV panels integrated directly into building
components like windows, roof tiles, or wall cladding
• Solar Altitude Angle: The angle between the horizon and the centre of the sun
• Solar Azimuth Angle: The horizontal angle from true north to the point directly below the
sun
• Zenith Angle: The angle between the zenith and the centre of the sun = 90° – altitude angle

Best of luck for your finals!