Module 2: Friction

Friction is one of the most important concepts in engineering mechanics. It affects the
performance, efficiency, safety, durability, and reliability of machines and structures. Friction
can be beneficial, such as in braking systems and power transmission belts, or undesirable,
such as in bearings and moving machine parts where it causes wear and energy losses.

This module introduces the fundamental principles of friction and their applications in
engineering systems including inclined planes, wedges, belt drives, screw jacks, and machine
efficiency.

Module Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain the mechanisms of friction between contacting surfaces.

2. State and apply the laws of dry friction.
3. Determine the coefficient and angle of friction.
4. Analyse frictional forces on inclined planes.
5. Solve engineering problems involving wedges.
6. Apply belt friction principles in power transmission systems.
7. Analyse screw friction in lifting devices.
8. Evaluate the efficiency of mechanical systems affected by friction.

INTRODUCTION TO FRICTION

Friction is the resisting force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of motion between
two surfaces in contact.

Whenever two surfaces are pressed together, microscopic irregularities on the surfaces
interlock and resist motion.

Importance of Friction in Engineering

 Walking without slipping

 Vehicle traction
 Braking systems
 Clutches
 Belt drives
 Power transmission

Harmful Effects

 Energy losses
 Heat generation
 Wear of machine parts
 Reduced efficiency
 Noise and vibration

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TYPES OF FRICTION

Frictional resistance encountered in engineering mechanics can be broadly classified into

three main types:

1. Dry Friction (Coulomb Friction)

Dry friction occurs when two unlubricated solid surfaces are in contact and there is either
motion or a tendency for motion between them. The friction force acts tangentially to the
contact surfaces and always opposes the actual or impending motion.

Dry friction is the resisting force that develops between two unlubricated surfaces in contact
and acts opposite to the direction of motion or the tendency of motion. It arises from the
microscopic irregularities (asperities) on the contacting surfaces, which interlock and resist
sliding. As an external force is gradually applied to a body, the frictional force increases
correspondingly to maintain equilibrium until it reaches a maximum value known as the
limiting friction. Once this limit is exceeded, the body begins to move, and the friction force
decreases slightly to a lower value called kinetic (sliding) friction, which remains
approximately constant during motion. Consequently, a greater force is generally required to
initiate motion than to maintain it.

Key characteristics:

 Acts between solid surfaces in contact.

 Opposes motion or tendency of motion.
 Depends on the normal reaction and nature of the surfaces.
 Forms the basis of most engineering mechanics friction problems.
 Also known as Coulomb friction, based on the experimental work of Coulomb and
Morin.

Figure 1: Friction on a Flat Surface

Engineering applications:

 Braking systems
 Clutches
 Belt drives
 Screw jacks
 Wedges
 Vehicle tyre-road interaction

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2. Fluid Friction

Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers of a liquid or gas move relative to one another.
The frictional resistance arises from the fluid's viscosity and the velocity difference between
the layers.

Key characteristics:

 Occurs within fluids rather than between solid surfaces.

 Depends on velocity gradients and fluid viscosity.
 Increases with the relative motion of fluid layers.
 No fluid friction exists when there is no relative motion between layers.

Engineering applications:

 Lubrication systems
 Hydraulic machinery
 Pipeline flow
 Aerodynamics
 Turbomachinery

Fluid friction is studied extensively in Fluid Mechanics rather than Engineering Mechanics.

3. Internal Friction

Internal friction occurs within a solid material when it is subjected to repeated or cyclic
loading. It results from internal resistance to deformation and is associated with energy
dissipation during loading and unloading.

Key characteristics:

 Occurs within the material itself.

 Associated with elastic and plastic deformation.
 Causes loss of mechanical energy in the form of heat.
 Important in vibration damping and fatigue analysis.

Engineering applications:

 Structural damping
 Vibration control
 Fatigue behaviour of materials
 Material energy dissipation studies

Internal friction is generally studied in Materials Science, Strength of Materials, and

Mechanical Vibrations.

