Intoducation:

Lec. 1 (Various Chapters: Moran - Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics)

1. Key Definitions
• Thermodynamics: The science of • State: The condition of a system as
energy, heat, and work, and how they described by its properties (P, V, T, etc.).
interact in physical and chemical process. • Process: The path of change from one
• System: The part of the universe under state to another.
study (e.g., gas in a cylinder). • Phase: Homogeneous part of a system
• Surroundings: Everything outside the (solid, liquid, gas).
system. • Equilibrium: No net change in the
system’s properties over time.

2. Laws of Thermodynamics
Law Statement
Zeroth If 𝐴 = 𝐵 and 𝐵 = 𝐶 (thermal equilibrium), then 𝐴 = 𝐶
First Energy is conserved: 𝛥𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄 + 𝑊
Second Entropy of an isolated system always increases: 𝛥𝑆 ≥ 0
Third Entropy approaches a constant as 𝑇 → 0

3. Thermodynamic Processes & Equations

Constant/Defining 𝜟𝑼 (Internal
Process Key Equations Work (𝑾) Heat (𝑸) 𝜟𝑺 (Entropy) Notes/Typical Path
Feature Energy)

Horizontal on P-v,
Isobaric Pressure (𝑃) 𝑃 = const 𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ln(𝑇2/𝑇1) expansion/compression
at const. 𝑃

Isochoric Vertical on P-v,

(Iso- Volume (𝑉) 𝑉 = const 𝑊=0 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ln(𝑇2/𝑇1) heating/cooling at
volumetric) const. 𝑉

Hyperbola on P-v, slow

Isothermal Temperature (𝑇) 𝑇 = const 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 ) 𝑄=𝑊 0 𝑛𝑅ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
process, ideal gas only

No heat transfer 𝑃1𝑉1 − 𝑃2𝑉2 Steep curve on P-v,

Adiabatic 𝑄=0 𝑊= 0 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 0 (reversible)
(𝑄 = 0) 𝛾−1 insulated system

Special case of
Isentropic Entropy (𝑆) 𝑆 = const 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = const 𝑄 = 0 (reversible) 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 0 adiabatic, ideal for
turbines/pumps

𝑃2𝑉2 − 𝑃1𝑉1 Generalized process, 𝑛

𝑚𝑅ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1)
Polytropic 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = const 𝑛 = polytropic index 𝑊= 𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝑊 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) varies (1=isothermal,
1−𝑛 (if 𝑛 ≠ 1)
𝛾=adiabatic)

Throttling/expansion
𝑄 = 0, 𝑊 = 0 (for 𝛥𝑆 > 0
Isenthalpic Enthalpy (ℎ) ℎ = const 0 0 valves, Joule-Thomson
throttling) (irreversible)
process

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Additional Notes
• 𝐶𝑝 = specific heat at constant pressure, 𝐶𝑣 = specific heat at constant volume, 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑝 /𝐶𝑣
• 𝑛 (polytropic index):
o 𝑛 = 0 (isobaric), 𝑛 = 1 (isothermal), 𝑛 = ∞ (isochoric), 𝑛 = 𝛾 (adiabatic/isentropic)
• For ideal gases: 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ), 𝛥𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Example Applications
• Isentropic: Turbines, compressors (ideal, reversible, adiabatic)
• Isenthalpic: Throttle valves, Joule-Thomson expansion
• Polytropic: Real compressors/expanders (accounts for heat loss/gain)
• Isothermal: Slow piston expansion/compression, some chemical reactions
• Isobaric: Boilers, condensers (constant pressure heat addition/removal)
• Isochoric: Rigid tanks, constant volume heating/cooling

4. Ideal Gas Law & Relations

• 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
• 𝑃1 𝑉1 /𝑇1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 /𝑇2
𝛾 𝛾
• 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 (adiabatic)

5. Work in Compression/Expansion
𝑘𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝑘𝑅𝑇1 𝑃 (𝑘−1)/𝑘
• Isentropic: 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛 = = [(𝑃2 ) − 1]
𝑘−1 𝑘−1 1

𝑛𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝑛𝑅𝑇1 𝑃 (𝑛−1)/𝑛

• Polytropic: 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛 = = [(𝑃2 ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 1

• Isothermal: 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑇ln(𝑃2 /𝑃1 )

6. Thermodynamic Diagrams & Sketching Steps

6.1. Purpose of the P-v-T Diagram

• Comprehensive View: The P-v-T diagram provides a complete picture of how pressure, specific
volume, and temperature are interrelated for a pure substance.
• Phase Boundaries: It shows all phase regions (solid, liquid, vapor) and the surfaces where phase
changes occur (e.g., boiling, melting).
• Critical and Triple Points: The diagram clearly displays the critical point (where liquid and
vapor become indistinguishable) and the triple point (where all three phases coexist).
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 • Foundation for 2D Diagrams: All 2D diagrams (P-v, T-v, P-T) are slices or projections of the P-
v-T surface.

