THE RELEVANCE OF ISLAMIC MORAL EDUCATION TO THE SPIRITUAL

DEVELOPMENT OF MUSLIM YOUTHS: A CASE STUDY OF LAGOS STATE

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

BY

AYANGBILE MUBARAK ABAYOMI

MATRIC NUMBER: 22110404008

BEING RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

RELIGIONS AND PEACE STUDIES, COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES EDUCATION,
LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ARTS IN

ISLAMIC STUDIES

JUNE, 2026
 CERTIFICATION

This Project Titled “The Practice Of Transgender Behaviors Among Muslim Youths, A Case
Study Of Badagry Local Government Area” submitted by ISIAKA KEHINDE IDRIS, has been
carefully supervised, examined and approved as having satisfied the requirements for the award
of the Bachelor of Art (B.A) Degree in Islamic Studies in the Department Of Religios And Peace
Studies, Lagos State University Of Education

08/07/2026

DR. BALOGUN M.A DATE

Project Supervisor

08/07/2026

DR. HARMONA O.A DATE

Head Of Department

EXTERNAL MODERATOR DATE

i
 DEDICATION

This research project is lovingly dedicated to my beloved parents, my siblings, and my entire
family for their unconditional love, prayers, sacrifices, encouragement, and unwavering support
throughout my academic journey. May Almighty God continue to bless and reward them
abundantly.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praise and thanks are due to Almighty God for His mercy, protection, wisdom, and guidance
throughout this research. Without His blessings, the successful completion of this study would
not have been possible.

I sincerely express my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Balogun M.A, for his
patience, valuable advice, constructive corrections, and continuous encouragement throughout
this research. His academic guidance and support contributed greatly to the success of this work.

I also appreciate all the lecturers and non-academic staff of the Department of Religions and
Peace Studies for their teachings, support, and encouragement during my programme. The
knowledge and experience gained from them have contributed immensely to my academic
development.

My heartfelt gratitude goes to my beloved parents, my siblings, specifically Abu Aisha and Baba
Adini of Nurfass Ibereko every member of my family for their love, prayers, financial support,
sacrifices, and encouragement. Their unwavering support has been my source of strength
throughout my studies.

I also thank my friends specifically my twin brother Alfa Abdulsalam, Alfa Naheen, Al Bayaany,
Al Arobiyy Al khiyari, and colleagues for their advice, cooperation, and moral support during
the course of this research.

Finally, I appreciate everyone who contributed directly or indirectly to the successful completion
of this project. May Almighty God bless and reward you abundantly.

ISIAKA KEHINDE IDRIS

iii
 ABSTRACT

This study examines transgender issues from the perspective of Islamic jurisprudence by
analyzing the Islamic understanding of gender and the legal rulings relating to transgender-
related matters in the light of the Qur'an, Sunnah, and the opinions of classical and
contemporary Muslim scholars. The study was motivated by the increasing global debate on
gender identity and the growing misconceptions surrounding the Islamic position on transgender
issues. It specifically seeks to distinguish between concepts recognized in Islamic jurisprudence,
such as khunthā (intersex person), mukhannath (effeminate male), mutarajjilah (masculine
female), and cross-dressing, and the contemporary concept of transgender identity. The research
also examines the legal rulings of the four Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence on issues
relating to inheritance, marriage, prayer, and gender identity.
The study adopted a qualitative research design using library research and semi-structured
interviews. Primary data were obtained from the Qur'an, authentic Hadith, classical works of
tafsīr, and authoritative books of Islamic jurisprudence, while secondary data were collected
from scholarly books, journal articles, conference papers, and other academic publications.
Interview responses from knowledgeable participants were also used to complement the
literature and provide practical insights into contemporary understanding of transgender-
related issues within the Muslim community.

The findings reveal that Islamic jurisprudence recognizes only two normative biological sexes,
male and female, while acknowledging khunthā as an exceptional biological condition that
requires specific legal rulings. The study further establishes that mukhannath and mutarajjilah
are behavioural classifications and do not alter an individual's biological sex or legal status. It
also finds that deliberate cross-dressing and imitation of the opposite sex are generally
prohibited because they contradict the objectives of Sharīʿah in preserving natural disposition
(fiṭrah), lineage, morality, and social order. At the same time, the study emphasizes that Islam
requires Muslims to treat every individual with justice, compassion, dignity, and respect
regardless of personal challenges.
The study concludes that Islamic jurisprudence provides a comprehensive and balanced legal

iv
framework for addressing gender-related issues by combining adherence to divine guidance with
justice and compassion. It recommends that Islamic scholars, educational institutions, and
religious organizations should intensify public enlightenment on authentic Islamic teachings
concerning gender and transgender issues in order to reduce misconceptions and promote a
proper understanding of Islamic law.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page________________________________________________________________

Certification______________________________________________________________i

Dedication_______________________________________________________________ii

Acknowledgements________________________________________________________iii

Abstract_________________________________________________________________ iv

Table of Contents__________________________________________________________vi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION__________________________________________1

1.0 Introduction___________________________________________________________1

1.1 Background to the Study_________________________________________________3

1.2 Statement of the Problem________________________________________________ 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study__________________________________________________3

1.4 Research Questions_____________________________________________________4

1.5 Scope and Delimitation of the Study_______________________________________ 4

1.6 Significance of the Study________________________________________________ 5

1.7 Research Methodology____________________________________________ _____ 6

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms__________________________________________ 7

Notes___________________________________________________________________ 9

References_______________________________________________________________11

vi
CHAPTER TWO_________________________________________________________ 13

2.0 Introduction___________________________________________________________14

2.1 Concept of Gender_____________________________________________________ 14

2.1.1 Western Scholars' Ideologies on the Concept of Gender_______________________15

2.1.2 Islamic Viewpoint on the Concept of Gender_______________________________ 16

2.2 Concept of Transgender_________________________________________________ 17

2.3 Classification of Transgender Based on Biological Trait and Behavioural

Expression_______________________________________________________________19

2.3.1 Al-Khunthā (Intersex Person)___________________________________________ 19

2.6 Categories of Khunthā (Intersex)__________________________________________ 20

2.7 Sharī'ah Rulings on Khunthā_____________________________________________ 20

2.7.1 Sharī'ah Legal Rulings of Khunthā on Inheritance (Mirāth)____________________ 21

2.7.2 Sharī'ah Legal Rulings of Khunthā on Marriage (Nikāḥ)______________________ 22

2.7.3 Sharī'ah Legal Rulings of Khunthā on Prayer (Ṣalāh)_________________________ 22

2.8 Mukhannath (Effeminate Male)___________________________________________ 23

2.8.1 Classification of Mukhannath___________________________________________ 24

[Link] Innate (Khilqī) Mukhannath___________________________________________ 24

[Link] Acquired (Takallufī) Mukhannath______________________________________ 24

2.9 Contemporary Misconceptions Relating to Mukhannath and Transgender__________ 24

2.10 Islamic Legal Rulings of Mukhannath_____________________________________ 26

2.10.1 Inheritance_________________________________________________________ 26

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2.10.2 Marriage__________________________________________________________ 26

2.10.3 Prayer (Ṣalāh)______________________________________________________ 27

2.11 Al-Mutarajjilah (Masculine Female)______________________________________ 27

Conclusion______________________________________________________________ 28

Notes___________________________________________________________________ 30

References_______________________________________________________________35

CHAPTER THREE________________________________________________________37

3.0 Introduction___________________________________________________________37

3.1 Cross-Dressing in Islamic Perspective______________________________________ 38

3.2 Qur'ānic Basis_________________________________________________________38

3.3 Prophetic Traditions on Cross-Dressing_____________________________________ 39

3.4 Opinions of the Four Sunni Schools________________________________________39

3.4.1 Ḥanafī School____________________________________________________ 39

3.4.2 Maliki School____________________________________________________ 40

3.4.3 Shāfiʿī School___________________________________________________ 40

3.4.4 Ḥanbalī School__________________________________________________ 40

3.5 Meaning and Purpose of Clothing in Islam__________________________________ 40

3.5.1 Gender Distinction in Clothing__________________________________________ 41

3.5.2 Role of Culture in Clothing_____________________________________________ 42

3.6 Islamic Ruling on Men Wearing Earrings___________________________________ 43

3.6.1 Earrings as a Form of Female Adornment________________________________ 43

viii
3.7 Qur'ānic and Hadith Panacea to Transgender Issues____________________________44

3.7.1 Recognition of Divine Creation_______________________________________ 44

3.7.2 Preservation of the Fitrah (Natural Disposition)___________________________ 45

3.7.3 Prohibition of Altering Allah's Creation_________________________________ 45

3.7.4 Prohibition of Imitation Between Men and Women________________________ 46

3.7.5 Modesty and Moral Discipline________________________________________ 46

3.7.6 Patience During Personal Trials_______________________________________ 46

3.7.7 Seeking Help through Prayer_________________________________________ 47

3.7.8 Reliance Upon Allah_______________________________________________ 47

3.7.9 Seeking Beneficial Knowledge_______________________________________ 47

3.7.10 Compassion and Human Dignity_____________________________________ 48

3.8 Conclusion_______________________________________________________ 48

Note_______________________________________________________________ 50

Reference___________________________________________________________ 53

CHAPTER FOUR________________________________________________________ 54

4.1 Summary_____________________________________________________________ 54

4.2 Conclusion___________________________________________________________ 57

4.3 Recommendations_____________________________________________________ 58

4.4 Suggestions for Further Studies___________________________________________ 59

4.5 Appendix____________________________________________________________ 60

4.6 Bibliography______________________________________________________ 62

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

This study discusses the practice of transgender behavior among Muslims Youths, a case study
of Badagry Local Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria as a case study.

Transgender is a modern Western term. The word “transgender” is derived from two words:
“trans,” meaning “moving” or “changing,” and “gender,” meaning “sex”.1

In classical Islamic literature, the term al-mukhannathūn refers to men who act or appear
feminine in their behavior, voice, or appearance. Although the modern concept of “transgender”
did not exist in the ninth century AH, the renowned scholar Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī discussed
gender-nonconforming behavior in his work Fatḥ al-Bārī. His writings provide early Islamic
discussions on effeminacy and gender-related behavior 2

Historically, gender nonconformity is not a new phenomenon. It has been documented across
different civilizations throughout history.3

While some scholars argue that transgenderism is a Western export, historical evidence from
Indo-American societies indicates a long-standing recognition of biological males who adopted
female social roles and sometimes entered into marriages. In addition, surgical alteration of
genitalia had been documented even before the twentieth century 4

Within Islamic historical discourse, some scholars trace the emergence of gender-variant
behavior to the era of Prophet Luṭ (Lot).5

It has been argued that individuals during this period who adopted different gender roles were
often associated with the emergence of homosexual practices.6

Transgender issues are generally concerned with gender identity and the ways individuals
express their gender in society. It occurs when a person’s behavior or gender expression does not
correspond with their biological sex. In Islamic scholarship, classical Arabic terms such as al-
khunthā (intersex) and al-mukhannath (effeminate men) are often used when discussing gender-

1
related issues. These concepts have existed since early Islamic times and were widely discussed
by Muslim jurists in relation to gender ambiguity and behavior. Classical Islamic jurisprudence
generally discourages imitation of the opposite sex and does not permit such behavior as a
normative social practice.7

Contemporary scholars have also contributed to the discussion. Yasir Qadhi, in his 2022 fatwa
titled “What is Islam’s Position on Transgenderism?, explains that Islam recognizes only two
genders: male and female. According to him, Islamic rulings are based on this understanding. He
further explains that experiencing feelings such as gender dysphoria or same-sex attraction is not
considered sinful in itself; however, acting upon such feelings or attempting to change one’s
biological sex is prohibited because it is viewed as altering Allah’s creation. He distinguishes
transgender issues from cases of intersex individuals, who may require medical assistance to
determine their biological sex. He also emphasizes that Muslims should treat such individuals
with kindness, privacy, and respect, while still adhering to Islamic teachings.8

On the other hand, Kugle (2010) argues that the Qur’an does not explicitly prohibit individuals
who experience same-sex attraction or gender diversity. According to him, strict interpretations
emerged later through scholarly interpretations and cultural influences rather than directly from
the Qur’anic text. He therefore encourages Muslims to interpret Islamic teachings in light of the
Qur’an’s broader ethical principles such as justice, compassion, and human dignity, especially
when addressing gender-related issues.9

In Badagry Local Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria, the term “transgender” is neither
widely known nor commonly used to describe individuals who display such behaviors. Instead,
people often use colloquial expressions such as “tomboy” or “boy-girl.” Several studies have
examined similar issues. For example, Sultan et al. (2023) examined “Transgender Rights and
Debate from an Islamic Legal Perspective.”10

Similarly, Khan (2020) in “Transgenderism and Islamic Theology: A Critical Review of

Contemporary Gender Theories in Light of the Qur’an and Sunnah” emphasized the importance
of protecting the principles of Islamic law, correcting misconceptions about Islam and gender,
adapting to modern social and legal changes, and promoting the Islamic value of compassion.11

2
Therefore, this research will examine the Islamic view on transgender behavior among Muslims
in Badagry Local Government Area by using the teachings of the Qur’an and Hadith as the main
guide. It will also look at how Muslims in the area understand this issue and how they respond to
it. In addition, the study will explain how Islamic teachings can help solve the moral and social
problems related to transgender behavior in the community.

