12 Geologic Time

Earth History
Q: How do geologists reconstruct Earth’s past?

Ammonites were mollusks related to

squid. These ammonites at Kimmeridge
Bay in England, are from the Jurassic
period, which lasted from 200–140 million
years ago.

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  IRGINIA SCIENCE
V
STANDARDS OF LEARNING
INQUIRY
TRY IT!
What Can Become
a Fossil?
?
ES.1.c, ES.2.b, ES.9.a, ES.9.b, ES.9.c. Procedure
See lessons for details. 1. Your teacher will give you some
samples of different organic
materials. Organic material
comes from a living thing.
2. Using a hand lens and
microscope, examine each
sample carefully.
3. Separate those items that you
think have a good chance of
becoming a fossil.

Think About It
1. Observe What characteristics do
the samples have that led you to
select them as possible candidates
for fossilization?
2. Form a Hypothesis What do
you think needs to happen to
these samples in order for them
to become fossilized?
3. Design an Experiment Outline
an experiment to test your answers
to Questions 1 and 2.

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 12.1  Discovering Earth’s History
ES.9 The student will investigate and understand that many aspects of the history and evolution of
Earth and life can be inferred by studying rocks and fossils. Key concepts include b. superposition,
cross-cutting relationships, index fossils, and radioactive decay are methods of dating bodies of rock.
Also covered ES.9.c.

Key Questions Like pages in a long and complicated history book, rocks
record the geological events and changing life forms of the past.
What is the principle of
uniformitarianism? The book, however, is not complete. Many pages, especially in the
early chapters, are missing. Others are tattered, torn, or smudged.
What are the key Yet enough of the book remains to allow much of the story to be
principles of relative dating? deciphered. Interpreting Earth history is a prime goal of the science
How do geologists of geology. The Grand Canyon, seen in Figure 1, is an example of
interpret the rock record? just how beautiful the book of Earth’s history can be.

Vocabulary
• uniformitarianism Uniformitarianism
• relative dating Scientists in Europe and the British Isles began developing the basic
• law of superposition principles of modern geology during the 1700s by observing the
• principle of original landscapes around them. James Hutton, a Scottish physician and
horizontality farmer, published Theory of the Earth in 1795. In this work, Hutton
• principle of cross-cutting argued that Earth’s varied landscape, from towering mountains
relationships
to deep valleys, is the result of weak, slow-acting processes acting
• unconformity
• correlation over long spans of time. Hutton’s work was expanded upon by
other geologists and was the foundation for the principle of
Reading Strategy uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism is the idea that
Identify Main Ideas Copy the the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today
table below, leaving room for also operated in the past. Thus, to understand ancient rocks, we
notes. As you read, fill in the must fi st understand present-day processes and their results. The
first column with a main idea principle of uniformitarianism is commonly expressed by saying
and add details that support it “The present is the key to the past.”
in the second column.
Acceptance of uniformitarianism requires acceptance of a very
long history for Earth. If Earth were just a few thousand years
Main Idea Details old, there would not be enough time for slow-acting processes
1. a. ? b. ? to form the geologic features we see today. To address this need,
Hutton introduced a concept called deep time, which proposed
2. c. ? d. ?
that Earth had an indefi itely long history. As we will see, scientists
3. e. ? f. ? were eventually able to determine that the absolute age of Earth is
approximately 4.5 billion years.
Today, scientists understand that geological processes may not
always have had the same relative importance. Nor have they always
operated at precisely the same rate. Moreover, some important
geologic processes are not currently observable, but evidence
that they occur is well established. For example, we know that
large meteorites have hit Earth, changed its climate, and caused
extinctions even though we have no human witnesses.

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 Figure 1 Layers of History
Trained geologists read and
Despite these complications, the principle of uniformitarianism
interpret layers of rock in the Grand
is an extremely important idea in modern geology. Hutton and Canyon as a historian might read
other early geologists gave us the knowledge and framework for and interpret pages in a book.
understanding the rock record. Their work established that Earth
is very old and has changed over geologic time, and that processes
observed on Earth in the present also acted in the past.

✔ Reading Checkpoint What is deep time?

Relative Dating
By studying layers of rock exposed at the surface, such as those
visible in the Grand Canyon, scientists can infer the order in
which the layers formed. The method that geologists use to place
rocks in chronological order is called relative dating. Relative
dating identifies which rock units formed fi st, second, third, and
so on. The law of superposition, the principle of original
horizontality, the principle of cross-cutting relationships,
unconformities, and inclusions all help determine the relative
ages of rock layers. As important as relative dating is, it can only
provide information about the sequence in which events occurred. It
does not tell us how long ago the events occurred.
Law of Superposition Nicolaus Steno, a Danish anatomist,
geologist, and priest (1636–1686), made observations that are the
basis of relative dating. Based on his observations, Steno developed
the law of superposition. The law of superposition states that in an
undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each layer is older than
the one above it and younger than the one below it. Although it may
seem obvious that a rock layer could not be deposited unless it had
something older beneath it for support, it was not until 1669 that
Steno stated the principle. This rule also applies to other surface-
deposited materials, such as lava flows and layers of ash from
volcanic eruptions.

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 Figure 2 Disturbed Rock
Layers Rock layers that are folded Principle of Original Horizontality Steno also developed the
or tilted must have been moved into important principle of original horizontality, which states that
that position by crustal disturbances
after their deposition. These folded sediment is generally deposited in flat, horizontal layers. Many layers
layers are exposed in the Namib of the Grand Canyon are horizontal. We can therefore infer that
Desert (southwestern Africa). they are in their original undisturbed position. However, the rock
layers shown in Figure 2 have been tilted and bent. According to the
principle of original horizontality, these rocks formed in flat layers. So
whatever bent and tilted the layers must have done so after the rock
layers had formed.
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships Later geologists
developed another principle used in relative dating. This principle,
called the principle of cross-cutting ­relationships, states that a
fault or intrusion must be younger than any geologic formation
through which it cuts. For example, in Figure 3 you can see that
Fault A occurred after the sandstone was deposited because Fault A
“broke” the sandstone layer. However, Fault A occurred before the
conglomerate was laid down, because that layer is unbroken by the
fault. Using the same principle, Intrusion A must be younger than
Fault A and the conglomerate layer because it crosses both of them.

✔ Reading Checkpoint To what type of rock can the law of

superposition and the principle of original horizontality be best applied?

Figure 3 Principle of Cross- Conglomerate

cutting Relationships An intrusive
rock body is younger than the rocks
it intrudes. A fault is younger than
the rock layers it cuts.
Interpret Diagrams What are the
relative ages of Fault B, Intrusion B,
and Intrusion C?