6.2. How Other Diagrams Relate to the P-v-T Diagram

• P-v Diagram: A slice at constant temperature (isotherm) on the P-v-T surface.
• T-v Diagram: A slice at constant pressure (isobar).
• P-T Diagram: A projection showing phase boundaries (lines) where two phases coexist.
• T-s and h-s Diagrams: Not direct slices, but derived from thermodynamic relationships involving
the P-v-T surface.

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6.3. Summary Table: P-v-T Diagram and Its 2D Projections
Relation to P-v-T
Diagram Axes What It Shows Typical Use/Info
Diagram
Complete phase The full 3D surface;
Pressure, Specific
behavior, all regions, all other diagrams Visualizing all phase changes
P-v-T Volume,
phase surfaces, are slices or and relationships at once
Temperature (3D)
critical/triple points projections
Pressure vs.
Isotherms, phase Slice at constant T Work calculations, phase
P-v Specific Volume
change at constant T (isotherm) change at T
(2D)
Temperature vs.
Isobars, phase change at Slice at constant P Expansion/compression at P,
T-v Specific Volume
constant P (isobar) mixture quality
(2D)
Pressure vs. Phase boundaries, Projection of phase
P-T Identifying phase at P, T
Temperature (2D) triple/critical points boundaries

How to Read and Use the P-v-T Diagram

1. Axes: o The top of the dome, where liquid
o x-axis: Specific Volume (v) and vapor become
o y-axis: Pressure (P) indistinguishable.
o z-axis: Temperature (T) 4. Triple Point:
2. Surfaces: o Where solid, liquid, and vapor
o The surface is curved, with surfaces meet.
“ridges” and “valleys” 5. 2D Slices:
representing phase boundaries. o At constant T: get a P-v diagram
o The “dome” on the surface is the (isotherm).
two-phase (liquid-vapor) region. o At constant P: get a T-v diagram
3. Critical Point: (isobar).
o At constant v: get a P-T diagram
(isochor).

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6.4. How to Sketch Thermodynamic Diagrams
1. T-v Diagram (Temperature vs. Specific Volume)
Purpose: Shows phase changes and regions (compressed liquid, mixture, superheated vapor) for a pure
substance.
How to Sketch:
1. Draw axes: y-axis = Temperature (T), x-
axis = Specific Volume (v).
2. Draw a bell-shaped curve (the “saturation
dome”).
3. Label:
o Left of dome: “Compressed liquid
region”
o Inside dome: “Saturated liquid-
vapor region”
o Right of dome: “Superheated vapor
region”
4. Mark the top of the dome as the “Critical
Point.”
5. Draw lines of constant pressure (isobars) as
horizontal lines or curves above the dome.
Interpretation:
• Moving horizontally at constant T: increasing v means moving from liquid to vapor.
• Inside the dome: mixture of liquid and vapor.
• Direction of process: left to right (expansion), right to left (compression).

2. T-s Diagram (Temperature vs. Entropy)

Purpose: Used to analyze energy and entropy
changes in cycles (e.g., Rankine, refrigeration).
How to Sketch:
1. Draw axes: y-axis = Temperature (T), x-
axis = Entropy (s).
2. Draw a dome (similar to T-v).
3. Label:
o Left: “Compressed liquid”
o Inside: “Mixture region”
o Right: “Superheated vapor”
4. Mark the “Critical Point” at the top.
5. Draw lines of constant pressure (isobars) as
curves crossing the dome.

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 6. For cycles, show process paths (e.g., 1→2→3→4).
Interpretation:
• Vertical lines: isentropic (constant entropy, e.g., ideal turbine/pump).
• Horizontal lines: isothermal (constant temperature).
• Area under process curve: heat transfer.

3. P-T Diagram (Pressure vs. Temperature, Phase Diagram)

Purpose: Shows phase boundaries (solid, liquid, gas), triple point, and critical point.
How to Sketch:
1. Draw axes: y-axis = Pressure (P), x-
axis = Temperature (T).
2. Draw three curves meeting at a point
(triple point):
o Fusion curve (solid-liquid)
o Vaporization curve (liquid-gas)
o Sublimation curve (solid-gas)
3. Mark the “Triple Point” (where all
three phases coexist).
4. Extend the vaporization curve to the
“Critical Point.”
5. Shade regions for solid, liquid, and gas.
Interpretation:
• Crossing a curve = phase change.
• Above critical point: supercritical fluid.