1.2 Statement of the Problem:

Despite Islam's clear teachings on gender and moral conduct, many Muslims still struggle to
understand the Islamic position on transgender identity. This raises several important questions.

1. Why do many Muslims in Badagry still lack proper understanding or remain confused about
Islam's position on transgender identity?

2. Why do some Muslims adopt modern human-rights-based views, while others strongly reject
transgender individuals without adequate knowledge of Islamic law?

3. Does this confusion not highlight the urgent need for a proper study of how the Qur'an and
Hadith can guide Muslims in addressing these issues?

4. What role can Islamic scholars and community leaders play in correcting misunderstandings
and guiding Muslims on transgender issues?

5. How can Islamic education help reduce confusion, promote tolerance, and ensure proper
understanding of gender issues among Muslims in Badagry?

1.3 Objectives of the Study:

The main objective of this study is to examine the Islamic viewpoint on transgender issues using
the Qur'an and Hadith as guiding frameworks in Badagry Local Government Area.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Examine the Qur’anic teachings on gender and human dignity as they relate to transgender
issues in Islam.

3
2. Analyze relevant Hadiths and classical Islamic scholarly opinions on gender identity and
moral conduct.

3. Assess the level of understanding and perception of Muslims in Badagry Local Government
regarding Islam’s position on transgender matters.

4. Explore how the Qur’an and Hadith can serve as a panacea for addressing confusion,
intolerance, and ethical challenges surrounding transgender issues among Muslims in Badagry.

5. Examine how Islamic education and leaders can help Muslims in Badagry understand gender
issues correctly according to Islam.

1.4 Research Questions:

This study seeks to answer the following questions:

i. What are the Islamic perspectives on gender identity and gender behavior?

ii. In what ways do the Qur’an and Prophetic teachings provide moral and socialguidance on
issues of gender differentiation?

iii. What is gender disorder or gender dysphoria?

iv. How can the Qur’an and Hadith serve as a panacea for the moral and social challenges of
transgender issues in society?

1.5 Scope and Delimitation of the Study:

The geographical scope of this research is limited to Badagry Local Government Area, Lagos
State, Nigeria. The study adopts a qualitative research method, using literature review and
interviews to examine Islamic prescriptions and scriptural interpretations related to transgender
issues.

The study does not intend to cover transgender practices among non-Muslims in Badagry. It also
does not explore the medical or psychological aspects of transgenderism in detail. Instead, the
focus is on Islamic religious, ethical, and jurisprudential perspectives, as well as the societal
implications of transgender behavior within the Muslim community.

4
1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is important in several ways. First, it explains the Islamic position on transgender
issues by relying on the teachings of the Qur’an and Hadith rather than personal opinions or
Western ideologies. In doing so, the study provides clear and authentic guidance based on
Islamic sources.

The study also helps correct misunderstandings among Muslims in Badagry. Some individuals
may adopt modern human-rights ideas without sufficient knowledge of Islamic teachings, while
others may react negatively due to a lack of proper understanding. This research therefore helps
both groups by presenting the issue in a balanced and informed manner.

In addition, the study contributes to Islamic scholarship by providing insight into transgender-
related issues within a Nigerian Muslim community. Many discussions on gender originate from
Western contexts, but this research focuses specifically on the experiences of Muslims living in
Badagry.

The research will also be useful for Islamic teachers, Imams, and students who seek to
understand gender issues from an Islamic perspective. It can serve as an educational resource
that explains the topic using evidence from Islamic teachings.

Furthermore, the study promotes peaceful coexistence and social harmony within the community
by encouraging compassion, proper knowledge, and respectful engagement. It also assists
policymakers and religious leaders in developing culturally and religiously sensitive strategies
for addressing gender-related social challenges in Badagry.

The study further demonstrates that the Qur’an and Hadith provide guidance for addressing
contemporary social problems affecting Muslim communities. It is also particularly beneficial
for Muslim youths who are increasingly exposed to conflicting ideas about gender and identity
through the internet and global media.

Finally, this research can serve as a reference for future scholars interested in studying Islamic
perspectives on gender, human rights, and social ethics. It also contributes to improving moral
consciousness and religious awareness among Muslims in Badagry Local Government Area.

5
1.7 Research Methodology

This study adopted a qualitative research approach to examine the Islamic perspective on gender

and transgender-related issues. The research relied mainly on two methods of data collection:

library research and interviews. These methods provided both theoretical and practical

information relevant to the objectives of the study.

The library research method involved the collection and review of both primary and secondary

sources. Primary sources included the Qur'an, authentic Hadith collections, classical books of

Islamic jurisprudence from the four Sunni schools of thought, and works of Qur'anic exegesis

(tafsīr). Secondary sources consisted of books, journal articles, dissertations, conference papers,

and other scholarly publications on gender, transgenderism, Islamic law, and contemporary

gender studies. These materials were carefully reviewed to explain the Islamic concepts of

gender, khunthā, mukhannath, al-mutarajjilah, cross-dressing, and the legal rulings relating to

these issues.

In addition to the library research, the study employed interviews to obtain the views of

knowledgeable individuals on the subject. A semi-structured interview guide containing twenty

questions was prepared based on the research objectives and literature reviewed. The interview

was conducted with selected Islamic scholars and other respondents who possess adequate

knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence and contemporary gender issues. The responses obtained

from the participants complemented the information gathered from the library sources and

provided practical insights into the Islamic understanding of gender and transgender-related

matters.

6
The data collected from both the library materials and the interviews were analyzed using

descriptive and thematic analysis. Information obtained from the literature was compared with

the responses of the interview participants to identify areas of agreement, differences, and

emerging themes. The findings were then presented and discussed in relation to the research

objectives and questions.

The combination of library research and interview methods enabled the researcher to obtain

reliable and comprehensive information, thereby enhancing the credibility and validity of the

study's findings.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms:

Khunthā:

Khunthā (‫ )ُخنثى‬is an Arabic term in Islamic law used to describe a person who is born with
unclear or mixed sexual characteristics, meaning that the person’s biological sex cannot be easily
determined as male or female.12

In this study, khunthā refers to a person with biological ambiguity in their sex at birth.

Tomboy:

A tomboy refers to a female child or adolescent who displays behaviors, interests, or styles of
dressing culturally associated with males.13

In this research, the term is used as a colloquial expression in Badagry to describe individuals
perceived to exhibit transgender-like behaviors.

Transgender:

According to Winter et al. (2016), transgender refers to a phenomenon in which individuals

display gender-related behaviors that do not align with their biological sex.14

7
In this study, transgender refers to individuals who exhibit behaviors that do not conform to their
biological gender, including patterns of dressing, speech, mannerisms, and other gender-related
expressions.

Badagry Local Government Area:

Badagry Local Government Area is an administrative division in Lagos State, Nigeria. It covers
approximately 441 square kilometres and had a population of about 241,093 people according to
the 2006 census. The area is mainly inhabited by the Ogu (Egun) people, although other ethnic
groups such as the Yoruba also reside there due to trade and migration.14

In this research, Badagry is used as the case study area because of its significant Muslim
population and socio-religious diversity.

8
NOTES:

1. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. "trans-" and "gender."

2. Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-Bārī bi-Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah,
n.d.), 10:332–334.

3. M. Zafeeruddin, "Islamic Perspective on Gender and Sexual Identity," Journal of Islamic

Studies 15, no. 2 (2004): 112–125.

4. Andrew Calimach, Lovers' Legends: The Gay Greek Myths (New Rochelle, NY: Haiduk
Press, 2002).

5. Hassan, Yusoff, and Alavi, Islamic Ethics and Contemporary Social Issues (Kuala Lumpur:
Islamic Book Trust, 1985), 74–79.

6. Siti Musdah Mulia, Islam and the Rights of Women (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama,
2009), 96–101.

7. Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī (Riyadh: Dār ʿĀlam al-Kutub, 1997), 1:63–66; Al-Nawawī, Al-
Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab (Jeddah: Maktabat al-Irshād, 2005), 2:155–160.

8. Yasir Qadhi, What Is Islam's Position on Transgenderism? Public lecture/fatwa, 2022.

9. Scott Siraj al-Haqq Kugle, Homosexuality in Islam: Critical Reflection on Gay, Lesbian,
and Transgender Muslims (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2010), 42–65.

10. Sultan et al., "Transgender Rights and Debate from an Islamic Legal Perspective," Journal
of Islamic Thought and Civilization 13, no. 2 (2023): 85–103.

11. Muhammad Khan, "Transgenderism and Islamic Theology: A Critical Review of

Contemporary Gender Theories in Light of the Qur'an and Sunnah," International Journal of
Islamic Thought 18 (2020): 45–58.

12. Al-Nawawī, Al-Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab (Jeddah: Maktabat al-Irshād, 2005), 2:155–
160; Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī (Riyadh: Dār ʿĀlam al-Kutub, 1997), 9:104–108.

9
13. Judith Halberstam, Female Masculinity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 5–
12.

14. Sam Winter et al., "Transgender People: Health at the Margins of Society," The Lancet
388, no. 10042 (2016): 390–400.

15. National Population Commission (Nigeria), 2006 Population and Housing Census of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria: Population Distribution by Local Government Areas (Abuja:
National Population Commission, 2010).

10
  References

Al-Nawawī. Al-Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab. Jeddah: Maktabat al-Irshād, 2005.

Calimach, Andrew. Lovers' Legends: The Gay Greek Myths. New Rochelle, NY: Haiduk Press,
2002.

Halberstam, Judith. Female Masculinity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998.

Hassan, Yusoff, and Alavi. Islamic Ethics and Contemporary Social Issues. Kuala Lumpur:
Islamic Book Trust, 1985.

Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī. Fatḥ al-Bārī bi-Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī. Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, n.d.

Ibn Qudāmah. Al-Mughnī. Riyadh: Dār ʿĀlam al-Kutub, 1997.

Khan, Muhammad. "Transgenderism and Islamic Theology: A Critical Review of Contemporary

Gender Theories in Light of the Qur'an and Sunnah." International Journal of Islamic Thought
18 (2020): 45–58.

Kugle, Scott Siraj al-Haqq. Homosexuality in Islam: Critical Reflection on Gay, Lesbian, and
Transgender Muslims. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2010.

Mulia, Siti Musdah. Islam and the Rights of Women. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2009.

National Population Commission (Nigeria). 2006 Population and Housing Census of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria: Population Distribution by Local Government Areas. Abuja: National
Population Commission, 2010.

Oxford English Dictionary. "Gender." Accessed Feb 20, 2026.

Oxford English Dictionary. "Trans-." Accessed Feb 20, 2026.

Qadhi, Yasir. What Is Islam's Position on Transgenderism? Public lecture/fatwa, 2022.

Sultan, et al. "Transgender Rights and Debate from an Islamic Legal Perspective." Journal of
Islamic Thought and Civilization 13, no. 2 (2023): 85–103.

11
Winter, Sam, et al. "Transgender People: Health at the Margins of Society." The Lancet 388, no.
10042 (2016): 390–400.

Zafeeruddin, M. "Islamic Perspective on Gender and Sexual Identity." Journal of Islamic Studies
15, no. 2 (2004): 112–125.

12
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Concept of Gender

2.2 Western Scholars' Ideologies on the Concept of Gender

2.3 Islamic Viewpoint on the Concept of Gender

2.4 Concept of Transgender

2.4.1 Classification of Transgender Based on Biological Trait and Behavioural Expression

2.5 Al-Khunthā (Intersex Person)

2.6 Categories of Khunthā (Intersex)

2.7 Sharī'ah Rulings on Khunthā

2.7.1 Legal Rulings of Khunthā on Inheritance (Mirāth)

2.7.2 Legal Rulings of Khunthā on Marriage (Nikāḥ)

2.7.3 Legal Rulings of Khunthā on Prayer (Ṣalāh)

2.8 Mukhannath (Effeminate Male)

2.9 Contemporary Misconceptions Relating to Mukhannath and Transgender

2.10 Legal Rulings of Mukhannath in Islamic Law

2.11 Al-Mutarajjilah (Masculine Female)

13
2.0 Introduction

Gender identity and expression have become significant subjects of contemporary debate due to
evolving social, medical, and ideological perspectives. Within Islamic scholarship, however,
gender is primarily understood through the framework of divine revelation, natural disposition
(fiṭrah), and biological sex. Classical Muslim jurists developed detailed legal classifications to
address cases involving gender ambiguity and gender nonconforming behavior, including
khunthā (intersex persons), mukhannath (effeminate males), and mutarajjilah (masculine
females).

