CHAPTER 5: GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
NCERT Class 11 Geography (Fundamentals of Physical Geography) — Comprehensive Revision Notes & Q&A
Subject: Geography | Unit: III - Landforms | Topic: Endogenic & Exogenic Geomorphic Processes, Weathering, Mass
Movements, Soil Formation
1. Introduction to Geomorphic Processes
The Earth's crust is dynamic and constantly changing due to internal and external forces. The variations on the
surface of the Earth are maintained by two opposing sets of forces:
• Endogenic Forces: Internal forces originating from within the Earth (e.g., tectonic movements, volcanism) that
continuously build up and elevate landform relief.
• Exogenic Forces: External forces originating from the atmosphere and driven by solar energy and gravity (e.g.,
weathering, erosion) that wear down landforms.
KEY CONCEPTS & DEFINITIONS
• Geomorphic Processes: Any physical stress and chemical action applied on Earth materials bringing
about changes in the surface configuration of the Earth.
• Geomorphic Agents: Mobile elements of nature (such as running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind,
waves, and currents) capable of acquiring, transporting, and depositing Earth materials.
• Gradation: The process of evening out surface irregularities through degradation (wearing down elevated
land) and aggradation (filling up depressions).
2. Endogenic Processes
Endogenic processes derive their energy primarily from radioactivity, rotational/tidal friction, and primordial heat
within the Earth. The primary endogenic processes are:
A. Diastrophism
All processes that move, elevate, or build up portions of the Earth's crust come under diastrophism. It includes:
• Orogenic Processes: Mountain-building processes involving severe folding and affecting long, narrow belts of
the Earth's crust.
• Epeirogenic Processes: Continental-building processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the Earth's
crust.
• Earthquakes: Local, relatively minor crustal movements.
• Plate Tectonics: Horizontal movements of crustal plates.
B. Volcanism
Includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the Earth's surface, forming intrusive and extrusive
volcanic structures.
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3. Exogenic Processes & Denudation
Exogenic processes derive energy from solar heat and gravitational force. Denudation (meaning 'to strip off' or 'to
uncover') is an umbrella term covering all exogenic processes: Weathering, Mass Movements, Erosion, and
Transportation.
Denudational
Driving Force / Energy Source Primary Action
Process
Gravitational / Molecular Stresses & In-situ (on-site) disintegration and decomposition
Weathering
Chemical Actions of rocks
Downslope transfer of rock mass/debris without
Mass Movements Gravitational Force
mobile agents
Erosion / Transport Kinetic Energy (of mobile agents) Acquisition, removal, and movement of rock debris
4. Weathering
Weathering is the mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through weather and climate. It is
strictly an in-situ (on-site) process as very little or no transportation of materials takes place.
Types of Weathering
1. Chemical Weathering: Breakdown of rocks through chemical reactions (solution, carbonation, hydration,
oxidation, and reduction) involving water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and biological acids. High heat and moisture
accelerate chemical weathering.
2. Physical / Mechanical Weathering: Breakdown of rocks without chemical alteration. Driven by thermal
expansion/contraction, frost action, pressure release (unloading), and wetting/drying cycles.
◦ Exfoliation: Flaking off of curved sheets of rock resulting in smooth rounded surfaces (domes/tors) due to
temperature changes or unloading.
3. Biological Weathering: Contribution to weathering by living organisms—burrowing animals (termites, rodents),
plant root penetration, human cultivation, and humic acid production from decaying organic matter.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
Weathering breaks down rocks to prepare regolith and soil formation. It assists erosion and mass wasting,
supports biomes and biodiversity by creating weathering mantles, and enriches mineral ores (e.g., iron,
aluminum, manganese) by leaching away unwanted soluble materials.
5. Mass Movements
Mass movements involve the downslope transfer of rock mass and debris under the direct influence of gravity.
Unlike erosion, geomorphic agents like running water, wind, or ice do not carry the material; rather, the moving
debris itself may trap air, water, or ice.
• Activating Factors: Removal of support from below, increase in slope gradient, overloading by rain saturation
or human structures, earthquakes, and removal of natural vegetation.
• Types of Landslides (Rapid Movements):
◦ Slump: Slipping of rock debris with a backward rotation relative to the slope.
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◦ Debris Slide: Rapid sliding/rolling of earth debris without backward rotation.
◦ Rockslide: Fast, destructive sliding of individual rock masses down bedding or joint planes.
◦ Rock Fall: Free falling of rock blocks from a vertical cliff face.
6. Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)
Soil is a dynamic, developing medium of mineral and organic matter capable of supporting plant life. Soil formation
relies on a weathering mantle, which is then colonized by bacteria, lichens, mosses, and organisms that add
humus.
Five Soil-Forming Factors
Factor Type Role in Soil Formation
Parent Material Passive Determines initial texture, structure, mineral, and chemical composition.
Topography Passive Influences soil depth (thin on steep slopes, thick on flat plains) and drainage.
Temperature and moisture govern rates of chemical/biological reactions, eluviation, and
Climate Active
illuviation.
Biological Adds humus, assists nitrogen fixation (e.g., Rhizobium), and enhances aeration via
Active
Activity earthworms/burrowing.
Time Passive Determines soil profile maturity and distinct horizon formation over long periods.
7. Question & Answer Section (NCERT Exercises & Board Prep)
Q1 Which process is an example of a gradational process? (Multiple Choice)
Answer: (d) Erosion
Explanation: Erosion wears down elevated features (degradation) and contributes to the overall process of
gradation. Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic land-building processes.
Q2 Differentiate between Endogenic and Exogenic geomorphic processes with examples.
Answer:
• Endogenic Processes: Forces originating from within the Earth's interior (driven by geothermal heat,
radioactivity, etc.). They build up landforms and elevate the crust. Examples: Diastrophism (mountain building/
orogeny) and Volcanism.
• Exogenic Processes: Forces originating from the atmosphere and driven by solar energy and gravity. They
wear down and level the land. Examples: Weathering, Mass Movements, and Erosion.
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Q3 Why is weathering called an "in-situ" process, and how does it differ from erosion?
Answer: Weathering is termed an in-situ (on-site) process because it involves the mechanical breaking and
chemical decomposition of rocks right where they are, with little to no movement or transportation of the material.
In contrast, erosion inherently involves the acquisition, removal, and transport of rock debris over distances by
mobile geomorphic agents such as running water, wind, or glaciers.
Q4 Explain why landslides occur more frequently in the Himalayas compared to the Western Ghats /
Nilgiris.
Answer:
1. Tectonic Activity: The Himalayas are tectonically active and young fold mountains, whereas the Western
Ghats/Nilgiris are tectonically stable shield areas.
2. Rock Composition: The Himalayas are composed mostly of weak, unconsolidated sedimentary deposits, while
the Western Ghats are made of hard metamorphic/igneous rocks.
3. Slope Dynamics: Himalayan slopes are extremely steep and unstable. While Western Ghats also have steep
cliffs, landslides there are mainly triggered by intense short-duration rainfall rather than tectonic instability.
Q5 How do Climate and Biological Activity act as active factors in soil formation?
Answer:
• Climate: Precipitation provides moisture for chemical/biological reactions and controls leaching (eluviation/
illuviation). Temperature speeds up or slows down chemical reactions (e.g., intense weathering in hot-humid
tropics vs. slow mechanical weathering in tundra).
• Biological Activity: Decaying vegetation adds organic humus, improving soil structure and water retention. Soil
organisms like Rhizobium fix atmospheric nitrogen, while earthworms and burrowing animals mix and aerate the
soil.
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