4. P-v Diagram (Pressure vs. Specific

Volume)
Purpose: Visualizes phase changes and work
done during processes.
How to Sketch:
1. Draw axes: y-axis = Pressure (P), x-
axis = Specific Volume (v).
2. Draw a bell-shaped curve (saturation
dome).
3. Label:
o Left: “Compressed liquid”
o Inside: “Mixture region”
o Right: “Superheated vapor”
4. Mark the “Critical Point” at the top.
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 5. Draw isotherms (lines of constant T) as curves above the dome.
Interpretation:
• Area under process curve = work done.
• Horizontal line inside dome: phase change at constant P.

5. h-s Diagram (Enthalpy vs. Entropy, Mollier Diagram)

Purpose: Used for steam and gas turbines, refrigeration cycles.
How to Sketch:
1. Draw axes: y-axis = Enthalpy (h), x-axis =
Entropy (s).
2. Draw a curved saturation line (not a dome).
3. Label:
o Left: “Saturated liquid”
o Right: “Saturated vapor”
o Above: “Superheated region”
4. Draw lines of constant pressure and
temperature.
Interpretation:
• Process paths show changes in h and s.
• Useful for finding work and heat in
turbines/compressors.

6.5. Summary Table

Diagram Axes (y vs. x) Purpose/Use Key Process Direction Interpretation/Notes
Features/Regions
T-v T vs. v Phase Saturation dome, Left-right/right-left Expansion/compression,
changes, critical point phase change
property
relations
T-s T vs. s Cycles, Saturation dome, Clockwise/counterc Area = heat, vertical =
entropy/energ isobars lockwise isentropic
y analysis
P-T P vs. T Phase Fusion, Across curves Phase transitions,
boundaries, vaporization, supercritical
triple/critical sublimation
P-v P vs. v Work, phase Saturation dome, Area under curve Work done, phase
changes isotherms change at const. P
h-s h vs. s Turbines, Saturation line, Path on chart Find work/heat, process
compressors, isobars, isotherms efficiency
cycles

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 Diagram
Types of
Diagram Usage & Purpose Advantages Paths & How to Read Example
Information
Regions
Bell-shaped
dome: left =
compressed
Clearly Phase
liquid, inside Find state by locating Water at 100°C, v
Visualize phase shows phase (liquid,
T-v = mixture, T and v; inside dome, = 0.001 m³/kg: left
changes, analyze regions vapor,
(Temperature right = use quality; follow of dome (liquid);
expansion/compression, (liquid, mixture),
vs. Specific superheated horizontal/vertical v = 1.7 m³/kg:
determine mixture vapor, critical point,
Volume) vapor; lines for right of dome
quality mixture), quality (x),
horizontal isobaric/isochoric (vapor)
critical point isobars
lines =
isobaric
processes
Shows Dome: left =
isentropic liquid, inside
Rankine cycle:
(vertical) Entropy (s), = mixture, Follow process lines
Analyze cycles 1→2 (isentropic
T-s and temperature right = for cycles; area under
(Rankine, refrigeration), expansion,
(Temperature isothermal (T), phase, vapor; curve = heat; vertical =
visualize heat transfer vertical), 2→3
vs. Entropy) (horizontal) heat transfer, vertical = isentropic
and entropy changes (isobaric heat
processes, isobars isentropic, expansion/compression
rejection, curve)
area under horizontal =
curve = heat isothermal
Dome: left =
Area under
liquid, inside Isothermal
curve = Pressure (P), Area under process =
P-v (Pressure Visualize work done, = mixture, expansion: follow
work, shows specific work; horizontal in
vs. Specific phase changes, analyze right = isotherm from v1
phase volume (v), dome = phase change
Volume) expansion/compression vapor; to v2, area under
regions, phase, work at constant P
isotherms = curve = work done
isotherms
curves
Curves:
Shows all fusion (solid-
Phase (solid,
P-T phase liquid),
Identify phase liquid, gas), Locate P and T, see Water at 0.01°C,
(Pressure vs. transitions, vaporization
boundaries, triple point, which region (phase) it 0.006 bar: triple
Temperature, easy to (liquid-gas),
triple/critical points, critical point, falls in; crossing a point (all phases
Phase determine sublimation
supercritical region supercritical curve = phase change coexist)
Diagram) phase at (solid-gas);
region
given P, T triple point =
intersection
Saturation
curve: left =
Directly
Enthalpy (h), liquid, right Steam turbine:
gives
entropy (s), = vapor, Move along lines for isentropic
h-s (Enthalpy Analyze turbines, work/heat
phase, above = constant P/T; vertical = expansion =
vs. Entropy, compressors, nozzles, for
quality, superheated; isentropic; horizontal = vertical drop from
Mollier) refrigeration cycles processes,
isobars, process paths isothermal high h to low h at
used for
isotherms = lines constant s
steam tables
between
states