Despite the existence of these categories, contemporary discussions often confuse them with
modern transgender concepts, leading to misunderstandings of Islamic legal and theological
perspectives.

Islamic jurisprudence distinguishes between biological sex, behavioral expression, and gender
ambiguity, assigning specific legal rulings to each category.

This chapter examines the Islamic understanding of gender, explores the classical classifications
of gender-related categories, analyzes contemporary misconceptions surrounding them, and
evaluates their legal rulings within the four Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence. The chapter
aims to clarify the Islamic legal framework governing these issues and highlight the distinctions
maintained by classical Muslim scholars.

2.1 Conceptual Clarification of Gender

The Cambridge Dictionary (2023) defines gender as the social classification of individuals based
on qualities, behaviors, and identities that society associates with being male, female, or another
identity. The definition emphasizes the social and cultural dimensions of gender and
distinguishes it from biological sex .

Gender is the classification of human beings as male or female based on biological

characteristics such as chromosomes, reproductive organs, hormonal composition, and
physiological traits. This perspective views gender as fundamentally rooted in biological sex and
natural human development.

14
Sex or Gender refers to the biological and physiological attributes that differentiate males from
females

Within the binary classification of gender, there are two categories: male and female.

The male sex is characterized by the presence of the reproductive organ known as the penis,
while the female sex is identified by the reproductive organ called the vagina. Additionally, the
compositions of sex chromosomes—X and Y chromosomes—play a significant role in
determining an individual’s gender 4.

This definition present gender as a concept with two interconnected dimensions which are
biological dimension and social and cultural dimension.

2.1.1 Western Scholars Ideologies on the Concept of Gender

Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, whereas gender consists of the
socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations that societies assign to men and women.
She maintains that gender is learned through socialization rather than being an innate biological
characteristic.

Eckert and McConnell-Ginet (2013) view gender as a social construct produced through
interaction, language, and cultural practices rather than merely a biological attribute.

Gender is maintained by culture and society From childhood, individuals are socialized into
gender roles through family upbringing, education, religion, media, and peer interactions. These
socialization agents teach what is considered "appropriate" behavior for men and women, such as
fashion in clothing, emotional expression, career choices, and family responsibilities.

However, understanding the biological, social and cultural construct of gender is very pertinent
and useful to Islamic scholars as it distinguish between divinely ordained biological differences
and culturally influenced gender role. It assists Islamic researchers to examine whether certain
practices are rooted in religious teachings or are products of social customs and traditions.

15
2.1.2 Islamic Viewpoint on the Concept of Gender

Islamic gender theory is based on the belief that Allah created humanity in two distinct forms:
male and female. According to scholarly interpretations, gender constitutes both a biological
reality and a moral/social structure that defines societal roles, behavior, and identity.

Qur’an 53:45–46 gives a deep understanding of gender in Islam. It teaches that male and female
are both created by Allah from the same origin and for a clear purpose.

Allah says:

“And that He (Allah) creates the two pairs – the male and the female – from a drop of fluid
when it is released.” (53:45-46)9

Detailed Explanation of Key Terms

1. “‫( ”الزوجين‬The Two Pairs)

The word “zawjayn” means two pairs, referring to male and female and this refers to the two
human genders created for continuation of life.10

2. “‫( ”الذكر واالنثى‬Male and Female)

This part clearly identifies the two genders. Allah alone determines whether a person is male or
female11

3. “‫( ”من نطفة‬From a Drop of Fluid)

This refers to the early stage of human creation that reminds humans of their humble origin.

4. “‫( ”اذا تمنى‬When it is Emit)

This describes the process of reproduction that reflects Allah’s wisdom in creating life.

According to Ibn Kathir, This verse shows Allah’s complete control over creation. He states that
Allah decides the gender of every human being before birth, and this is part of divine decree. The
wisdom behind having two genders is to create balance and supports the survival of humanity.

16
Gender is a natural distinction created by Allah between males and females which is part of
natural order (fitrah) established by God12.

Replying to the claim of social constructionists that gender are social and cultural construct,
Yasir, (2022). Said contemporary gender construction theory separates gender from biological
sex and views gender identity as socially produced. In contrast, the Islamic perspective holds that
human beings are created as male and female by divine decree, and that biological sex serves as
the primary basis for gender identity. Cultural and social factors may influence behavior, but
they do not determine one's gender.13

According to Yasir (2022). The Qur’an contains numerous verses that consistently affirm the
existence of two sexes, making it difficult to reject the principle of a basic gender binary, as no
alternative classification is mentioned in the Qur’an text. Moreover, Islamic law clearly
distinguishes between males and females in many legal and social matters. These distinctions are
extensively documented in classical and contemporary works of Islamic jurisprudence,
beginning with discussions on ritual purification and continuing through to the laws of
inheritance. Consequently, a significant portion of Islamic Sharia is structured around gender
distinctions, with differing rulings for men and women appearing across nearly all areas of fiqh.

"O mankind! Indeed, we created you from a male and a female and made you peoples and tribes
that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most
righteous of you." (Qur'an 49:13)14

Sachedina (2011) argues that Islamic teachings recognize the biological distinction between male
and female as part of the divine order of creation. While Islam affirms the equal spiritual worth
of all human beings, it also acknowledges natural differences between the sexes that contribute
to the organization and stability of family and society.15

2.2 Concept of Transgender

The issue of transgender identity is relatively new in modern discourse but has raised important
questions within Islamic scholarship. The concept of transgender refers to a condition in which a
person’s gender identity differs from their biological sex.

17
According to Bahrul Afif, transgender individuals are those who identify themselves in a way
that does not correspond with the sex they were born with. This means that a person may be
biologically male but feel and identify as female, or vice versa. He explains that this condition is
often connected to a sense of dissatisfaction or incompatibility between the body and the inner
self, which may lead individuals to express themselves through their dressing, behavior, and
lifestyle.16

Transgender is an umbrella term used for the person who thinks himself/herself opposite
to his/her biological sex. In some cases, such person perceives himself neitherasmale nor
female (non-binary) andknown as „Gender Dysphoria‟in medical term.17

Contemporary Muslim scholars have addressed transgender identity and gender variance within
the framework of Islamic ethics and jurisprudence. Sachedina (2009) argues that while
individuals may experience psychological distress regarding their biological sex, Islamic ethics
approaches such experiences through the principles of human dignity and the preservation of
social order 18.

Gender dysphoria is a genuine human experience that deserves compassion and pastoral care.
Nevertheless, he maintains that Islam recognizes only the male and female sexes as normative
categories of human creation and does not regard subjective gender identity as capable of
altering biological reality.19

Habib Ur Rehman and his collaborators maintain that contemporary gender identity theories
should be evaluated in light of the Islamic concept of fiṭrah (natural disposition). They argue that
Islam recognizes human beings as created by Allah in male and female forms and that biological
sex serves as the normative basis for legal and social identity. While Islamic jurisprudence
provides accommodations for individuals with intersex conditions, the authors contend that
elective gender reassignment and the separation of gender identity from biological sex conflict
with the objectives of Sharīʿah and the principle of preserving human nature as created by
Allah.20

The differentiation between male and female is part of Allah's wisdom in creation and forms the
basis of social and family order. He emphasizes that Islam recognizes the equal dignity of men
and women while assigning each sex distinct natural characteristics and responsibilities

18
Consequently, attempts to erase or alter these distinctions are viewed as contrary to the divine
purpose underlying human creation. Hamka further contends that Muslims should uphold their
natural identity as bestowed by Allah and avoid practices that involve imitation of the opposite
sex (tashabbuh), which are prohibited in Islamic teachings.21

In Nigeria, scholarly discourse on transgender issues is still developing. Sidiq and Kannike
(2024) contend that contemporary gender identity theories raise significant theological and legal
questions for Muslim societies. They argue that Islamic teachings recognize male and female as
the normative categories of human creation and those issues such as transgenderism and sex
reassignment should be evaluated in light of the Qur'an, Hadith, and the principles of Islamic
jurisprudence. The authors further emphasize the need for Muslim scholars to provide informed
guidance on emerging gender-related challenges.22

2.3 Classification of Transgender Base on Biological Trait and Behavioral Expression

According to Habib Ur Rehman, Muhammad Zeeshan, and Hafiz Rashid Hussain (2024),
gender-related conditions in Islamic jurisprudence can be classified into biological categories
(khunthā) and behavioral categories (mukhannath, mutarajjilah, and cross-dressing), while
distinguishing them from modern transgender identities.23

2.3.1 AL- Khunthā (Intersex person)

The lexical meaning of khunthā is softness, tenderness, or ambiguity. In Islamic jurisprudence

(fiqh), khunthā refers to a person who possesses both male and female sexual characteristics or
whose sex cannot be clearly determined. According to al-Nawāwī, a khunthā is an individual
who possesses the genital organs of both a man and a woman, thereby creating uncertainty
regarding his or her legal sex status.24

Similarly, al-Jurjānī defines khunthā as a person who possesses both male a female genitalia and
one who naturally lacks the distinguishing genital organs of either sex.

‘Abd al-Mun‘im states that a khunthā may also possess an opening that does not resemble the
genital organ of either a male or a female, thereby increasing the ambiguity of sexual
classification.25

19
2.6 Categories of Khuntha (Intersex)

Classical Muslim jurists further classified khunthā into two categories: khunthā wāḍiḥ
(discernible intersex), whose dominant sex can be identified through physical signs, and khunthā
mushkil (problematic or ambiguous intersex), whose sex remains uncertain even after
examination. This classification was developed to address legal issues relating to inheritance,
prayer arrangements, marriage, and other matters of Islamic law. From a medical perspective,
khunthā, often referred to as hermaphroditism or intersex condition, describes individuals whose
biological characteristics do not fit the typical definitions of male or female bodies. Sachedina
explains that intersex persons possess congenital variations in chromosomes, hormones,
reproductive organs, or genital structures that make sex determination difficult. Consequently,
their physical characteristics may exhibit features traditionally associated with both sexes,
resulting in biological ambiguity. Unlike transgender identity, this relates primarily to gender
identity and self

Perception, khunthā is fundamentally a biological condition recognized by both medical science

and Islamic jurisprudence.26

To conclude, if the sign is sperm from the male genitalia, he is then classified as a male. If the
sign is menstruation blood coming out of the female genitalia, the khunthā is then classified as a
female. Additionally, if the khunthā says that he/she feels more inclined toward a man or a
woman, or they have reached any signs of puberty of a male or a female, then their claims should
be accepted. They will also follow the rulings according to the gender of their claims. They
should not refute their claims afterwards except if there is a clear sign refuting their former
statement; for example, if they claim to be a male but then give birth, their former argument is
denied.27

2.7 Sharia Rulings on Khunthā

Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) is grounded in clear legal distinctions, particularly in matters where
rulings depend on gender classification. Areas such as inheritance (mirāth), marriage (nikāḥ),
and ritual obligations (ʿibādāt) are explicitly gender-sensitive. The presence of khunthā (intersex
individuals), however, introduces legal ambiguity that requires juristic interpretation and
methodological precision.

20
2.7.1 Sharia Legal Rulings of Khuntha on Inheritance (Mirāth)

Inheritance in Islam is explicitly regulated by gender differentiation, as indicated in Qur’ān 4:11,

where male and female shares are clearly distinguished. This makes gender uncertainty a direct
legal challenge.

The Ḥanafī jurists adopt a strict precautionary principle. Al-Kāsānī (1191) states that a khunthā
mushkil is assigned the lesser of the male or female share because entitlement beyond certainty
is impermissible. Al-Sarakhsī (1090) reinforces that doubt (shakk) suspends full legal
entitlement, making caution obligatory. Al-Marghīnānī (1197) further clarifies that the remaining
share is withheld until gender becomes certain.28

This approach reflects a consistent Ḥanafī principle: legal rights cannot exceed established
certainty.