San Intrusion C
dsto
ne

Fault A
Intrusion B

Intrusion A Fault B

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 Unconformities Throughout Earth’s history, the deposition Figure 4 Formation of an Angular
of sediment has been interrupted again and again. Nowhere Unconformity An angular unconformity
represents an extended period during
is Earth’s rock record complete. A surface that represents which deformation and erosion occurred.
a break in the rock record is termed an unconformity.
An unconformity indicates a long period during which
deposition stopped, erosion removed previously formed Sea level
rocks, and then deposition resumed. Unconformities
help geologists identify what intervals of time are not
represented in the rock record. There are three basic types
of unconformities: angular unconformities, disconformities, 1 Deposition
and nonconformities. Figure 5 shows examples of each type
of unconformity in the Grand Canyon.
T
▶ Angular Unconformity In an angular unconformity, I
layers of sedimentary rock form over older sedimentary rock M
layers that are tilted or folded. Figure 4 shows this process. 2 Folding and uplifting
E

▶ Disconformity In a disconformity, two sedimentary rock

layers are separated by an erosional surface. Because the
rocks on both sides of the unconformity are of the same type,
disconformities can be difficult to recognize.

▶ Nonconformity In a nonconformity, an erosional surface 3 Erosion

separates older metamorphic or igneous rocks from younger Angular
unconformity
sedimentary rocks. Sea level

4 Subsidence and renewed deposition

Figure 5 Unconformities This cross
section through the Grand Canyon illustrates
the three basic types of unconformities. All
layers, except for the labeled granite and
schist, are sedimentary.

Disconformity

Disconformity

Nonconformity
Angular
Vishnu unconformity
Schist
Colorado
River

Non
con
form
ity
Zoroaster
Granite

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 Sedimentary
layers

Inclusions of
igneous rock

Nonconformity

Figure 6 Inclusions
Inclusions are pieces of an
older rock unit found within
a younger rock unit.

Inclusions Sometimes the study of inclusions can help the

relative dating process. Inclusions are pieces of one rock unit that
are contained within another rock unit. We know that the rock
unit containing the inclusions must have formed after the layer
that provided the fragments. Therefore, the rock unit containing
inclusions is the younger of the two. Figure 6 shows inclusions of
igneous rock within a layer of sedimentary rock. The inclusions
indicate that the sedimentary layer was deposited on top of a layer
of igneous rock. The sedimentary layer must be younger than the
igneous rock because the sedimentary layer contains pieces of the
igneous rock. We know the layer was not intruded upon by magma
from below that later hardened, because there is a nonconformity
between the layers.

Correlation
By applying the principles of relative dating, geologists can interpret
the history of an area. But what if the goal is to interpret the history
of an entire region? Scientists correlate rock layers at different
locations to piece together a more complete interpretation of
the rock record. In geology, correlation is the process of matching
rock layers at different locations that formed at the same time and
by the same processes. For example, the correlation of rock layers at
three sites on the Colorado Plateau in southern Utah and northern
Arizona is shown in Figure 7. Because of erosion, neither location
contains a complete rock sequence. However, by correlating layers
at multiple locations, a more complete picture of the sedimentary
rock record in the area is revealed. When correlation between
widely separated areas or between continents is the goal, however,
geologists must rely on something else to help them—fossils.

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 Grand Canyon Zion Canyon Bryce Canyon Figure 7 A More
Complete Record
Correlation of rock
layers at three locations
on the Colorado
Plateau—the Grand
Canyon, Zion Canyon,
and Bryce Canyon—
provides a more
complete geologic
history for the area
than any one site could
provide.
Interpret Diagrams
Which rock layers are
found in both the Grand
Canyon and Zion
Carmel Fm Carmel Fm Canyon?
Navajo Ss Navajo Ss

Older rocks
not exposed

Moenkopi Fm Moenkopi Fm
Kaibab Ls Kaibab Ls

Older rocks
not exposed

12.1 Assessment
Review Key Concepts 6. Infer What can you infer about the age of
sedimentary rock layers relative to the age of a
1. Explain the following statement: “The present is sill intruded into those layers?
the key to the past.”
7. Classify A geologist finds layers of sedimentary
2. List and briefly describe Steno’s principles. rocks immediately above an eroded anticline.
3. In your own words, write definitions for the What type of unconformity is this? Explain.
terms inclusion, unconformity, and correlation. 8. Relate Cause and Effect Why is Earth’s rock
4. Why do geologists correlate rock layers? record for any given location incomplete?

Think Critically WRITING IN SCIENCE

5. Apply Concepts How did the acceptance of 9. Describe Imagine that you are hiking in the
uniformitarianism change the way scientists Grand Canyon. Using Steno’s principles, write a
viewed Earth? paragraph describing what you see, how old the
layers are, and how they were deposited.

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 12.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
ES.9 The student will investigate and understand that many aspects of the history and evolution of Earth
and life can be inferred by studying rocks and fossils. Key concepts include b. superposition, cross-cutting
relationships, index fossils, and radioactive decay are methods of dating bodies of rock.

Key Questions Wooly mammoths once roamed the cold plains of northern
Asia, North America, and Europe. Thousands of years ago, they
What are the different
types of fossils?
became extinct, meaning they died out. In the Arctic, scientists
often fi d mammoth fossils, such as the huge tusks in Figure 8. A
What conditions help a fossil is the preserved remains or traces of an organism.
fossil to form?

Why are fossils

important?
Types of Fossils
When you think of the word fossil, you likely picture something
What is natural like a dinosaur bone. But the bones you see on display in a natural
selection? history museum are more like rocks than bones. Moreover, they
represent just one type of fossil. The different types of
Vocabulary
fossils include petrified fossils, molds and casts, compressions,
• extinct • fossil impressions, unaltered remains, and trace fossils.
• principle of fossil succession
• index fossil Petrified Fossils If you were allowed to pick up a dinosaur bone,
• evolution you’d be surprised at how heavy it felt. That is because the bone
• natural selection
adaptation
has been petrified, or literally “turned into stone.” In this process,
•
mineral-rich water soaks into the small cavities and pores of organic
Reading Strategy tissue such as shell, bone, or even wood, as shown in Figure 9A. As
Monitor Your Understanding minerals precipitate, they fill the spaces and replace dissolving tissue.
Draw and complete a chart In this way, petrification preserves the detailed structure of the
like the one below. After you original organism.
finish this section, correct or
add details as needed. Molds and Casts A fossil mold is created when a shell or other
organic structure is buried in sediment and then dissolved by
Fossils How Fossils How Fossils
underground water. The mold reflects only the shape and surface
Form are Used markings of the organism. It doesn’t reveal any information about its
a. ? b. ? c. ?
internal anatomy. Cast fossils (Figure 9B) are created if the hollow
spaces of a mold are later filled with minerals.