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Comparison of Types of Friction

Type of Occurs Depends On Engineering Area

Friction Between
Dry Friction Solid surfaces Surface roughness and Engineering Mechanics
normal force
Fluid Friction Fluid layers Viscosity and velocity Fluid Mechanics
gradient
Internal Within Material deformation Materials Science and
Friction materials characteristics Vibrations

COULOMB'S LAWS OF DRY FRICTION

According to Coulomb:
1. Friction acts tangentially to the contact surface.
2. Friction opposes relative motion.
3. Limiting friction is proportional to normal reaction, F = μN
4. Friction is independent of apparent contact area.
5. Friction depends on surface characteristics.

Static Friction and Kinetic Friction

Static friction is the frictional force that acts between two surfaces at rest relative to each
other and prevents the initiation of motion. As an external force is gradually applied, the
static friction force adjusts itself to maintain equilibrium and can vary from zero up to a
maximum value called the limiting friction. Experimental observations show that this
maximum static friction force is directly proportional to the normal reaction between the
surfaces and is given by:

where:
Fmax = maximum (limiting) static friction force
μs = coefficient of static friction
N = normal reaction force
For situations where motion is not impending, the static friction force satisfies:

Kinetic Friction
Once the applied force exceeds the limiting friction, the body begins to move and the frictional
force changes to kinetic (or sliding) friction. Kinetic friction acts opposite to the direction of

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motion and is generally smaller than the maximum static friction. The kinetic friction force is
also proportional to the normal reaction and is expressed as:

where:
Fk = kinetic friction force
μ k = coefficient of kinetic friction
N = normal reaction force
Since it is usually easier to keep a body moving than to start it moving, the coefficient of
kinetic friction is typically less than the coefficient of static friction:

Key Difference Between Static and Kinetic Friction

Static Friction Kinetic Friction
Acts when there is no relative motion Acts when surfaces are sliding relative to
between surfaces each other
Varies from zero to a maximum value Remains approximately constant during
motion
Prevents motion from starting Opposes ongoing motion

μ
Fs≤ sN μ
Fk= kN

Generally larger Generally smaller

Coefficient μs Coefficient μk

Engineering Significance
Static friction is critical in applications such as vehicle traction, ladder stability, and bolted
joints, while kinetic friction is important in braking systems, conveyor belts, machining
operations, and sliding machine components. Understanding both types of friction enables
engineers to predict motion, improve efficiency, and design safer mechanical systems.

Rolling Friction

Occurs when one body rolls over another.

Examples:
 Vehicle tyres
 Ball bearings
 Rollers
Rolling friction is much smaller than sliding friction.

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Friction Angles
The direction of the resultant R in Fig. 2b measured from the direction of N is specified by
tan α = F/N. When the friction force reaches its limiting static value Fmax, the angle reaches
a maximum value ϕs. Thus,

When slippage is occurring, the angle α has a value ϕk corresponding to the kinetic friction
force. In like manner,

In practice we often see the expression tan ϕ = µ, in which the coefficient of friction may
refer to either the static or the kinetic case,

FRICTION ON INCLINED PLANES

Consider a body of weight W, lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle α with the horizontal
as shown in Fig. 2 (a) and (b).

Figure 2: Friction on an Inclined Plane

 The behaviour of a body on an inclined plane depends on the relationship between the
plane’s angle and the angle of friction.
 If the angle of inclination is less than the angle of friction, the body remains in
equilibrium (it does not move on its own).
 In this equilibrium condition, an external force is needed to move the body either
upward or downward.
 If the angle of inclination is greater than the angle of friction, the body will slide
down the plane automatically.
 In this case, an upward force is required to prevent or resist the downward motion.
For studying motion on an inclined plane, several types of forces may act on a body, but three
are most important. These are:

 Force acting along the inclined plane.

 Force acting horizontally.
 Force acting at an angle to the inclined plane.

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In all these cases, the main focus is determining the magnitude of the force required to maintain
the body's equilibrium. This analysis is specifically for conditions in which the body is on the
verge of sliding downward or upward.