The Maliki school adopts a dual-assessment approach. Ibn Rushd (1198) explains that
inheritance is calculated twice—once as male and once as female—and the lesser share is given
to the khunthā.29

Al-Dardīr (1786) affirms that this method ensures fairness among heirs and prevents injustice.
Al-Qarāfī (1285) links this ruling to the principle of preventing harm (sadd al-dharā’iʿ),
emphasizing that legal ambiguity must not lead to unjust enrichment.30

The Shāfiʿī School is characterized by procedural strictness. Al-Nawawī (1277) states that
inheritance should ideally be suspended until gender certainty are achieved. If delay is
impossible, the minimum share is assigned while the remainder is held in trust. Al-Rāfiʿī (1226)
supports this position, emphasizing that legal entitlement cannot be established under
uncertainty.31

The Ḥanbalī approach combines caution with practical distribution. Ibn Qudāmah (1223) states
that the khunthā mushkil receives the lesser share while the remaining portion is suspended until
clarity emerge. Al-Buhūtī (1641) reinforces that this protects the rights of all heirs without
violating Qur’ānic allocation principles.32

21
2.7.2 Sharia Legal Rulings of Khuntha on Marriage (Nikāḥ)

Marriage in Islamic law requires certainty of gender identity, as it is fundamentally defined as a

lawful union between male and female.

To the Ḥanafī School Al-Marghīnānī (1197) states that marriage involving a khunthā mushkil is
invalid due to absence of certainty. Al-Sarakhsī (1090) further emphasizes that contractual
validity requires clarity, and ambiguity invalidates the legal foundation of marriage. 33

Ibn Rushd (1198) argues that ambiguity contradicts the essence of marriage, which depends on
clear male-female distinction. Al-Qarāfī (1285) adds that preventing moral and lineage
corruption justifies prohibition in such cases.34

Shāfiʿī School according to Al-Nawawī (1277) explicitly states that marriage is impermissible
for khunthā mushkil until certainty is achieved. The ruling is based on the principle that doubt
cannot establish lawful marital bonds.35

Ibn Qudāmah (1223) maintains that marriage must be suspended until gender is clarified. Ibn
Taymiyyah (1328) links this ruling to the preservation of lineage (ḥifẓ al-nasl), one of the highest
objectives of Sharīʿah.36

2.7.3 Sharia Legal Rulings of Khuntha on solat (prayer)

Gender differentiation also affects congregational prayer arrangement and spatial organization.
You can rewrite the paragraph in a more academic style as follows:

The Ḥanafī school adopts a precautionary approach regarding the participation of a khunthā
mushkil in congregational prayer. Al-Kāsānī states that an individual whose sex remains
uncertain should stand in a separate row positioned between the rows of men and women. This
arrangement is intended to eliminate ambiguity and preserve the decorum and orderly structure
of congregational worship.37

Al-Sarakhsī supports this intermediate placement, arguing that it serves as a precautionary

measure that safeguards the requirements of Islamic prayer while avoiding the possibility of
incorrectly classifying the individual among either men or women. Accordingly, the Ḥanafī

22
jurists regard this arrangement as the most appropriate means of balancing legal uncertainty with
the need to maintain proper order and modesty during congregational prayer.38

The Mālikī school emphasizes the importance of preserving modesty (ḥayāʾ) and preventing
situations that may lead to moral impropriety (fitnah) during congregational prayer. Al-Dardīr
maintains that a khunthā mushkil should be separated from both men and women in prayer
arrangements to avoid uncertainty regarding gender classification and to uphold the decorum
required in acts of worship.39 Al-Qarāfī further justifies this ruling through the legal principle of
preventing harm (sadd al-dharāʾiʿ), arguing that precautionary segregation is necessary whenever
ambiguity may result in social or legal complications. Consequently, the Mālikī jurists regard the
distinct placement of a khunthā mushkil as a means of safeguarding both individual dignity and
the orderly conduct of congregational worship.40 The Shāfiʿī school similarly adopts a cautious
approach toward the participation of a khunthā mushkil in congregational prayer. Al-Nawawī
states that an individual whose sex remains uncertain should stand in a position between the rows
of men and women.41

Al-Rāfiʿī concurs with this position, emphasizing that the structured placement of a khunthā
mushkil preserves order within the congregation and prevents confusion regarding the
individual's legal status.42

2.8 Mukhannath (Effeminate male)

Linguistically, the term mukhannath is derived from the Arabic root kh-n-th, which conveys the
meanings of softness, pliability, delicacy, or effeminacy. Classical Arabic lexicographers
employed the term to describe a male who exhibits characteristics commonly associated with
women in speech, movement, mannerisms, or general demeanor.

Al-Zabīdī defines mukhannath in Tāj al-ʿArūs as a man who resembles women in the softness of
his voice, speech patterns, bodily movements, and behavior. This linguistic definition focuses
primarily on outward conduct rather than biological characteristics or physical abnormalities. 43

From a juristic perspective, Muslim scholars distinguished mukhannath from khunthā (intersex
person). Whereas khunthā refers to an individual with ambiguous biological sex characteristics,
mukhannath refers to a biologically male person whose behavior, mannerisms, or appearance

23
resembles those typically associated with women. Al-Shirbīnī, a prominent Shāfiʿī jurist, defines
a mukhannath as a male whose speech, movements, gestures, and general conduct resemble
those of women.44

2.8.1 Classification of Mukhannath

[Link] Innate (Khilqī) Mukhannath

Classical Islamic scholars further distinguished between two categories of mukhannath. The first
category consists of individuals whose effeminate characteristics are natural and innate. Al-
Nawawī explains that if a person naturally possesses a soft voice, gentle mannerisms, or
feminine traits without deliberate imitation, such an individual is not considered sinful, provided
that he does not intentionally cultivate or exaggerate these characteristics.

[Link] Acquired (Takallufī) Mukhannath

The second category includes men who deliberately imitate women in dress, speech, appearance,
and behavior. This form of intentional imitation is generally regarded as blameworthy because it
falls under the prohibition of tashabbuh (imitating the opposite sex).45

The basis for this distinction is found in the Prophetic traditions. The Prophet Muhammad
condemned deliberate imitation between men and women, as narrated by Ibn ʿAbbās, who
reported that the Messenger of Allah cursed men who imitate women and women who imitate
men.46

Classical commentators such as Ibn Ḥajar al- explain that the prohibition applies primarily to
intentional imitation and not to natural characteristics beyond an individual's control. 47

2.9 Contemporary misconception relating to mukhannath and transgender

One of the most common misconceptions in contemporary discussions of gender is the tendency
to equate the classical Islamic concept of mukhannath with the modern concept of transgender
identity. Although both terms may involve elements of gender nonconformity, they originate
from fundamentally different conceptual, theological, and sociocultural frameworks. The failure
to distinguish between these concepts has led to significant misunderstandings in academic
discourse, public debates, and discussions within Muslim communities. The classical term

24
mukhannath refers to a biologically male individual who exhibits feminine characteristics in
speech, behavior, movement, or appearance. Classical Muslim scholars such as al-Nawawī and
Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī distinguished between a mukhannath whose feminine traits are innate and
one who deliberately imitates women. In the former case, the individual is not considered sinful
because the characteristics are beyond his control. In the latter case, Deliberate imitation of
women is regarded as blameworthy and prohibited under the Islamic prohibition of tashabbuh
(imitation of the opposite sex).48

In contrast, the contemporary concept of transgender generally refers to individuals whose

gender identity differs from the sex assigned to them at birth. Modern gender theories often
distinguish between biological sex and gender identity, arguing that an individual's internal sense
of self may not correspond to his or her physical body. Within this framework, transgender
identity is understood as a matter of personal identity and self-perception rather than merely
behavioral expression.49

A major misconception arises when modern readers assume that references to mukhannathūn in
Islamic history constitute evidence of Islamic recognition of contemporary transgender identities.
Historical accounts of mukhannathūn during the Prophetic and early Islamic periods describe
men who displayed feminine mannerisms, often serving in domestic environments because they
were perceived as lacking sexual interest in women. These accounts do not indicate that such
individuals claimed a female gender identity or sought legal recognition as women.50

Another misconception is the belief that Islamic jurisprudence completely ignores psychological
realities associated with gender dysphoria. Contemporary Muslim scholars such as Abdulaziz
Sachedina acknowledge that some individuals experience profound psychological distress
concerning their biological sex and require compassionate care and professional support.
However, they maintain that the existence of such distress does not automatically alter the legal
and biological categories recognized by Islamic law.51

A further misunderstanding concerns the assumption that all effeminate males are transgender.
Classical scholars repeatedly emphasized that feminine behavior does not necessarily indicate a
desire to change one's sex or gender identity. Many individuals may exhibit characteristics
traditionally associated with the opposite sex without rejecting their biological identity. Al-

25
Nawawī specifically notes that naturally effeminate men should not be condemned for
characteristics beyond their control, provided they do not intentionally imitate women. 52

Similarly, some contemporary activists and commentators interpret the Islamic recognition of
khunthā (intersex persons) as evidence that Islamic law endorses modern transgender theories.
However, classical jurists treated khunthā as a biological condition involving ambiguity in sexual
anatomy rather than a matter of subjective gender identity. The legal rulings concerning khunthā
were developed to address physical and medical uncertainty, not self-identification. 53

Contemporary Muslim scholars such as Habib Ur Rehman, Muhammad Zeeshan, and Hafiz
Rashid Hussain argue that confusion between khunthā, mukhannath, and transgender identity has
contributed to widespread misunderstanding of Islamic legal categories. They emphasize that
Islamic jurisprudence differentiates between biological ambiguity, behavioral effeminacy, and
claims of gender identity, assigning distinct legal rulings to each category.54

According to these scholars, maintaining these distinctions is essential for accurately

understanding the Islamic legal tradition.

2.10 Islamic Legal Rulings of Mukhannath

Across the four Sunni school there is strong consensus that legal rulings are based on biological
sex.

2.10.1 Inheritance

All schools agree that a mukhannath inherits as a male because inheritance is determined by
biological sex. Effeminate behavior does not reduce or change his legal share. Thus, he receives
the full male portion of inheritance.55

2.10.2 Marriage

All schools maintain that marriage rulings are based on biological identity. Since the
mukhannath is legally male, he is permitted to marry a woman. However, deliberate imitation of

women is considered sinful, though it does not affect the validity of marriage contracts. 56

26
2.10.3 Prayer (Ṣalāh)

In congregational prayer, the mukhannath prays with men because legal classification follows
biological sex. Some jurists recommend practical adjustments if his presence causes disturbance,
but his legal status remains unchanged .57

2.11 Al-Mutarajjilah (Masculine Female)

The term al-mutarajjilah refers to a woman who adopts characteristics, behaviors, appearance, or
mannerisms traditionally associated with men. Linguistically, the word is derived from the
Arabic root r-j-l (rajul), meaning "man." Classical Arabic lexicographers define mutarajjilah as a
woman who seeks to resemble men in her conduct, dress, speech, physical bearing, or social
behavior. Unlike khunthā, which involves biological ambiguity, mutarajjilah describes a
biologically female individual whose outward behavior reflects masculine traits. 58

Islamic jurisprudence, al-mutarajjilah is generally discussed under the broader concept of

tashabbuh bi al-rijāl (imitation of men by women). Classical jurists considered the preservation
of the natural distinctions between males and females as an important aspect of the Islamic social
order. Consequently, deliberate attempts by women to imitate men in matters specifically
characteristic of men were generally discouraged or prohibited. This position is based upon
several Prophetic traditions that condemn imitation between the sexes. Ibn ʿAbbās reported that
the Prophet Muḥammad cursed men who imitate women and women who imitate men, a
narration that became a foundational text in discussions concerning gender imitation. 59

Classical scholars, however, carefully distinguished between natural characteristics and

deliberate imitation. Al-Nawawī explains that if a woman naturally possesses a strong
personality, a deep voice, physical strength, or other characteristics commonly associated with
men, she is not blameworthy because such traits are beyond her control. The prohibition applies
primarily to intentional efforts to imitate men in dress, appearance, speech, or mannerisms. 60

Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī further notes that the legal and moral concern arises when imitation is
deliberate and intended to erase the distinctions that Islamic law recognizes between men and
women.61

27
 The legal status of a mutarajjilah remains unchanged despite her masculine appearance or
conduct. All major schools of Islamic jurisprudence maintain that biological sex, rather than
behavior, determines legal rights and obligations. Therefore, a mutarajjilah remains legally
female in matters of inheritance, marriage, prayer, guardianship, testimony, and other legal
rulings. Masculine behavior does not alter her juridical identity nor transform her legal
obligations under Islamic law. In matters of inheritance; a mutarajjilah receives the share
prescribed for women regardless of her outward behavior.62

Islamic inheritance laws are based upon biological sex and kinship relations rather than personal
appearance or mannerisms. Similarly, in marriage, she remains eligible to marry a man and
retains all legal rights and responsibilities accorded to women within the marital relationship.
Jurists unanimously agree that behavioral masculinity does not invalidate her legal status as a
woman.63

The issue of worship also illustrates the distinction between biological sex and behavioral
expression. In congregational prayer, a mutarajjilah prays in the women's rows because legal
classification follows biological identity.64

Contemporary discussions often confuse al-mutarajjilah with modern concepts of transgender

identity. The concept of mutarajjilah concerns behavioral resemblance to men while maintaining
a female biological identity. In contrast, contemporary transgender discourse frequently involves
questions of gender identity and self-perception that extend beyond outward behavior. Modern
Muslim scholars therefore caution against equating classical juristic categories with
contemporary gender theories without careful analysis of their differing assumptions and legal
implications.65

Conclusion

This chapter has examined the Islamic conception of gender and the principal juristic
classifications associated with gender ambiguity and gender nonconforming behavior. The
discussion demonstrates that Islamic jurisprudence approaches questions of gender through a
framework rooted in biological sex, divine creation, and the preservation of social and legal

28
order. Classical Muslim jurists developed nuanced legal categories to address exceptional cases
while maintaining the fundamental distinction between male and female established in the Qur'an
and Sunnah.