Figure 8 Frozen in Time

The permafrost in Siberia
preserved the frozen
remains of this mammoth
for thousands of years.
Permafrost is a layer of ice
that forms under land in
the Arctic.

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 A B C

D E F

Figure 9 Types of Fossils A Petrified fossil of wood in Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona B Natural casts of
shelled organisms called ammonites C Compression fossil of bee, preserved as a thin film of carbon D Impression
fossil of two ancient fish E Unaltered remains of an insect in amber F Trace fossil of dinosaur footprints found in fine-
grained limestone near Tuba City, Arizona

Compression Fossils Compression fossils are two-dimensional

organic remains. Compression fossils form when pressure squeezes
out liquids and gases from a buried organism, leaving behind only
a delicate, thin film of carbon. Most impression fossils are of plants,
though there are some of animals, as shown in Figure 9C.
Impression Fossils Impression fossils, like compression fossils,
are two dimensional. Unlike compression fossils, impression fossils
do not contain any organic matter. However, impression fossils,
like those of the fish in Figure 9D, may still show fi e details of an
organism’s external structure.
Unaltered Remains Sometimes, fossilization preserves all or
part of an organism with relatively little change. The mammoth
frozen in permafrost is one example. Figure 9E shows another
example. The fly seen in the fi ure has been preserved in amber—the
hardened resin, or sap, of ancient trees.
Trace Fossils Trace fossils are indirect evidence of prehistoric life. PLANET DIARY
Tracks, like those in Figure 9F, form when footprints are covered
with sediment before they can be washed away. Other types of trace For links about Fossils, visit
fossils include burrows, coprolites, and gastroliths. Burrows are [Link]/HSES.
holes made by an animal that were later filled with minerals and
preserved. Coprolites and gastroliths provide useful information
about the eating habits of organisms. Coprolites are fossils of dung
and stomach contents and gastroliths are highly polished stomach
stones used by some extinct reptiles to grind food.

✔ Reading Checkpoint What is a trace fossil?

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 The Fossil Record
All the fossils that geologists have found, arranged by their relative
ages, make up the fossil record. But the fossil record includes only
a fraction of the different kinds of organisms that have lived on
Earth. Why? Some organisms are more likely than others to be
preserved as fossils. Two conditions that favor preservation
of an organism as a fossil are rapid burial and the possession of
hard parts. Rapid burial protects an organism from being eaten by
scavengers or decomposed by bacteria. Once buried, organisms also
have a better chance of being preserved if they have hard parts such
as shells, bones, and teeth. Hard parts are tougher than soft arts
and more likely to remain intact long enough to become fossilized.
Even if an organism becomes fossilized, it is no guarantee that it
will one day be found. If the rock layer that surrounds it is melted
or metamorphosed, the fossil will be lost. And if the rock layer
remains buried, the fossils it contains will likely never be discovered.
Despite their incomplete record, however, scientists have learned
a tremendous amount from fossils. Fossils enable scientists
to correlate rock layers and infer past environments, and they
provide evidence for evolution.
Fossil Succession The principle of fossil succession states that
fossil organisms tend to be found in the same general order at
different locations. This principle was developed by William Smith,
an English engineer. While digging and planning canal routes, Smith
noted that the fossils he encountered weren’t randomly distributed
through rock layers. Instead, each layer contained a distinct
assortment of fossils that did not occur in the layers above or below
ACTIVE ART it. In Figure 10, for example, Rock unit A has a different collection
For: Index fossil activity of fossils from Rock Unit B. Many geologists who followed Smith
Visit: [Link] confi med his observations.
Web Code: czp-4122

Age ranges of some fossil groups

Younger

Rock unit A roc Age

k u of 5
nit
A

4
Figure 10 Correlating
With Fossils Overlapping
ranges of fossils help date 3
TIME

rocks more exactly than using

a single fossil. The fossils
contained in Rock Unit A all eo
f 2
have overlapping age ranges Ag unit B
k
in time 4. The fossils in Rock roc
Unit B have overlapping age
ranges in time 2. Therefore, 1
Rock Unit A was deposited in Rock unit B
Older

time 4, and Rock Unit B was

deposited in time 2.

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 Fossils and Correlation The principle of fossil succession enables
geologists to correlate rock layers based on the fossils they contain.
The best type of fossils to use for correlation are called index fossils.
An index fossil is a fossil that is both geographically widespread and
abundant in the fossil record, but that existed for only a limited span
of time. The presence of an index fossil in rock layers at different
locations means that the layers are of roughly the same age. Rock
layers, however, do not always contain a specific index fossil. In this
case, geologists can use groups of fossils to establish the relative age
of the rock, as shown in Figure 10.
Fossils and Past Environments Fossils
can help build detailed pictures of past
environments. Suppose, for example,
that geologists working far from shore
fi d fossil clam shells in limestone.
From this, they can infer that the region
was once covered with seawater. The
geologists might also be able to conclude
the approximate position of the ancient
shoreline by observing the types and
locations of fossils and comparing them
to modern forms. For example, living
organisms that live near shore tend to have
thick shells that can withstand powerful
waves. So, if the fossil clams had thick
shells, a scientist could infer that the
ancient shoreline was once located nearby.
Fossils can also provide information
about the temperature of water in the past. Certain present-day Figure 11 Evidence of a Past
corals, for example, require warm and shallow tropical seas—similar Environment Fossil corals found in
to those around Florida and the Bahamas today. When similar corals Texas limestone indicate the area
was covered by a warm, tropical
are found in ancient limestone, such as those in Figure 11, they sea about 300 million years ago.
indicate that a Florida-like marine environment must have existed
when the corals were alive.
Fossils and Evolution Geologists had noticed that fossils from
older rock layers were very different from the fossils in younger
layers. This had, by the mid-nineteenth century, convinced most
scientists that life on Earth had undergone evolution, or changed
over time. However, there was not a scientifically accepted
explanation for how life evolved until English naturalist Charles
Darwin came along. In 1859, Darwin proposed the theory of natural
selection. According to the theory of natural selection, traits
that improve an individual’s chance for survival and reproduction
will be passed on more frequently to future generations than
traits that do not. These beneficial traits are called adaptations.
Natural selection is among the most well-tested and accepted
theories in science. It provides a framework by which scientists
study and interpret the history of life.

✔ Reading Checkpoint What is an adaptation?

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 Figure 12 Walking Whale This extinct water-dwelling mammal,
Ambulocetus natans, evolved about 45 million years ago in south Asia.
Ambulocetus, which means “walking whale,” represents one stage in the
evolution of modern whales from land animals.