Engineering Applications

 Vehicle hill climbing

 Conveyor systems
 Escalators
 Material handling equipment

Engineering Applications

 Vehicle hill climbing

 Conveyor systems
 Escalators
 Material handling equipment

Equilibrium of a body on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting along the
inclined plane
Consider a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected force acting along the inclined
plane, which keeps it in equilibrium as shown in Fig. 3 (a) and (b).

Figure 3: Equilibrium of a body on a rough inclined plane

1. Minimum force (P1) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point of sliding
downwards.
In this case, the force of friction (F1 = μR1) will act upwards, as the body is at the point of
sliding downwards as shown in Fig. 3 (a). Now resolving the forces along the plane,

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 P1 = W sin α – μR1 (i)
and now resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane.
R1 = W cos α (ii)
P1 = W sin α – μ W cos α = W (sin α – μ cos α)
and now substituting the value of μ = tan φ in the above equation,
P1 = W (sin α – tan φ cos α)
Multiplying both sides of this equation by cos φ,
P1 cos φ = W (sin α cos φ – sin φ cos α) = W sin (α – φ)

2. Maximum force (P2) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point of
sliding upwards.
In this case, the force of friction (F2 = μR2) will act downwards as the body is at the point of
sliding upwards as shown in Fig. 3 (b). Now resolving the forces along the plane,
P2 = W sin α + μR2 (i)
and now resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,
R2 = W cos α (ii)
Substituting the value of R2 in equation (i),
P2 = W sin α + μ W cos α = W (sin α + μ cos α)
and now substituting the value of μ = tan φ in the above equation,
P2 = W (sin α + tan φ cos α)
Multiplying both sides of this equation by cos φ,
P2 cos φ = W (sin α cos φ + sin φ cos α) = W sin (α + φ)

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Example 2.1: A body of weight 500 N is lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 25°
with the horizontal. It is supported by an effort (P) parallel to the plane as shown in the figure
below. Determine the minimum and maximum values of P, for which the equilibrium can exist,
if the angle of friction is 20°. (RS Khurmi)

Solution:
Weight of the body (W) = 500N Angle at which the plane is inclined (α) = 25° and angle
of friction (φ) = 20°.
 Minimum value of P
We know that for the minimum value of P, the body is at the point of sliding downwards.
We also know that when the body is at the point of sliding downwards, then the force

 Maximum value of P
We know that for the maximum value of P, the body is at the point of sliding upwards. We
also know that when the body is at the point of sliding upwards, then the force

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WEDGE FRICTION
A wedge is a triangular block used for lifting heavy loads or adjusting machine components.

Applications
 Machine tools
 Rail track alignment
 Structural lifting
 Mechanical presses

Wedge Analysis
The forces acting on wedges include:

 Load
 Applied force
 Normal reactions
 Friction forces

Equilibrium equations are applied to determine required effort.

BELT FRICTION
Belt drives transmit power between rotating shafts.
Examples:

 Vehicle engines
 Industrial machines
 Conveyor systems

Tension Relationship
For a flat belt:

Where:

 T1 = Tight side tension

 T2 = Slack side tension
 μ = Coefficient of friction
 θ = Angle of contact

Power Transmission
Power transmitted:

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Where is the V = Belt velocity

SCREW FRICTION
Screws convert rotational motion into linear motion.

Applications

 Screw jacks
 Bench vices
 Presses
 Lifting mechanisms

Helix Angle

Where:
 p = Pitch
 d = Mean diameter

Torque Required to Raise Load

T=WRtan(ϕ+α)
Where:
 W = Load
 R = Mean radius
 ϕ = Angle of friction
 α\alphaα = Helix angle

EFFICIENCY OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Efficiency is the ratio of useful output work to input work.

Sources of Losses
 Friction
 Wear
 Heat generation
 Vibration

Importance
Higher efficiency results in:

 Reduced energy consumption

 Lower operating costs
 Longer machine life
 Improved performance

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Factors Affecting Efficiency
 Friction
 Surface finish
 Lubrication
 Material properties
 Alignment

Methods of Improving Efficiency

 Lubrication
 Rolling bearings
 Surface finishing
 Improved materials

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