The analysis of khunthā reveals that Islamic law recognizes the existence of biological ambiguity
and provides detailed legal mechanisms for determining rights and responsibilities in matters
such as inheritance, marriage, and worship. Jurists across the four Sunni schools sought to
resolve uncertainty through observable biological indicators while safeguarding justice and
preventing harm. Similarly, the discussion of mukhannath and mutarajjilah demonstrates that
Islamic jurisprudence distinguishes between biological identity and behavioral expression.
Although deliberate imitation of the opposite sex is generally discouraged or prohibited, such
behavior does not alter an individual's legal status, which remains determined by biological sex.

The chapter also highlights the importance of distinguishing classical Islamic categories from
contemporary transgender concepts. While modern gender theories frequently emphasize
subjective gender identity, Islamic jurisprudence differentiates between biological ambiguity,
behavioral characteristics, and legal identity, assigning specific rulings to each category.
Contemporary misunderstandings often arise when these distinctions are overlooked or when
classical categories are interpreted through modern conceptual frameworks.

Overall, the study demonstrates that Islamic law possesses a coherent and comprehensive
approach to issues relating to gender diversity and ambiguity. By grounding legal rulings in
biological reality while simultaneously acknowledging exceptional circumstances, Islamic
jurisprudence seeks to preserve human dignity, protect lineage, ensure justice, and maintain the
objectives of the Sharīʿah. A proper understanding of these classical categories remains essential
for informed contemporary discussions concerning gender, identity, and Islamic legal thought.

29
NOTE

1. Cambridge Dictionary, s.v. “gender,” accessed may 20, 2026.

2. Leonard Sax, Why Gender Matters: What Parents and Teachers Need to Know about the
Emerging Science of Sex Differences (New York: Doubleday, 2005), 12.
3. 3 Mohd Anuar Ramli, “Analisis Gender Dalam Hukum Islam” (Gender Analysis in
Islamic Jurisprudence), Jurnal Fiqh 9 (2012): 137–162.
4. Thompson et al., “Chromosomal Determinants of Sex” (2022).
5. Ann Oakley, Sex, Gender and Society (London: Temple Smith, 1972), 16–18
6. Alsagoff et al., “Gender Fluidity in Contemporary Discourse” (2021),
7. Ann Oakley, Sex, Gender and Society (London: Temple Smith, 1972), 16–18.
8. Muh. Bahrul Afif, “Transgender in Islamic Perspective” (2019).
9. Qur'an 53:45–46 (trans. Muhammad Muhsin Khan and Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-
Hilali).
10. Muḥammad Ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī, Jāmiʿ al-Bayān (1999).
11. Muḥammad ibn Aḥma/d al-Qurṭubī, Al-Jāmiʿ li Aḥkām al-Qurʾān (2006).
12. Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī, Tafsīr al-Kabīr (2000).
13. Yasir Qadhi, "Fatwa Regarding Transgenderism," approved by the Fiqh Council of North
America, June 2022.
14. Qur'an 49:13 (trans. Abdullah Yusuf Ali).
15. Abdulaziz Sachedina, Islamic Biomedical Ethics: Principles and Application (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2009), 85–87.
16. Muh. Bahrul Afif, “Islam and Transgender (A Study of Hadith about Transgender),”
International Journal of Nusantara Islam 7, no. 2 (2019): 185–198.
17. Haq, “Intersex and Transgender from Medical Point of View”326-328.
18. Abdulaziz Sachedina, Islamic Biomedical Ethics: Principles and Application (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2009), 175–180.
19. Yasir Qadhi, “Fatwa Regarding Transgenderism,” Fiqh Council of North America, June
2022.
20. Habib Ur Rehman, Muhammad Zeeshan, and Hafiz Rashid Hussain, “Islamic
Jurisprudence on Gender Reassignment: A Critical Review of Classical and Modern
Views,” Scholar Insight Journal 2, no. 2 (2024): 1–15

30
21. Bintang Maulana and Anita Puji Astutik, “Transgender in Islamic Education: A
Comparative Analysis of Buya Hamka and Amina Wadud's Thoughts,” Al-Ulum: Jurnal
Pendidikan Islam 6, no. 1 (2025), 60–65.
22. Uthman Okanlawon Sidiq and Uthman Mohammed Mustapha Kannike, “The Debate on
Islām and Transgenderism: An Analytical Discourse on the Silence of Scholars in
Nigeria,” Journal of Religions and Peace Studies 6, no. 2 (2024): 28–45.
23. Habib Ur Rehman, Muhammad Zeeshan, and Hafiz Rashid Hussain, “Islamic
Jurisprudence on Gender Reassignment: A Critical Review of Classical and Modern
Views,” Scholar Insight Journal 2, no. 2 (2024): 4–9.
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n.d.), 2:160
25. ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Jurjānī, Kitāb al-Taʿrīfāt (Cairo: Dār al-Rayyān li al-Turāth,
1985), 102.
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al-Miṣrī, n.d.), 2:451.
27. Abdulaziz Sachedina, Islamic Biomedical Ethics: Principles and Application (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2009), 175–177.
28. Alāʾ al-Dīn Abū Bakr al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, vol. 7 (Beirut:
Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1986), 326–336.
29. Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Sarakhsī, Al-Mabsūṭ, vol. 30 (Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, 1993),
75–85.
30. Burhān al-Dīn Abū al-Ḥasan al-Marghīnānī, Al-Hidāyah Sharḥ Bidāyat al-Mubtadī, vol.
4 (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, n.d.), 498–502.
31. Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Ibn Rushd, Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid, vol. 2
(Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1995), 349–352.
32. Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī, 9:80–82; al-Buhūtī, Kashshāf al-Qināʿ, 4:460.
33. Muwaffaq al-Dīn Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī, vol. 9 (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah,
1994), 78–85; Manṣūr ibn Yūnus al-Buhūtī, Kashshāf al-Qināʿ ʿan Matn al-Iqnāʿ, vol. 4
(Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1997), 458–462.

31
34. Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Ibn Rushd, Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid, vol. 2
(Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1995), 43–45; Shihāb al-Dīn al-Qarāfī, Al-
Dhakhīrah, vol. 4 (Beirut: Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, 1994), 389–392.
35. Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf al-Nawāwī, Al-Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab, vol. 16 (Beirut: Dār al-
Fikr, n.d.), 225–240; ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Rāfiʿī, Al-ʿAzīz Sharḥ al-Wajīz, vol. 11 (Beirut:
Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1997), 95–102.
36. Taqī al-Dīn Aḥmad Ibn Taymiyyah, Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā, vol. 32 (Medina: Mujammaʿ al-
Malik Fahd li-Ṭibāʿat al-Muṣḥaf al-Sharīf, 1995), 112–118.
37. ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Abū Bakr al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, vol. 1 (Beirut:
Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1986), 157–159.
38. Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Sarakhsī, Al-Mabsūṭ, vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, 1993),
156–158.
39. Aḥmad al-Dardīr, Al-Sharḥ al-Kabīr, vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, n.d.), 312–314.
40. Shihāb al-Dīn al-Qarāfī, Al-Dhakhīrah, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, 1994),
487–490.
41. Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf al-Nawāwī, Al-Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab, vol. 4 (Beirut: Dār al-
Fikr, n.d.), 192–195.
42. Abd al-Karīm al-Rāfiʿī, Al-ʿAzīz Sharḥ al-Wajīz, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-
ʿIlmiyyah, 1997), 278–281.
43. Muḥammad Murtaḍā al-Zabīdī, Tāj al-ʿArūs min Jawāhir al-Qāmūs (Kuwait: Wizārat al-
Irshād wa al-Anbāʾ, n.d.), s.v. "khanatha."
44. Muḥammad al-Khaṭīb al-Shirbīnī, Mughnī al-Muḥtāj ilā Maʿrifat Maʿānī Alfāẓ al-
Minhāj, vol. 4 (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1994), 376.
45. Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 14 (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth
al-ʿArabī, 1972), 162.
46. Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitāb al-Libās, Bāb al-Mutashabbihīn bi al-Nisāʾ wa al-Mutashabbihāt
bi al-Rijāl, no. 5885.
47. Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-Bārī bi Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 10
(Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, 1959), 332–333.

32
48. Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 14 (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth
al-ʿArabī, 1972), 162–163; Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-Bārī, vol. 10
(Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, 1959), 332–333.
49. Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet, Language and Gender, 2nd ed.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 30–35.
50. Kitāb al-Maghāzī, no. 5235; Sahih Muslim, Kitāb al-Salām, no. 2181.
51. Abdulaziz Sachedina, Islamic Biomedical Ethics: Principles and Application (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 175–180.
52. Al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 14:162.
53. Muwaffaq al-Dīn Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī, vol. 9 (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah,
1994), 78–85.
54. Habib Ur Rehman, Muhammad Zeeshan, and Hafiz Rashid Hussain, “Islamic
Jurisprudence on Gender Reassignment: A Critical Review of Classical and Modern
Views,” Scholar Insight Journal 2, no. 2 (2024): 1–15.
55. ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Abū Bakr al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ, vol. 7 (Beirut:
Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1986), 326–336;
56. Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Ibn Rushd, Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid, vol. 2
(Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1995), 43–45.
57. Muwaffaq al-Dīn Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah,
1994), 18–21.
58. Muḥammad Murtaḍā al-Zabīdī, Tāj al-ʿArūs min Jawāhir al-Qāmūs (Kuwait: Wizārat
al-Irshād wa al-Anbāʾ, n.d.), s.v. "rajula."
59. Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitāb al-Libās, no. 5885.
60. Ibn Sharaf al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 14 (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-
ʿArabī, 1972), 162–163.
61. Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-Bārī bi Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 10
(Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, 1959), 332–333.
62. Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Ibn Rushd, Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid, vol. 2
(Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1995), 43–45.
63. Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī, Al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuhu, vol. 10 (Damascus: Dār al-Fikr,
2007), 7498–7505.

33
64. Muwaffaq al-Dīn Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah,
1994), 18–21.
65. Habib Ur Rehman, Muhammad Zeeshan, and Hafiz Rashid Hussain, “Islamic
Jurisprudence on Gender Reassignment: A Critical Review of Classical and Modern
Views,” Scholar Insight Journal 2, no. 2 (2024): 1–15.

34
REFRENCES

Al-Buhūtī, Manṣūr ibn Yūnus. Kashshāf al-Qināʿ ʿan Matn al-Iqnāʿ. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-
ʿIlmiyyah, 1997.

Al-Kāsānī, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Abū Bakr. Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub
al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1986.

Al-Marghīnānī, Burhān al-Dīn. Al-Hidāyah Sharḥ Bidāyat al-Mubtadī. Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-
Turāth al-ʿArabī, n.d.

Al-Nawawī, Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf. Al-Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, n.d.

Al-Nawawī, Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf. Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim. Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1972.

Al-Qarāfī, Shihāb al-Dīn. Al-Dhakhīrah. Beirut: Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, 1994.

Al-Rāfiʿī, ʿAbd al-Karīm. Al-ʿAzīz Sharḥ al-Wajīz. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1997.

Al-Sarakhsī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad. Al-Mabsūṭ. Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, 1993.

Al-Zabīdī, Muḥammad Murtaḍā. Tāj al-ʿArūs min Jawāhir al-Qāmūs. Kuwait: Wizārat al-Irshād
wa al-Anbāʾ, n.d.

Eckert, Penelope, and Sally McConnell-Ginet. Language and Gender. 2nd ed. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī. Fatḥ al-Bārī bi Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī. Beirut: Dār al-
Maʿrifah, 1959.