In general, organisms that are well-adapted to their

environment survive more often than organisms that are not as
well-adapted. As a result, these well-adapted individuals are more
likely to pass on their traits to later generations. Over time, natural
selection can bring about tremendous changes. For example, the
fossil record shows that the ancestors of modern whales were
land-dwelling mammals with four legs (Figure 12). Natural
selection, acting over millions of years, has resulted in the legless,
streamlined organisms we know today.

12.2 Assessment
Review Key Concepts 6. Sequence Describe how a clam might become a
fossil.
1. List the different types of fossils.
7. Apply Concepts What is the role of natural
2. Describe the conditions that favor the formation selection in evolution?
of fossils.
8. Infer Look at Figure 10. Can any of the fossils in
3. In your own words, explain the theory of natural the diagram be used as an index fossil? Explain
selection. why or why not.
4. Describe two ways that geologists can use fossils
to interpret Earth’s history. BIGIDEA E arth History
9. C
 onnect Concepts How are the law of super-
Think Critically position and the principle of fossil succession
5. Compare and Contrast How are compression related? How do they help us understand the
fossils and impression fossils similar? How are history of life?
they different?

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 12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
ES.9 The student will investigate and understand that many aspects of the history and evolution of Earth
and life can be inferred by studying rocks and fossils. Key concepts include b. superposition, cross-cutting
relationships, index fossils, and radioactive decay are methods of dating bodies of rock; and c. absolute
and relative dating have different applications but can be used together to determine the age of rocks and
structures. Also covered ES.9.a.

Early geologists like William Smith could only determine Key Questions
the relative ages of rock layers. They could not fi d exact dates for
What happens during
events in Earth’s past. Today, however, we know that Earth is about
radioactive decay?
4.5 billion years old and that the dinosaurs became extinct about
65 million years ago. To understand the method geologists used to How are isotopes used in
arrive at these dates, you need fi st to understand radioactivity. radiometric dating?

How can radiometric

What Is Radioactivity? dating be used to date organic
material?
Recall that each atom has a nucleus made up of protons and
neutrons and that the number of neutrons in the atoms of a given How can radiometric
element can vary. Different forms of an element are called isotopes. dating be used to infer the age
of sedimentary rocks?
Radioactive Isotopes In most atoms, the forces that bind protons
and neutrons together in the nucleus are strong and balanced. In Vocabulary
some isotopes, however, there is an excess of energy within the • radioactivity • half-life
nucleus. These atoms have unstable nuclei. Unstable atomic • radiometric dating
nuclei spontaneously break apart, or decay, releasing energy. • radiocarbon dating
The term for the process by which atoms decay is radioactivity,
Reading Strategy
or radioactive decay. Figure 13 shows the three different types of
radioactive decay. Monitor Your Understanding
Preview the key concepts,
topics, headings, vocabulary,
A. Alpha Emission Daughter
Unstable parent nucleus- and figures in this section.
Daughter
nucleus nucleus Copy the chart below. List
Atomic
number: two things you expect to learn
Alpha
+ particle
2 fewer
about each. After reading,
+ –
Neutron
emission Atomic mass:
state what you learned about
4 fewer
Proton each item you listed.

B. Beta Emission Daughter What I expect What I learned

Unstable parent
nucleus Daughter
nucleus- to learn
nucleus Atomic
number: 1. a. ? b. ?
1 more
Beta
+ + (electron) 2. c. ? d. ?
– emission
Atomic mass:
no change
Neutron Proton (–)

Electron
C. Electron Capture Daughter
nucleus-
(–) Unstable parent Neutron
nucleus Daughter
+ +
– nucleus Atomic
number:
Figure 13 Radioactive Decay
1 fewer In each type of radioactive decay,
Proton Atomic mass:
the number of protons (atomic
no change number) in the nucleus changes,
thus producing a different element.

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 Figure 14 The Half-Life Decay
Curve The radioactive decay curve 1
shows change that is exponential.
Half of the radio­active parent isotope

Fraction of parent isotope remaining

remains after one half-life. After a
second half-life, one quarter of the
parent isotope remains, and so forth.
Interpret Graphs If 1/32 of the
parent isotope remains, how many
half-lives have passed?
1/2

1/4

1/8
1/16
1/32
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of half-lives
Parent isotope Daughter product

Radioactive Isotopes Radioactive decay continues, sometimes

through many intermediate steps, until a stable, or nonradioactive
isotope is formed. For example, uranium-238 decays over time to
form the stable isotope lead-206. An unstable, or radioactive, isotope
of an element is called the parent isotope. The isotopes that result
from the decay of the parent are called the daughter products.
Half-Life A half-life is a common way of expressing the rate of
radioactive decay. A half-life is the amount of time necessary for
one half of the nuclei in a sample of radioactive isotope to decay to
its stable isotope, as shown in Figure 14. If the half-life of the parent
isotope is known, and the parent/daughter ratio can be measured,
then the age of the sample can be calculated. For example, if the
half-life of an unstable isotope is 1 million years, and 1/16 of the
parent isotope remains, the sample must be about 4 million years
old, since four half-lives have passed.

Radiometric Dating
Radiometric dating is a method of calculating the absolute ages
of rocks and minerals that contain certain radioactive isotopes. A
rock or mineral’s absolute age is the approximate number of years
before present that it formed. In radiometric dating, scientists
measure the ratio between the radioactive parent isotope and
the daughter products in a sample to be dated. The older the
sample, the more daughter product it contains. For igneous rock,
radiometric dating establishes when rock minerals crystallized.
For metamorphic rock, radiometric dating determines when new
minerals formed due to heat, pressure, or fluids. As we will see,
radiometric dating is not used to directly date sedimentary rocks.

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 Table 1 Radioactive Isotopes
Frequently Used in Radiometric Dating
Stable Currently
Radioactive Daughter Accepted
Parent Product Half-Life Values