Ibn Qudāmah, Muwaffaq al-Dīn. Al-Mughnī. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1994.

Ibn Rushd, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad. Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid. Beirut: Dār
al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1995.

Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqī al-Dīn. Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā. Medina: Mujammaʿ al-Malik Fahd, 1995.

35
Rehman, Habib Ur, Muhammad Zeeshan, and Hafiz Rashid Hussain. “Islamic Jurisprudence on
Gender Reassignment: A Critical Review of Classical and Modern Views.” Scholar Insight
Journal 2, no. 2 (2024): 1–15.

Sachedina, Abdulaziz. Islamic Biomedical Ethics: Principles and Application. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2009.

Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī. Al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuhu. Damascus: Dār al-Fikr, 2007.

The Qur'an.

Sahih al-Bukhari.

Sahih Muslim.

36
 CHAPTER THREE

TOPICS:

Cross-Dressing in Islamic Perspective

Quranic Basis

Prophetic Traditions on Cross-Dressing

Opinions of the Four Sunni Schools

Meaning and Purpose of Clothing in Islam

Gender Distinction in Clothing

Role of Culture in Clothing

Islamic Ruling on Men Wearing Earrings

Qur'ānic and Hadith Panacea to Transgender Issues

3.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the Islamic perspective on transgender-related issues by examining

relevant teachings from the Qur'an, Hadith, and the opinions of classical Muslim scholars. It
begins by explaining the concept of cross-dressing and its position in Islamic law, highlighting
the importance of preserving the natural distinction between males and females. The chapter also
examines the Islamic purpose of clothing, gender distinction in dressing, and the influence of
culture on clothing within the limits of Sharīʿah. Furthermore, it discusses the Islamic ruling on
men wearing earrings and the reasons behind the prohibition according to the majority of Muslim
jurists. Finally, the chapter presents Qur'anic verses and Prophetic traditions that provide
guidance for addressing transgender-related issues, emphasizing the preservation of the natural
disposition (fitrah), modesty, patience, reliance on Allah, seeking beneficial knowledge, and
treating every individual with compassion and dignity.

37
3.1 Cross-Dressing in Islamic Perspectives

Cross-dressing refers to the practice whereby a person intentionally wears clothing, adornments,
or adopts the appearance and mannerisms traditionally associated with the opposite sex. In
modern societies, cross-dressing may occur for various reasons, including entertainment, fashion,
personal expression, psychological inclination, theatrical performance, or gender identity
concerns. Within Islamic jurisprudence, however, cross-dressing is not merely viewed as a
matter of clothing but as an issue connected to the preservation of gender distinction, moral
order, human dignity, and the objectives of Sharīʿah.

Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī defines prohibited imitation as deliberately assuming the appearance,
clothing, speech, movement, or conduct that distinguishes one sex from the other.1

Similarly, al-Nawawī explains that the prohibition concerns intentional resemblance rather than
natural traits that occur without choice.2

3.2 Qur'ānic Basis:

Although the Qur'an does not explicitly mention cross-dressing, Muslim jurists derive its
prohibition from verses affirming the distinct creation of males and females.

Allah says:

"And that He creates the two mates, the male and the female." (Qur'an 53:45–46)

The verse emphasizes the divine establishment of two distinct sexes as part of Allah's creation.
Classical exegetes such as Ibn Kathir explain that this distinction forms part of the natural order
intended by Allah.

Allah also states:

"And the male is not like the female." (Qur'an 3:36)

According to classical commentators, this verse affirms that men and women possess distinct
characteristics and roles, even though both enjoy equal human dignity before Allah.3

Furthermore, Allah condemns attempts to alter His creation:

38
"And I will command them so they will alter the creation of Allah." (Qur'an 4:119)

Many jurists have cited this verse when discussing deliberate alterations intended to negate or
obscure natural sexual distinctions.4

3.3 Prophetic Traditions on Cross-Dressing

The strongest evidence concerning cross-dressing comes from the Sunnah.

Ibn ʿAbbās narrated:

"The Messenger of Allah cursed men who imitate women and women who imitate men."5

The use of the term "cursed" (laʿana) indicates that the act constitutes a major sin according to
many scholars because such language is generally reserved for grave violations of Islamic
teachings.

Another narration states:

"The Prophet cursed the men who resemble women and the women who resemble men."6

These traditions establish the foundational principle that deliberate imitation of the opposite sex
is prohibited.

3.4 Opinions of the Four Sunni Schools

3.4.1 Ḥanafī School

The Ḥanafī jurists prohibit cross-dressing because it undermines the distinction between men and
women recognized by Islamic law. Al-Kāsānī argues that clothing serves as a social indicator of
legal identity and that deliberate imitation of the opposite sex violates the principle of preserving
natural distinctions.7

Al-Sarakhsī further notes that habitual imitation may contribute to moral corruption and
confusion regarding social roles and legal obligations.8

39
3.4.2 Mālikī School

The Mālikī school adopts a similarly strict position. Al-Qarāfī connects the prohibition to the
principle of sadd al-dharāʾiʿ (blocking the means to harm). According to him, cross-dressing may
lead to moral confusion, unlawful interactions, and disruption of established social norms.9

Mālikī jurists therefore prohibit any deliberate adoption of clothing or appearance exclusively
associated with the opposite sex.

3.4.3 Shāfiʿī School

Shāfiʿī scholars emphasize the explicit wording of the Prophetic traditions. Al-Nawawī explains
that the prohibition includes clothing, hairstyles, speech patterns, body language, and any
behavior uniquely associated with the opposite sex.10

However, he distinguishes between deliberate imitation and natural characteristics. A person is

not sinful for possessing innate traits that resemble those of the opposite sex if such traits are not
intentionally cultivated.

3.4.4 Ḥanbalī School

The Ḥanbalī school likewise regards cross-dressing as prohibited. Ibn Qudāmah states that
intentionally wearing the attire of the opposite sex constitutes unlawful

imitation because it conflicts with the natural disposition (fiṭrah) upon which Allah created
humanity.¹¹

Later Ḥanbalī jurists such as Ibn Taymiyyah argued that maintaining distinctions between men
and women is necessary for preserving lineage, family structure, and public morality.¹²

3.5 Meaning and Purpose of Clothing in Islam

Clothing in Islam has both physical and spiritual purposes. Physically, it covers the body and
protects it, while spiritually; it promotes modesty (ḥayāʾ) and dignity. Islam encourages Muslims
to dress in a way that reflects good character and avoids in

40
Islamic teachings on clothing are founded upon the principles of modesty (ḥayāʾ), decency,
dignity, and moral responsibility. The Qur'an presents clothing as both a physical covering and a
means of preserving human honor, stating that the "garment of righteousness" is the best form of
adornment (Qur'an 7:26). Classical and contemporary Muslim scholars maintain that dress serves
not only to conceal the body but also to protect individuals and society from moral corruption
and indecency. According to Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī, Islamic regulations concerning dress are
intended to preserve modesty, distinguish between the sexes, and prevent behaviors that may
lead to social or moral disorder.13

Similarly, al-Qaraḍāwī argues that Islamic attire reflects the values of humility, chastity, and
obedience to divine guidance rather than vanity, extravagance, or imitation of the opposite sex. 14

Consequently, Islamic law discourages forms of dress that attract unnecessary attention, promote
immorality, or blur the natural distinctions between men and women established by Allah. In the
contemporary era, where fashion trends often encourage self-display and gender fluidity, Islamic
teachings continue to emphasize clothing as a manifestation of faith, moral discipline, and
respect for the divinely ordained nature of human beings.15

3.5.1 Gender Distinction on Clothing

One of the important aspects of Islamic law on clothing is the prohibition of imitation.
Tashabbuh refers to copying others in a way that goes against Islamic teachings. This includes
men dressing like women and women dressing like men.

Al-Asadi explains that imitation (tashabbuh) becomes religiously prohibited when it involves a
deliberate attempt to resemble the opposite sex in matters that are distinctive to them,
particularly clothing, appearance, adornment, speech, and mannerisms. According to him,
Islamic law seeks to preserve the natural distinctions between men and women established by
Allah, and any intentional effort to blur these distinctions is considered contrary to the objectives
of Sharīʿah.16

Akay states that the concept of tashabbuh (imitation) in Islamic law serves as an important
mechanism for preserving Islamic identity, protecting moral values, and maintaining social
order. According to him, the prohibition of imitation of the opposite sex is not merely concerned

41
with outward appearance but is also connected to the broader objective of safeguarding the
distinct characteristics and responsibilities assigned to men and women within Islamic society.
He argues that when gender distinctions become blurred, confusion may arise regarding social
roles, legal obligations, and family structures, thereby undermining the harmony and stability
that Islamic teachings seek to preserve.17

3.5.2 Role of Culture in Clothing

Islam does not prescribe a single universal style of clothing for all Muslims. Rather, it establishes
general guidelines concerning modesty, decency, and dignity while allowing flexibility in
cultural expression. This flexibility enables Muslims from different societies to maintain their
cultural identities without violating Islamic teachings. Consequently, traditional garments such as
the jalabiyyah in Arab countries, the babanriga in West Africa, and the shalwar kameez in South
Asia.18

Classical jurists recognized the importance of custom in legal rulings. The legal maxim al-ʿādah
muḥakkamah ("custom is authoritative") demonstrates the significance of cultural practices in
Islamic jurisprudence. According to this principle, customs may be considered in legal
judgments when they do not conflict with explicit texts of the Qur'an and Sunnah. Thus, clothing
that is regarded as appropriate and respectable in one society may differ from that of another
society without affecting its permissibility under Islamic law.19

However, the role of culture in clothing is not absolute. Islamic law places certain limitations on
cultural practices to ensure that they remain consistent with religious values. Clothing must
adequately cover the body, preserve modesty, avoid extravagance, and maintain clear
distinctions between men and women. Therefore, cultural traditions that promote indecency,
nudity, arrogance, or imitation of the opposite sex cannot be justified solely on the basis of
custom.20

Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī notes that cultural diversity in dress is permissible so long as it does not
violate the fundamental objectives of Sharīʿah, particularly the preservation of modesty and
moral integrity.21

42
3.6 Islamic Viewpoint on Men Wearing Earrings

Islam provides comprehensive guidance regarding personal appearance and adornment. While
both men and women are encouraged to maintain cleanliness and present themselves honorably,
Islamic teachings establish specific regulations concerning dress, jewelry, and bodily adornment.
One issue that has generated considerable discussion among Muslim scholars is the
permissibility of men wearing earrings. Although the practice has become increasingly popular
in some contemporary societies, the overwhelming majority of Muslim jurists consider it
impermissible because it conflicts with Islamic principles concerning gender distinction and
imitation of the opposite sex.

One of the fundamental objectives of Islamic law is the preservation of the natural distinctions
between men and women. Islam acknowledges that males and females are equal in their spiritual
worth before Allah, yet it recognizes differences in certain aspects of appearance, dress, and
social responsibilities. Consequently, Islam discourages any deliberate attempt by either gender
to imitate the characteristics that are uniquely associated with the other.

The Prophet Muhammad strongly emphasized this principle. Abdullah ibn Abbas (RA) reported
that "the Messenger of Allah cursed men who imitate women and women who imitate men."22

According to Yusuf al-Qaradawi, the prohibition of imitation seeks to preserve the natural
disposition (fitrah) created by Allah and prevent the erosion of gender distinctions within society.
He explains that Islam encourages both men and women to maintain identities that reflect their
respective roles and characteristics.23

3.6.1 Earrings as a Form of Female Adornment

Historically, earrings have been regarded as a form of feminine jewelry in Muslim societies.
Classical jurists generally permitted women to wear earrings because they fall within the
category of lawful adornment specifically intended for females. However, scholars distinguished
this ruling from the case of men.

Wahbah al-Zuhayli explains that Islamic law differentiates between forms of adornment that are
customary for women and those appropriate for men.24

43
Since earrings have traditionally been associated with female beautification, their use by men is
generally considered impermissible. This distinction is not based on denying men the right to
maintain a good appearance but rather on preserving the boundaries established by Islamic
teachings.

Furthermore, scholars note that Islam permits certain forms of jewelry for men, such as silver
rings, while prohibiting others. This demonstrates that the prohibition of earrings is not a
rejection of adornment altogether but a regulation of the types of adornment appropriate for each
gender.

The issue of men wearing earrings is closely connected to the legal concept of tashabbuh
(imitation). In Islamic jurisprudence, tashabbuh refers to adopting characteristics that are
distinctive to another group in a manner that compromises Islamic values.