Uranium-238 Lead-206 4.5 billion years

Uranium-235 Lead-207 713 million years

Thorium-232 Lead-208 14.1 billion years

Rubidium-87 Strontium-87 47.0 billion years

Potassium-40 Argon-40 1.3 billion years

How can a radioactive isotope serve as a reliable “clock”? The

rates of decay for many isotopes have been precisely measured and
do not vary under the physical conditions that exist in Earth’s outer
layers. Each radioactive isotope has been decaying at a constant rate
since the formation of the rocks in which it occurs. The products of
decay have also been accumulating at a constant rate. Of the many
INQUIRY
APPLY IT! ?
Q: In radioactive decay, is there
ever a time when all of the parent
radioactive isotopes that exist in nature, five have proved particularly material is converted into the
useful in providing radiometric ages for ancient rocks. These five daughter product?
radioactive isotopes are listed in Table 1. A: Theoretically, no. During
a half-life, half of the parent
Limitations of Radiometric Dating An accurate radiometric date material is converted into the
can be obtained for a mineral only if there has been no loss of parent daughter product. Then half of
or daughter isotope since the mineral’s formation. For example, the remaining parent material
is converted to the daughter
the stable daughter product of potassium is argon gas. To calculate
product in another half life, and so
absolute age using potassium and argon, geologists measure the on. By converting only half of the
ratio of radioactive potassium-40 atoms to stable argon atoms in parent material with each half-
a sample. They then use the known half-life of potassium-40 to life, there is never a time when
estimate the sample’s age based on the ratio. Given the long half- all the parent material would be
life of potassium-40, this method can be used to date rocks that converted. However, after many
half-lives, the parent material will
are hundreds of millions of years old. However, because it is a gas, be present in such small amounts
argon may leak from minerals and throw off easurements. Cross- that it is essentially undetectable.
checking of samples, using two different radiometric methods, is
done whenever possible to ensure accuracy.
Age of Earth Radiometric dating methods have enabled scientists
to assign dates to thousands of events in Earth history. Earth’s oldest
rocks (so far) are metamorphic gneisses in northern Canada. These
rocks have been dated at 4.03 billion years. Even older mineral
grains have been dated. Tiny crystals of the mineral zircon with
radiometric ages as old as 4.3 billion years have been found in
younger sedimentary rocks in western Australia. So, Earth is at
least that old, but is it even older? To determine the age of Earth,
scientists have compared isotope ratios in a variety of meteorites.
Assuming that the solar system formed together from the solar
nebula, Earth and all meteorites should be the same age, about
4.5 billion years old.

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 Dating with Carbon-14
To date organic materials, carbon-14 is used in a method
called radiocarbon dating. Organic material is a substance
that contains carbon and comes from a living thing. Carbon-14
is the radioactive isotope of carbon. Carbon-14 is continuously
produced in the upper atmosphere. It quickly becomes
incorporated into carbon dioxide, which circulates in the
atmosphere and is absorbed by living matter. As a result,
all organisms—including you—contain a small amount of
carbon-14.
While an organism is alive, the decaying radiocarbon
is continually replaced. Thus, the ratio of carbon-14
to carbon-12—the stable isotope of carbon—remains
constant. When an organism dies, the amount of
carbon-14 gradually decreases as the carbon-14 decays.
By comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a
sample, radiocarbon dates can be determined.
Because the half-life of carbon-14 is only 5730 years,
it can be used to date events up to about 75,000 years ago.
The age of the ancient sea turtle shown in Figure 15 can
be determined using radiocarbon dating. Carbon-14 has
become a valuable tool for anthropologists, archaeologists,
and historians, as well as for geologists who study recent
Earth history.

✔ Reading Checkpoint What is compared when dating

Figure 15 Radiocarbon Dating
Carbon-14 is used to date organic
samples with carbon-14?
materials that formed up to
about 75,000 years ago. Here,

Radiometric Dating
an archaeologist is uncovering
the remains of a sea turtle near

of Sedimentary Rock
an ancient stone formation.
Radiocarbon dating of the
remains will help determine their Radiometric dating can rarely be used to date sedimentary rocks
approximate age.
directly. Sedimentary rocks may contain particles that can be dated.
But these particles are not the same age as the rocks in which they
occur. The sediment from which the rock formed probably weathered
from older rocks. Radiometric dating would not be accurate since
the sedimentary rock is made up of so many older rock particles.
Geologists have developed an indirect method of dating
sedimentary rocks. To determine the age of sedimentary
rock, geologists must relate the sedimentary rock to datable
masses of igneous rock. Applying Steno’s principles, geologists
identify two igneous rock masses. One rock mass must be relatively
older than the sedimentary rock. The other rock mass must be
younger. Radiometric methods can then be used to date the two
igneous rock masses. The age of the sedimentary rock must lie
between the ages of the igneous rocks. If present, fossils may help
refi e the estimate.

350 Chapter 12 • Lesson 3

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 Figure 16 Estimating the
Age of Sedimentary Rock
Layers Sedimentary rock
layers can be dated in relation
to igneous rocks of known
age—in this case, the volcanic
ash bed and the igneous dike.
Infer What can you infer
about Layers A and B?

Layer G
Layer F

Layer E

Layer D
Igneous dike dated
at 66 million years Layer C
Volcanic
ash bed dated
at 160 mill
Layer B ion years

Layer A

Look at Figure 16. Using the principle of superposition, you

can tell that layers C–G are younger than 160 million years old,
since they lie above the dated volcanic ash bed. Using the principle
of cross-cutting relationships, you can see that the dike is younger
than layers E and F. Therefore layers C–F must be between 160 and
66 million years old.

✔ Reading Checkpoint Why can’t radiometric dating be used

to determine the absolute age of sedimentary rock?

12.3 Assessment
Review Key Concepts 6. Apply Concepts Using radiometric dating, a
scientist determines that a sample of quartz
1. What happens to atoms that are radioactive? minerals is 1.2 billion years old. From this, she
2. What is the role of isotopes in radiometric concludes that the sandstone containing the
dating? quartz is also 1.2 billion years old. Explain her
mistake.
3. Describe radiocarbon dating.
7. Interpret Diagrams In a sample of igneous
4. How do geologists use radiometric dating to date rock, one-quarter of the isotope thorium-232
sedimentary rock layers indirectly? remains. How old is the rock? Use Figure 15 and
Table 1 to help you.
Think Critically
5. Apply Concepts A geologist wants to use WRITING IN SCIENCE
potassium-argon dating to date a granite rock 8. Describe How might radiocarbon dating be
found on the surface. What is a possible source used to study an ancient civilization?
of inaccuracy in dating the rock?

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 Dating With Tree Rings
If you look at the top of a tree stump or at the end of a log, To make the most effective use of tree rings, extended
you will see that it is made of a series of concentric rings, patterns known as ring chronologies are established. They are
like those shown in Figure 17. Every year in temperate produced by comparing the patterns of rings among trees in
regions, trees add a layer of new wood under the bark. Each an area. If the same pattern can be identified in two trees, one
of these tree rings becomes larger in diameter outward from of which has been given an absolute date based on an inde-
the center. During favorable environmental conditions, a pendent line of evidence, the second tree can then be dated
wide ring is produced. During unfavorable environmental by aligning its ring pattern to that of the first dated tree. This
conditions, a narrow ring is produced. Trees growing at the technique, called cross dating, is illustrated in Figure 18.
same time in the same region show similar tree-ring patterns.
Cross dating allows the ages of dead tree remains to be dated.
Because a single growth ring is usually added each year, you Tree-ring chronologies extending back for thousands of years
can determine the age of a tree by counting its rings. Cutting have been established for some regions. To date a timber
down a tree to count the rings is not necessary anymore. sample of unknown age, its ring pattern is matched against
Scientists can use small, nondestructive core samples from the reference chronology.
living trees.
Tree-ring chronologies have important applications in such
The dating and study of annual rings in trees is called disciplines as climate, geology, ecology, and archaeology.
the science of dendrochronology. Dendrochronology pro- For example, tree rings are used to reconstruct long-term
vides useful information regarding the relative ages for climate variations within a certain region. Knowledge of such
events in the historic and recent prehistoric past. Because variations is of great value in studying and understanding the
tree rings are a storehouse of data, they are a valu- recent record of climate change.
able tool in the reconstruction of past environments.