Al-Qaradawi argues that imitation becomes prohibited when it involves adopting features that
are uniquely associated with women. Since earrings have long been viewed as a feminine
ornament, their adoption by men constitutes an impermissible form of resemblance. The
objective of this ruling is not merely to regulate appearance but to safeguard social and moral
order.25

3.7 Quran and Hadith Panacea to The Issue of Transgenderism in Islam

The Qur'an and the Sunnah serve as the primary sources of guidance for Muslims in matters
relating to identity, behavior, and human relationship. Contemporary discussions on
transgenderism have generated significant scholarly debate, particularly concerning the Islamic
understanding of gender, human nature, and personal identity. While Islam recognizes that some
individuals may experience psychological and emotional struggles relating to their gender
identity, it emphasizes adherence to divine guidance, preservation of human dignity and
maintenance of the natural disposition (fitrah) upon which Allah created humanity.

3.7.1 Recognition of Divine Creation

One of the fundamental Islamic approaches to addressing transgender-related issues is the

recognition that Allah created human beings according to His wisdom and perfect design.

44
The Qur'an states: "O mankind! Indeed, We created you from a male and a female and made you
peoples and tribes that you may know one another."26

This verse establishes the binary nature of human creation and affirms that male and female
identities are part of Allah's divine plan. Muslim scholars argue that acknowledging this reality
helps believers appreciate their God-given identity and discourages attempts to reject or redefine
the natural order established by Allah.27

Similarly, Allah says:

"Indeed, We created man in the best form."28

This verse reminds believers that human beings are created in a perfect manner according to
divine wisdom. Therefore, Muslims are encouraged to be content with the form in which Allah
created them and to avoid dissatisfaction with His decree.29

3.7.2 Preservation of the Fitrah (Natural Disposition)

Islam emphasizes the importance of preserving the fitrah, the natural disposition upon which
human beings were created. Allah says:

"So direct your face toward the religion, inclining to truth. Adhere to the fitrah of Allah upon
which He has created mankind."30

According to Muslim scholars, this verse encourages believers to remain faithful to their natural
identity and to resist influences that may lead them away from the innate nature established by
Allah. The concept of fitrah serves as an important framework for understanding Islamic
teachings regarding gender identity and human nature.31

3.7.3 Prohibition of Altering Allah's Creation

Another important Qur'anic principle is the prohibition of altering Allah's creation without
legitimate necessity. Satan declares in the Qur'an:

"And I will command them so they will alter the creation of Allah."32

45
Classical and contemporary exegetes have interpreted this verse as a warning against
unnecessary alterations that contradict divine intent. Many scholars cite this verse when
discussing gender reassignment procedures and other modifications undertaken for reasons that
conflict with Islamic teachings regarding gender identity.33

3.7.4 Prohibition of Imitation Between Men and Women

The Sunnah strongly discourages imitation between males and females. Abdullah ibn Abbas
(RA) reported:

"The Messenger of Allah cursed men who imitate women and women who imitate men."34

This hadith is one of the most frequently cited texts concerning gender distinction in Islam.
Scholars explain that the prohibition aims to preserve the unique characteristics of each gender
and prevent confusion regarding gender roles and identities within society.35

3.7.5 Modesty and Moral Discipline

Islam prescribes modesty as a means of preserving moral integrity and protecting individuals
from harmful influences. Allah commands:

"Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and guard their private parts; that is purer for them." 36

Likewise, believing women are instructed to observe modesty and chastity. These teachings
emphasize self-control and moral discipline as essential components of Islamic life.

Scholars argue that adherence to modesty helps believers maintain a clear sense of identity and
purpose.37

3.7.6 Patience During Personal Trials

Islam recognizes that believers may face various forms of hardship and internal struggles. Allah
says:

"And We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and lives
and fruits, but give good tidings to the patient."38

46
Individuals experiencing confusion or distress regarding their gender identity are encouraged to
exercise patience and seek strength through faith. The Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes that
perseverance in times of difficulty leads to spiritual growth and divine reward.39

3.7.7 Seeking Help through Prayer

Prayer occupies a central role in Islamic spirituality and serves as a means of seeking divine
assistance. Allah instructs believers:

"And seek help through patience and prayer."40

Muslim scholars encourage individuals facing emotional or psychological challenges to maintain

a strong relationship with Allah through regular prayer, supplication, and remembrance. These
acts of worship provide comfort, guidance, and spiritual stability.41

3.7.8 Reliance Upon Allah

The Qur'an reassures believers that Allah does not impose burdens beyond their ability to bear.
Allah says:

"Allah does not burden a soul beyond what it can bear."42

This verse provides hope and encouragement for individuals facing difficult personal struggles.
It reminds believers that every challenge has been decreed according to divine wisdom and that
Allah provides the strength necessary to endure it.43

3.7.9 Seeking Beneficial Knowledge

Islam encourages Muslims to seek authentic knowledge in order to address life's challenges
effectively. The Prophet said:

"Whoever follows a path in pursuit of knowledge, Allah will make easy for him a path to
Paradise."44

Seeking knowledge from qualified scholars enables Muslims to understand Islamic teachings
regarding gender identity and related issues while avoiding misinformation and confusion.45

47
3.7.10 Compassion and Human Dignity

Islam emphasizes treating all people with dignity and compassion regardless of their personal
struggles. Allah says:

"And We have certainly honored the children of Adam."

This verse establishes the inherent dignity of every human being. Consequently, Muslims are
required to approach individuals experiencing gender-related difficulties with kindness, wisdom,
and respect while maintaining adherence to Islamic teachings.46

3.8 Conclusion

This study examined the Islamic perspective on transgender issues among Muslims in Badagry
Local Government Area of Lagos State, using the Qur'an and Hadith as the main sources of
guidance. The study found that Islam recognizes only two genders, male and female, as created
by Allah. These two genders have different roles, responsibilities, and legal rulings in Islamic
law. The study also found that Islam distinguishes between transgender persons, khunthā
(intersex persons), mukhannath (effeminate men), and mutarajjilah (masculine women).
Although these categories may appear similar, Islamic scholars have explained that they are
different and each has its own legal rulings.

The findings also showed that many Muslims do not have enough knowledge about the Islamic
position on transgender issues. As a result, some people misunderstand the teachings of Islam,
while others rely on information from social media, television, or other sources that are not based
on authentic Islamic teachings. This has contributed to confusion and different opinions among
Muslims concerning gender identity and related matters.

The study further revealed that the Qur'an and the Sunnah provide clear guidance for dealing
with issues relating to gender. Islam teaches Muslims to preserve the natural distinction between
male and female while treating every person with justice, kindness, respect, and compassion. At
the same time, Islam discourages any deliberate attempt to change one's biological sex or imitate
the opposite sex without a valid reason recognized by Islamic law.

48
Furthermore, the study highlights the important role of Islamic scholars, parents, teachers, and
community leaders in educating Muslims on this subject. Through proper Islamic education,
regular sermons, seminars, and counselling, many of the misunderstandings surrounding
transgender issues can be corrected. This will help Muslims make informed decisions based on
the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and the opinions of qualified scholars.

In conclusion, this study affirms that the Qur'an and Hadith remain the best sources of guidance
for addressing transgender issues in Muslim society. Muslims should therefore seek knowledge
from authentic Islamic sources and avoid ideas that contradict the teachings of Islam. By
following the guidance of Allah and His Messenger, Muslims can preserve their faith, protect
their moral values, strengthen family life, and contribute to a peaceful and righteous society. The
researcher hopes that this study will serve as a useful reference for students, researchers, Islamic
scholars, and anyone interested in understanding the Islamic perspective on transgender issues.

49
  Note

1. Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Fatḥ al-Bārī, vol. 10 (Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, 1959),
332–33.

2. Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 14 (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-
ʿArabī, 1972), 162–63.

3. Tafsir ibn Kathir, commentary on Qur'an 3:36.

7. Al-Kāsānī, Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ, 5:121–23.

8. Al-Sarakhsī, Al-Mabsūṭ, 10:152–54.

9. Al-Qarāfī, Al-Dhakhīrah, 13:287–90.

10. Al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 14:162–63.

11. Ibn Qudāmah, Al-Mughnī, 9:173–75.

12. Majmu' al-Fatawa, 22:151–53.

13. Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī, Al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuhu, vol. 3 (Damascus: Dār al-Fikr, 2007),
551–556.

14. Yūsuf al-Qaraḍāwī, The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam, trans. Kamal El-Helbawy et al.
(Cairo: Al-Falah Foundation, 1994), 84–89.

15. Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 14 (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-
ʿArabī, 1972), 162–163.

16. Al-Asadi, Gender Distinction and Islamic Ethics (Amman: Dār al-Nafāʾis, 2018), 112–114.

17. Akay. Gender Identity and Islamic Social Ethics. Istanbul: Hikmah Publications, 2020.

18. Yūsuf al-Qaraḍāwī, The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam, trans. Kamal El-Helbawy, M.
Moinuddin Siddiqui, and Syed Shukry (Cairo: Al-Falah Foundation, 1994), 84–89.

50
19. Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī, Al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuhu, vol. 1 (Damascus: Dār al-Fikr, 2007),
829–833.

20. Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 14 (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-
ʿArabī, 1972), 162–163.21.

21. Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī, Al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuhu, vol. 3 (Damascus: Dār al-Fikr, 2007),
551–556.

21. Wahbah al-Zuhayli, Al-Fiqh al-Islami wa Adillatuhu (Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 2011), 4:2665–
2668.

22. Muhammad ibn Ismaʿil al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari (Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997), Hadith
no. 5885.

23. Yusuf al-Qaradawi, The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam (Cairo: Al-Falah Foundation,
1995), 84–86.

24. Wahbah al-Zuhayli, Al-Fiqh al-Islami wa Adillatuhu (Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 2011), 4:2665–
2668.

25. Al-Qaradawi, The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam, 87.

26. Qur'an 49:13.

28. Qur'an 95:4.

29. Abu al-Fida Ismaʿil ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, vol. 10 (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2003), 578–
579.

30. Qur'an 30:30.

31. Abu Jaʿfar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Jamiʿ al-Bayan fi Ta'wil al-Qur'an (Beirut:
Mu'assasat al-Risalah, 2000), 20:97–99.

32. Qur'an 4:119

51
33. Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Qurtubi, Al-Jamiʿ li Ahkam al-Qur'an (Beirut: Dar
al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah, 2006), 5:392–394.

34. Muhammad ibn Ismaʿil al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari (Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997), Hadith
no. 5885.

35. Ahmad ibn ʿAli Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani, Fath al-Bari bi Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, ed. ʿAbd al-
ʿAziz ibn Baz (Beirut: Dar al-Maʿrifah, 1379 AH), 10:332–334.

36. Qur'an 24:30.

37. Wahbah al-Zuhayli, Al-Tafsir al-Munir fi al-'Aqidah wa al-Shari'ah wa al-Manhaj

(Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 2009), 18:194–198.

38. Qur'an 2:155:

39. Sayyid Qutb, Fi Zilal al-Qur'an (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2003), 1:145–147.

40. Qur'an 2:45

41. Wahbah al-Zuhayli, Al-Tafsir al-Munir, 1:125–127.

42. Qur'an 2:286

43. Ismaʿil ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, 1:742–744.

44. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2007), Book of Remembrance and
Supplication, Hadith no. 2699.

45. Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi, Al-Minhaj fi Sharh Sahih Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (Beirut: Dar
Ihyaʾ al-Turath al-ʿArabi, 1392 AH), 17:24–26.