Figure 17 Tree Rings Each year’s

growth for a tree is laid down as a ring.
Because the amount of growth (thickness
of a ring) depends upon precipitation and
temperature, tree rings are useful records
of past climates.

Live tree

Dead tree

Log from ruins

Figure 18 Cross Dating If a scientist knows the This chronology is extended further back in time by
absolute date of a live tree, they can use cross dating matching overlapping patterns from older, dead trees.
to estimate the age of an ancient ruin. First, a tree- Finally, cores taken from beams inside the ruin are dated
ring chronology for the area is established using cores using the chronology established from the other two sites.
extracted from living trees of known age.

352 Earth & History

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 12.4 The Geologic Time Scale
ES.9 The student will investigate and understand that many aspects of the history and evolution of Earth and
life can be inferred by studying rocks and fossils. Key concepts include a. traces and remains of ancient,
often extinct, life are preserved by various means in many sedimentary rocks; b. superposition, cross-cutting
relationships, index fossils, and radioactive decay are methods of dating bodies of rock.

geological events by themselves have little meaning until Key Questions

they are put into context. Studying an event in history, whether it
What is the geologic
be the Civil War or the evolution of mammals, requires a timeline. time scale?
Among geology’s major contributions to human knowledge is the
timeline it has developed for Earth history. How is the geologic time
scale constructed?

What Is the Geologic Time Scale? Vocabulary

Geologists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries proposed a • geologic time scale • eon
sequence of events in Earth’s history using relative dating principles. • Precambrian time • era
The result is the geologic time scale, a timeline of Earth’s history. • period • epoch
The geologic time scale is a record that includes both
Reading Strategy
geologic events and major developments in the evolution of
Outline As you read, make an
life. Today’s time scale includes many absolute dates, the result of
outline of the important ideas
radiometric dating techniques that became available in the twentieth in this section. Use the orange
century. Even with all of our technology, however, the time scale is headings as the main topics
not considered fi al or complete. It is constantly revised as new data and fill in details from the
become available. remainder of the text.

The Geologic Time Scale

I. What Is the Geologic Time
Scale?

A. ?

B. ?

II. Structure of the Time Scale

A. ?

B. ?

Figure 19 Around Since the

Dinosaurs These cliffs on the coast of
England are made of rock that formed
about 200 million years ago, which,
according to the time scale, was during
the time of the dinosaurs.

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 Eon Era Period Epoch
Millions
of years
ago
Structure of the Time Scale
Holocene
The geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras,
Quaternary 0.01
Pleistocene 2.6 periods, and epochs. Eons represent the
Cenozoic
Neogene Pliocene 5.3 longest intervals of geologic time. Eons are
divided into eras. Each era is subdivided into
Tertiary
Miocene 23.0

Paleogene
Oligocene 33.9 periods. Finally, periods are divided into still
Eocene 55.8
Paleocene
smaller units called epochs. The primary divisions
65.5
of the time scale are shown in Figure 20. In general,
Cretaceous divisions between time scale units mark major
geologic events, evolutionary changes, or both.
Mesozoic

145.5
Each division of the time scale has a name.
Jurassic Usually, the name comes from either the area where
199.6 rocks of the age were fi st found or from some
Triassic unique characteristic of the rocks. For example,
Phanerozoic

251
Jurassic refers to the Jura Mountains of France and
Permian
299
Switzerland. The Carboniferous is named for the
large coal deposits that formed during that period.
Carboniferous

Pennsylvanian
318 Carboniferous means “carbon bearing.”
Mississippian
359
Eons Geologists divide Earth’s history into four
long units called eons. About 88 percent of geologic
Paleozoic

Devonian time is made up of the fi st three of these eons—the

416
Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic. During these
Silurian
444 eons, Earth formed, the atmosphere and oceans
Ordovician developed, and early life evolved. Another term for
488 this long time span is Precambrian time.
Precambrian fossils are scarce. One reason for
Cambrian this is that there is very little Precambrian rock at the
542
surface. Over billions of years, most Precambrian
rocks have not only been buried by layers and layers
cambrian

Proterozoic
2500
Archean
~4000 of younger rock, but much has also been eroded or
Pre-

Hadean ~ 4600 metamorphosed, destroying or altering fossils. In

Figure 20 The Geologic Time addition, for most of Earth’s history, life existed only
Scale This figure is not drawn to scale. as single-celled organisms, which do not leave easily identifiable
The Phanerozoic makes up only about fossils. Only very late in the Precambrian did multicelled organisms
12 percent of Earth’s history. The evolve in the oceans.
Phanerozoic eon is broken into more
subdivisions than earlier eons because
About 540 million years ago, the Phanerozoic eon began. The
scientists have more data to work with. term Phanerozoic comes from the Greek words meaning “visible
life.” The term is appropriate because the rocks of this eon contain
abundant fossils. These fossils document the evolution of more
complex life forms.
Notice on the time scale the many subdivisions of the
Phanerozoic. These subdivisions reflect the large amount of data
that geologists have about the rocks and fossils of the Phanerozoic in
comparison with data from earlier eons.

354 Chapter 12 • Lesson 4

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 Eras There are three eras within the Phan­erozoic eon: the
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Paleozoic comes from the
Greek words for “ancient life.” Most of the major groups of modern
organisms, including insects, vertebrates (animals with backbones),
and nonflowering plants, evolved during this era. Mesozoic means
“middle life.” During the Mesozoic era, flowering plants evolved
and many types of reptiles, including dinosaurs and marine reptiles
(Figure 21), became abundant. Mammals also evolved during the
Mesozoic. The fossil record shows that the Paleozoic and Mesozoic
eras both ended with dramatic, worldwide changes in life forms.
Figure 21 Mesozoic Life Not all
Many types of organisms became extinct. Cenozoic means “recent
life forms in the Mesozoic were big
life.” During the Cenozoic era, many different types of mammals like the dinosaurs. This marine reptile
and birds evolved, and flowering plants became abundant. from the Triassic, Keichousaurus hiu,
was less than a foot long.
Periods and Epochs Each era is subdivided into periods.
Different geologic events, environmental conditions, and life forms
characterize each period. Traditionally, geologists divided the
Cenozoic era into two periods: the Tertiary and Quaternary. Today,
most geologists divide the Cenozoic into the Paleogene, Neogene,
and Quaternary, as shown in Figure 20.
Periods are divided into still smaller units called epochs. You
will notice that there are many named epochs within the periods of
the Cenozoic era. This again reflects how much data are available
about the recent past. The periods of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic
eras are also divided in epochs, though they are not usually referred
to by specific names. Instead, the terms early, middle, and late are
generally applied to the epochs of these earlier periods.