46. Abu Abdullah al-Qurtubi, Al-Jamiʿ li Ahkam al-Qur'an, 13:135–137.

52
References

 Akay. Gender Identity and Islamic Social Ethics. Istanbul: Hikmah Publications, 2020.
 Al-Asadi. Gender Distinction and Islamic Ethics. Amman: Dār al-Nafāʾis, 2018.
 Al-Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismaʿil. Sahih al-Bukhari. Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997.
 Al-Kāsānī. Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah.
 Al-Nawawī, Yaḥyā ibn Sharaf. Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim. Vol. 14. Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-
Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1972.
 Al-Qarāfī. Al-Dhakhīrah. Beirut: Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī.
 Al-Qaradawi, Yusuf. The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam. Translated by Kamal El-
Helbawy, M. Moinuddin Siddiqui, and Syed Shukry. Cairo: Al-Falah Foundation,
1994.
 Al-Qurtubi, Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad. Al-Jāmiʿ li Aḥkām al-Qurʾān.
Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 2006.
 Al-Sarakhsī. Al-Mabsūṭ. Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah.
 Al-Ṭabarī, Abu Jaʿfar Muhammad ibn Jarīr. Jāmiʿ al-Bayān fī Taʾwīl al-Qurʾān.
Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Risālah, 2000.
 Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī, Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī. Fatḥ al-Bārī bi Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī. Vol.
10. Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifah, 1959.
 Ibn Kathīr, Ismāʿīl ibn ʿUmar. Tafsīr Ibn Kathīr. Riyadh: Darussalam, 2003.
 Ibn Qudāmah. Al-Mughnī. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah.
 Ibn Taymiyyah. Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā. Madinah: King Fahd Complex.
 Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj. Sahih Muslim. Riyadh: Darussalam, 2007.
 Qutb, Sayyid. Fī Ẓilāl al-Qurʾān. Cairo: Dār al-Shurūq, 2003.
 The Qur'an.
 Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī. Al-Fiqh al-Islāmī wa Adillatuhu. Damascus: Dār al-Fikr, 2007.
 Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī. Al-Tafsīr al-Munīr fī al-ʿAqīdah wa al-Sharīʿah wa al-Manhaj.
Damascus: Dār al-Fikr, 2009.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Summary

This research examined transgender issues from the perspective of Islamic jurisprudence with the
aim of clarifying the Islamic understanding of gender and correcting common misconceptions
surrounding transgender identity. The study was motivated by the increasing global debate on
gender identity, the growing influence of contemporary gender theories, and the need to explain
the Islamic position based on the Qur'an, Sunnah, and the opinions of classical and contemporary
Muslim scholars. The research sought to distinguish between concepts recognized by Islamic
law, such as khunthā, mukhannath, mutarajjilah, and cross-dressing, and the contemporary
understanding of transgender identity.

In Chapter One, the study introduced the background of the research by discussing the increasing
acceptance of transgender ideology in many parts of the world and the challenges this
development poses to Muslim societies. It highlighted the differences between the Islamic
worldview and contemporary gender theories and explained why an academic study on the
subject is necessary. The chapter clearly stated the research problem, objectives, research
questions, significance of the study, scope and limitations, research methodology, and
operational definition of key terms. The chapter established that misunderstandings regarding
gender identity have created confusion among many Muslims, making scholarly clarification
essential.

Chapter Two reviewed relevant literature on gender and transgender from both conventional and
Islamic perspectives. The chapter examined the meanings of sex and gender as defined by
various scholars and dictionaries before discussing biological and social construction theories of
gender. It further reviewed contemporary literature on transgender identity, gender dysphoria,
and gender construction while presenting the Islamic understanding of gender as rooted in divine
creation rather than social construction. The literature also examined Qur'anic verses, authentic
Hadith, and scholarly opinions concerning the creation of male and female, human dignity,
modesty, and the preservation of natural disposition (fiṭrah). The review demonstrated that while
contemporary theories often separate gender identity from biological sex, Islamic jurisprudence
consistently maintains that legal identity is primarily determined by biological sex.

54
The chapter further examined the classifications recognized in Islamic jurisprudence, including
khunthā (intersex person), mukhannath (effeminate male), mutarajjilah (masculine female), and
cross-dressing. Each category was carefully explained using classical legal texts and
contemporary scholarly discussions. The study showed that khunthā represents a genuine
biological condition requiring legal determination by jurists, whereas mukhannath and
mutarajjilah describe behavioural characteristics that do not alter a person's biological sex or
legal identity.

A significant part of the literature focused on the legal rulings concerning khunthā according to
the four Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence. The study examined legal issues relating to
inheritance, marriage, congregational prayer, leadership in worship, testimony, and other legal
responsibilities. It was observed that although the four schools differ slightly in methodology,
they all emphasize caution, justice, and fairness when dealing with cases involving biological
ambiguity. Their rulings are guided by the objectives of Sharīʿah and the preservation of rights.

The study also discussed cross-dressing and imitation (tashabbuh) in Islamic law. Drawing from
authentic Hadith and juristic opinions, it established that deliberate imitation of the opposite sex
in clothing, appearance, speech, or behaviour is prohibited because it contradicts the natural
distinctions created by Allah. The research further explained that Islam permits cultural diversity
in clothing and appearance provided that the principles of modesty, decency, and gender
distinction are preserved. Therefore, Islam does not prescribe one universal style of dress but
provides general guidelines that accommodate different cultures while protecting moral values.

To achieve the objectives of the research, the study adopted a qualitative research design based
on library research and interviews. The library research involved an extensive review of primary
and secondary sources. Primary sources included the Qur'an, authentic collections of Hadith,
classical books of Tafsīr, and authoritative works of Islamic jurisprudence from the four Sunni
schools. Secondary sources included academic books, peer-reviewed journal articles, conference
papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications discussing gender, transgender
identity, Islamic law, and contemporary ethical issues. The researcher carefully compared these
materials in order to present a balanced and comprehensive discussion of the subject.

55
In addition to the literature review, semi-structured interviews were conducted with
knowledgeable respondents who possess adequate understanding of Islamic teachings and
contemporary gender issues. The interview guide consisted of twenty carefully prepared
questions based on the research objectives. The interviews enabled the researcher to gather
practical opinions and assess public understanding of Islamic rulings relating to gender and
transgender matters. The interview responses complemented the information obtained from
library materials and strengthened the credibility of the study.

The interview findings revealed that most respondents understood gender in Islam as a biological
reality determined by Allah at creation. The respondents generally distinguished between
biological sex and contemporary gender identity and recognized that Islamic jurisprudence treats
khunthā differently from transgender identity. They also demonstrated good understanding of the
concepts of mukhannath and mutarajjilah, explaining that behavioural characteristics alone do
not alter a person's legal status under Islamic law.

Furthermore, the respondents agreed that Islamic rulings concerning inheritance, marriage,
congregational prayer, and other legal matters are based on biological sex rather than subjective
gender identity. Most participants also affirmed that cross-dressing and deliberate imitation of
the opposite sex are prohibited because they contradict Islamic teachings on modesty, morality,
and the preservation of the natural order established by Allah.

The findings further indicated that many misconceptions exist within contemporary society
regarding the relationship between khunthā, transgender identity, and homosexuality. Several
respondents observed that these concepts are often incorrectly treated as identical despite their
significant differences in Islamic jurisprudence. This misunderstanding has contributed to
confusion among Muslims and highlights the need for proper Islamic education on gender-
related issues.

Another important finding of the study is that Islam combines legal certainty with compassion.
While Islamic law maintains clear legal rulings concerning gender, the study found that Muslim
scholars consistently emphasize kindness, wisdom, fairness, and respect in dealing with
individuals experiencing biological or psychological challenges. The preservation of human

56
dignity remains one of the major objectives of Islamic law alongside the preservation of religion,
life, intellect, lineage, and property.

Overall, this study established that Islamic jurisprudence provides a comprehensive legal and
ethical framework for understanding gender-related issues. It demonstrated that Islamic law
distinguishes between biological abnormalities requiring legal accommodation and behavioural
or ideological claims that conflict with the principles of the Sharīʿah. The study therefore
contributes to existing scholarship by clarifying important misconceptions and providing a
balanced presentation of the Islamic perspective on transgender-related issues based on authentic
Islamic sources and contemporary academic discussions.

4.2 Conclusion

This study examined transgender issues from the perspective of Islamic jurisprudence by
analyzing the concepts of gender, khunthā, mukhannath, mutarajjilah, and cross-dressing based
on the Qur'an, Sunnah, and the opinions of classical and contemporary Muslim scholars. The
study found that Islam recognizes biological sex as the basis for legal identity and provides
detailed rulings for exceptional cases such as khunthā.

The study also established that mukhannath and mutarajjilah are behavioural classifications that
do not change a person's biological sex or legal status. Similarly, deliberate cross-dressing and
imitation of the opposite sex are generally prohibited because they conflict with Islamic
teachings on modesty and the preservation of the natural distinction between men and women.

The interview findings showed that most respondents understood the Islamic position on gender
and agreed that legal rulings relating to inheritance, marriage, and acts of worship are determined
by biological sex. The study further revealed that many misconceptions exist regarding
transgender identity and Islamic teachings, highlighting the need for proper public education.

In conclusion, Islamic jurisprudence provides a comprehensive and balanced approach to gender-

related issues by combining justice, compassion, and adherence to divine guidance. While Islam
recognizes exceptional biological conditions, it maintains that the natural distinction between
male and female should be preserved. Therefore, greater efforts should be made to educate
Muslims on authentic Islamic teachings regarding gender and transgender issues.

57
4.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:

1. Islamic scholars should continue to educate Muslims on the Islamic understanding of

gender and transgender issues using the Qur'an, Sunnah, and authentic works of Islamic
jurisprudence.

2. Islamic educational institutions should include topics on gender, khunthā, mukhannath,

mutarajjilah, and contemporary gender issues in their curriculum to improve students'
understanding.

3. Mosques and Islamic organizations should organize seminars, lectures, and public
enlightenment programmes to address misconceptions about transgender issues from an
Islamic perspective.

4. Parents should provide proper Islamic moral training for their children from an early
age, emphasizing modesty, good character, and the natural distinction between male and
female.

5. Muslim youths should be encouraged to seek authentic Islamic knowledge before

accepting information on gender and sexuality from social media and other online
platforms.

6. Researchers and academics should continue conducting studies on contemporary

gender issues to provide more scholarly contributions from the perspective of Islamic
jurisprudence.

7. Counsellors and Islamic leaders should provide guidance and emotional support to
individuals experiencing gender-related challenges while ensuring that such guidance
remains within the teachings of Islam.

8. Government agencies and policymakers should work with qualified Islamic scholars
when developing policies affecting Muslim communities on matters relating to gender
and family life.

58
 9. Universities and research institutions should encourage academic discussions on
emerging gender-related issues while respecting religious beliefs and cultural values.

10. The Muslim community should avoid discrimination, ridicule, or harsh treatment of
individuals facing biological or psychological challenges. Instead, they should be treated
with compassion, wisdom, and dignity as encouraged by Islamic teachings.

11. Media organizations should ensure that discussions on gender-related issues are
balanced and should avoid spreading information that misrepresents Islamic teachings.

12. Finally, Muslims generally should strive to uphold the principles of modesty, morality,
and respect for the natural distinction between men and women as established in the
Qur'an and Sunnah.

4.4 Suggestions for Further Studies

This study focused on transgender issues from the perspective of Islamic jurisprudence.
However, due to the broad nature of the subject, there are several areas that require further
academic investigation. Future researchers may consider the following topics:

1. A comparative study of transgender issues in Islamic law and Western legal systems.

2. The psychological and social factors influencing transgender identity among Muslim
youths.

3. The role of Islamic education in addressing contemporary gender-related challenges.

4. A comparative analysis of the opinions of classical and contemporary Muslim scholars on

gender identity and sex reassignment.

5. The application of the objectives of Sharīʿah (Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah) in addressing

contemporary transgender issues.

6. Islamic legal rulings on medical treatment and surgical intervention for individuals with
khunthā (intersex conditions).

59
 7. The influence of social media and globalization on Muslim youths' understanding of
gender identity.

8. The role of family, religious institutions, and community leaders in preventing

misconceptions about gender and transgender issues among Muslims.

9. A comparative study of the legal rulings of the four Sunni schools of Islamic
jurisprudence on contemporary transgender-related matters.

10. The challenges faced by Muslim communities in responding to transgender issues in

multicultural societies.

It is hoped that future studies in these areas will contribute to a better understanding of gender-
related issues and provide additional scholarly solutions that are consistent with the teachings of
Islam.

4.5 Appendix

 Interview Questions

1. What is your understanding of gender identity from an Islamic perspective ?

2. How does Islam distinguish between the biological sex of a person and gender-related
behavior?

3. What do the Qur'an and Hadith teach regarding the roles and responsibilities of men and
women?

4. How do Islamic teachings address behaviors that imitate the opposite gender?

5. In your opinion, what factors contribute to the increasing practice of transgender behavior
among some Muslims today?

6. What is your understanding of gender disorder (gender dysphoria), and how is it different
from transgender identity?

60
7. Does Islamic recognize gender dysphoria as a medical or psychological condition? Please
explain.

8. How should Muslim families and communities respond to individuals experiencing gender
dysphoria?

9. What guidance does the Qur'an provide concerning preserving human nature (fitrah)?

10. Which Prophetic traditions (Hadith) are most relevant to addressing transgender-related
issues?

11. How can Islamic education help prevent confusion about gender identity among Muslim
youth?

12. What role should Imams, Islamic scholars, and religious institutions play in addressing
transgender-related challenges?

13. In your opinion, how effective are the Qur'an and Hadith in providing solutions to the moral
and social challenges associated with transgender practices?

14. What practical measures can Muslim communities adopt to support individuals while
remaining faithful to Islamic teachings?

15. Do you have any additional recommendations on how the Qur'an and Hadith can be used to
address transgender issues in contemporary Muslim society?

61
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