12.4 Assessment
Review Key Concepts Think Critically
1. What is the geologic time scale? 5. Interpret Diagrams To which era does each of
2. What subdivisions make up the geologic the following periods belong: Ordovician,
time scale? Tertiary, Permian, Triassic?
3. How is the geologic time scale today different 6. Calculate What percentage of geologic time is
from the geologic time scale developed by made up of the Cenozoic era?
geologists in the 1800s?
WRITING IN SCIENCE
4. Why are there more subdivisions of the
time scale for the Phanerozoic eon than for 7. Define Research one of the periods of the
earlier eons? geologic time scale. Write a definition of the
period that includes the name of the era to which
the period belongs, when the period began and
ended, one major event from the period, and an
explanation of its name.

Geologic Time 355

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 INQUIRY
EXPLORATION LAB ?
Fossil Occurrence and the Age of Rocks
Problem How can the occurrence of fossils and Procedure
their known age ranges be used to date rocks? 1. A section of rock made up of layers of limestone
Materials geologic time scale, graph paper, pencil and shale has been studied and samples have been
taken. A large variety of fossils were collected
Skills Interpret Diagrams, Graph, Form a from the rock samples. Use a sheet of graph paper
Hypothesis, Infer
to make a bar graph using the information shown
in the Fossil Data Table. Begin by listing the types
Connect to the Groups of fossil of fossils on the horizontal axis. Use the fi ure on
organisms occur in the rock record for specific the next page to list the units of the geologic time
intervals of time. This time interval is called the scale on the vertical axis.
fossil’s range. Knowing the range of the fossils of
2. Transfer the range data of each fossil onto your
specific organisms, or groups of organisms, can be
graph. Draw an X in each box, beginning at the
used to fi d the relative age of rock layers. In this
oldest occurrence of the organism up to the
laboratory exercise, you will use such information to
youngest occurrence. Shade in the marked boxes.
assign a date to a hypothetical unit of rock.
You will end up with bars depicting the geologic
ranges of each of the fossils listed.
3. Examine your graph. Are there any time units
that contain all of the fossils listed? Write this
time period at the bottom of the graph.

Fossil Data Table

Type of Fossil Oldest occurrence Youngest occurrence
1 Foraminifera Silurian Quaternary

2 Bryozoan Silurian Permian

3 Gastropod Devonian Pennsylvanian

4 Brachiopod Silurian Mississippian

5 Bivalve Silurian Permian

6 Gastropod Ordovician Devonian

7 Trilobite Silurian Devonian

8 Ostracod Devonian Tertiary

9 Brachiopod Cambrian Devonian

356 Chapter 12

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 The Geologic Time Scale
Analyze and Conclude
1. Interpret Graphs What is the age of the Millions
Eon Era Period Epoch of years
hypothetical rock layer that these fossils were ago
collected from? Quaternary Holocene 0.01
Pleistocene 2.6
2. Infer Based on the age determined, do you

Cenozoic
Neogene Pliocene 5.3
think that this group of fossils could be

Tertiary
Miocene 23.0
considered index fossils? Why or why not? Oligocene 33.9
Paleogene
3. Infer Suppose that the particular trilobite listed Eocene 55.8
Paleocene 65.5
in line 7 of the data table is limited to rocks
of lower Devonian age and that these trilobite
Cretaceous
fossils are widespread throughout North
America. Can this fossil be considered an index

Mesozoic
145.5

fossil? Why or why not? Jurassic

4. Explain The fossils in this group were collected 199.6
from limestone and shale rocks. Based on what Triassic
Phanerozoic

you have learned about the formation of these 251

rock types, what type of environment did these Permian
organisms live in? 299

Carboniferous
5. Infer Shale often contains fossils of leaves. If Pennsylvanian
318
the gastropods listed in line 3 and line 6 were
Mississippian
collected from shale containing leaf fossils, 359
could you use radiocarbon dating to assign a
Paleozoic

numerical date to this rock unit? Explain. Devonian

416
Silurian
GO FURTHER Use the library or Internet 444
to research these fossils. Find out how some of
Ordovician
them are used in the oil industry or the cosmetics
488
industry.
Cambrian

542
cambrian

Proterozoic
2500
Archean
~4000
Pre-

Hadean ~ 4600

ES.1 The student will plan and conduct investigations in which c. scales, diagrams, charts, graphs, tables, imagery,
models, and profiles are constructed and interpreted. ES.2 The student will demonstrate an understanding of the nature
of science and scientific reasoning and logic. Key concepts include b. evidence is required to evaluate hypotheses and
explanations. ES.9 The student will investigate and understand that many aspects of the history and evolution of Earth and
life can be inferred by studying rocks and fossils. Key concepts include b. superposition, cross-cutting relationships, index
fossils, and radioactive decay are methods of dating bodies of rock.

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 12 Study Guide Earth History 12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History During radioactive decay, unstable atomic
nuclei spontaneously break apart, or decay,
Uniformitarianism is the idea that the releasing energy.
physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate
today also operated in the past. In radiometric dating, scientists measure the
ratio between the radioactive parent isotope and
The law of superposition, the principle of the daughter products in a sample to be dated. The
original horizontality, the principle of cross-cutting older the sample, the more daughter product it
relationships, unconformities, and inclusions all contains.
help determine the relative ages of rock layers.
When an organism dies, the amount of
Scientists correlate rock layers at different carbon-14 gradually decreases as the carbon-14
locations to piece together a more complete decays. By comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to
interpretation of the rock record. carbon-12 in a sample, radiocarbon dates can be
uniformitarianism (336) determined.
relative dating (337) To determine the age of sedimentary rock,
law of superposition (337) geologists must relate the sedimentary rock to
principle of original horizontality (338) datable masses of igneous rock.
principle of cross-cutting relationships (338)
unconformity (339) radioactivity (347)
correlation (340) half-life (348)
radiometric dating (348)
12.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life radiocarbon dating (350)

The different types of fossils include petrified 12.4 The Geologic Time Scale
fossils, molds and casts, compressions, impressions,
unaltered remains, and trace fossils. The geologic time scale is a record that
includes both geologic events and major
Two conditions that favor preservation of
developments in the evolution of life
an organism as a fossil are rapid burial and the
possession of hard parts. Eons represent the longest intervals of
geologic time. Eons are divided into eras. Each
Fossils enable scientists to correlate rock
era is subdivided into periods. Finally, periods are
layers and infer past environments, and they
divided into still smaller units called epochs.
provide evidence for evolution.
According to natural selection, traits that geologic time scale (353)
eon (354)
improve an individual’s chance for survival and
Precambrian time (354)
reproduction will be passed on more frequently to era (355)
future generations than traits that do not. period (355)
extinct (342) epoch (355)
fossil (342)
principle of fossil succession (344)
index fossil (345)
evolution (345)
natural selection (345)
adaptation (345)

358 Chapter 12 • Study Guide

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 12 Assessment
Review Content 8. What are atoms with the same atomic number
but different mass numbers called?
Choose the letter that best answers the question or a. protons c. ions
completes the statement. b. isotopes d. nucleotides
1. What principle states that the physical, 9. Which of Steno’s principles states that most
chemical, and biological laws that operate layers of sediments are deposited in flat-lying
today have also operated in the geologic past? layers?
a. uniformitarianism a. original horizontality
b. theory of evolution b. cross-cutting relationships
c. principle of original horizontality c. fossil succession
d. law of superposition d. superposition
2. What is the name of the process that matches 10. What name is given to pieces of rock that are
rocks of similar ages in different regions? contained within another, younger rock?
a. indexing a. intrusions c. hosts
b. correlation b. interbeds d. inclusions
c. succession
11. About how old is Earth?
d. superposition
a. 400,000 years c. 5.8 million years
3. What name is given to fossils that are both b. 4.0 million years d. 4
 .5 billion years
widespread geographically and abundant in
number, but are limited to a short span of time
in the fossil record?
Understand Concepts
a. key c. relative 12. How have the processes that affect Earth’s
b. succeeding d. index surface changed through time?
4. What is the name of the process during which 13. Why does the law of superposition apply
atomic nuclei decay? primarily to sedimentary rocks?
a. fusion c. nucleation 14. How are cross-cutting relationships used in
b. correlation d. radioactivity relative dating?
5. Which unit of geologic time is the greatest 15. How do unconformities form?
span of time? 16. List and briefly describe three different types of
a. era c. period fossils.
b. eon d. epoch
17. What two conditions increase an organism’s
6. What are remains or traces of prehistoric life chance of becoming a fossil?
called? 18. What did Darwin propose as the mechanism of
a. indicators c. fossils evolution? Explain.
b. replicas d. fissures
19. How can certain fossils, such as corals, be used
7. What name is given to layers of tilted rocks to indicate water temperatures of the past?
that are overlain by younger, more flat-lying 20. What is a half-life?
rock layers?
21. Explain how radioactivity and radiometric
a. disconformity
dating are related.
b. angular unconformity
c. nonconformity 22. Why can’t radiometric dating be used with
d. fault accuracy on metamorphic rocks?

Geologic Time 359

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 Think Critically Concepts in Action
23. Compare and Contrast Compare the 31. Apply Concepts Fossilized human remains
techniques of relative dating to those of are sometimes found in bogs in northwestern
radioactive decay dating. Europe. These bogs are wet, low-oxygen areas
24. Draw Conclusions Why can’t carbon-14 that contain decaying plant material. How
be used to date material that is older than would you go about dating such a fossil?
75,000 years? 32. Compare and Contrast Apply the concept of
25. Explain Why is it important to have a closed uniformitarianism to explain how a particular
system when using radioactive decay dating? sequence of rock layers could be interpreted as
a former ocean coastline. (Hint: compare what
26. Predict An analysis of some sedimentary you might see at a modern shoreline to what
rocks suggests the environment was close to you would see in the rocks).
the shoreline where high energy waves hit the
shore. Corals and shelled organisms lived here. 33. Predict An organism evolves with certain
Describe what their fossils would be like. adaptations for survival on a wet, tropical
island. Over millions of years, plate movements
27. Apply Concepts Why is radiometric dating shift he island into a cooler, drier climate.
the most reliable method of dating events and What might happen to this type of organism
formations from the geologic past? over time?

Analyze Data 34. Calculate Nuclear power plants produce

radioactive waste that must be stored properly
Refer to the diagram to answer Questions 28 and 29. until it is no longer harmful to life on Earth.
Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 billion years.
If, in order to be safe, a uranium sample must
Conglomerate
decay to 1/64 of its original amount, for how
many years must the waste be stored?

Performance-Based Assessment
Communicate Create a poster illustrating the
San
dsto
ne
different ways that fossils can form.
Be sure to include altered and unaltered remains
Fault A Intrusion C with examples of both. If possible, include samples
Intrusion B of fossils that are found in your area.
Fault B
Intrusion A

28. Apply Concepts Which fault is older, A or B?

Explain how you know.
29. Apply Concepts Which intrusion is older,
A or B? Explain how you know.
30. Calculate A sample of potassium-40 has a
mass of 12.5 grams. If the sample originally
had 50 grams of potassium-40 at the start of
radioactive decay, how many half-lives have
passed? The half-life of potassium-40 is
1.3 billion years. How old is the sample?

360 Chapter 12 • Assessment

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   Virginia SOL Test Prep
Tips for Success 2 Whose work became the foundation for the
principle of uniformitarianism?
When examining a diagram, it is important not F Charles Darwin
to be confused by unnecessary information. It G James Hutton
helps to identify only the features that relate to
H William Smith
the question being asked. Reread the question
J Louis Agassiz ES.9.b
with these features in mind and then answer
the question. In the diagram below, you do not 3 Using relative dating methods, which of the
need to know what rock types are present. following are scientists able to do?
Which choice correctly lists the order in A Identify the order in which rock units
which rock layers A through D formed? formed.
B Assign a numerical date to each rock layer
A A, B, C, D
studied.
B D, C, B, A
C Determine the age of the fossils within each
C B, C, D, A
layer.
D A, B, D, C
D Identify what rock types are present. ES.9.c

Use the diagram below to answer Question 4.

G
F
E
G
F
D
B
Sill E
A H E
C D C
H D
B
B
(Answer: D) A
C
A

Use the diagram above to answer Question 1. 4 How can you tell that intrusion C is older
Choose the letter that best answers the question. than fault H?
f The top of Intrusion C is eroded.
1 When were rock layers A through D uplifted G Intrusion C is broken by Fault H.
and tilted? H Fault H ends at the eroded Layer E.
A after deposition of Layer G J Both Intrusion C and Fault H end
B after deposition of Layer F and before at Layer E.
deposition of Layer G  ES.9.b
C after deposition of Layer D and before
deposition of Layer E
D after deposition of Layer A and before
deposition of Layer G ES.9.b

If You Have Trouble With . . .

Question 1 2 3 4
See Lesson 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1

Geologic Time 361

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