7. Thermodynamic Cycles & Systems

• Evaporator (Boiler): Heating at constant pressure
• Condenser: Constant T, P
• Turbine, Pump, Compressor: Isentropic (constant entropy)
• Throttle Valve: Isenthalpic (constant enthalpy)

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Cycle Example: Rankine cycle (power plant), refrigeration cycle (compressor, condenser, expansion
valve, evaporator)
Note: more details are in Lec. 8 & 9

8. Problem-Solving Steps
5. Identify the system and process type (isobaric, isochoric, etc.).
6. Write down knowns and unknowns.
7. Select the appropriate equation(s) from the cheat sheet.
8. Draw the relevant diagram (P-V, T-s, etc.) and mark states.
9. Apply the first law of thermodynamics: 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
10. Calculate work, heat, and changes in properties as needed.
11. Check units and physical meaning of your answer.

9. Tips
• Always label diagrams and axes.
• Mark all states and transitions on diagrams.
• For cycles, show direction (clockwise for power, counterclockwise for refrigeration).
• Memorize the key equations and when to use them.
• Practice sketching diagrams quickly and clearly.

10. Various Practical Questions

20 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) with Explanations

1. Which law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transformed?
o A) Zeroth
o B) First
o C) Second
o D) Third
Answer: B) First
Explanation: The first law is the law of conservation of energy.
2. In a P-v diagram, what does the area under the process curve represent?
o A) Heat transfer
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 o B) Work done
o C) Change in entropy
o D) Change in enthalpy
Answer: B) Work done
Explanation: The area under the curve is the work done by or on the system.
3. What is the defining characteristic of an isothermal process?
o A) Constant pressure
o B) Constant volume
o C) Constant temperature
o D) Constant entropy
Answer: C) Constant temperature
Explanation: Isothermal means temperature does not change.
4. Which process occurs at constant pressure?
o A) Isobaric
o B) Isochoric
o C) Isothermal
o D) Adiabatic
Answer: A) Isobaric
Explanation: "Baric" refers to pressure.
5. In which process is no heat exchanged with the surroundings?
o A) Isobaric
o B) Isochoric
o C) Isothermal
o D) Adiabatic
Answer: D) Adiabatic
Explanation: Adiabatic means Q = 0.
6. What is the equation for work done during an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas?

o A) 𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
o B) 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
o C) 𝑊 = 0
𝑃1 𝑉1 −𝑃2 𝑉2
o D) 𝑊 = 𝛾−1
Answer: B) 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
Explanation: This is the classic isothermal work equation.
7. What does the critical point on a phase diagram represent?
o A) Where all three phases coexist
o B) Where liquid and vapor are indistinguishable
o C) Where only solid and liquid coexist
o D) Where only vapor exists
Answer: B) Where liquid and vapor are indistinguishable
Explanation: At the critical point, the properties of liquid and vapor merge.
8. Which diagram is best for analyzing entropy changes in a cycle?

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 o A) P-v
o B) T-v
o C) T-s
o D) h-s
Answer: C) T-s
Explanation: T-s diagrams are used for entropy and heat transfer analysis.
9. What is the value of work done in an isochoric process?

o A) 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
o B) 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
o C) 0
o D) 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Answer: C) 0
Explanation: No volume change means no work.
10. Which process is represented by a vertical line on a P-v diagram?
o A) Isobaric
o B) Isochoric
o C) Isothermal
o D) Adiabatic
Answer: B) Isochoric
Explanation: Vertical lines mean constant volume.
11. What is the main use of the h-s (Mollier) diagram?
o A) Analyzing phase changes
o B) Analyzing turbines, compressors, and refrigeration cycles
o C) Calculating entropy
o D) Calculating pressure
Answer: B) Analyzing turbines, compressors, and refrigeration cycles
Explanation: h-s diagrams are used for these devices.
12. In which process is entropy constant?
o A) Isobaric
o B) Isochoric
o C) Isothermal
o D) Isentropic
Answer: D) Isentropic
Explanation: Isentropic means constant entropy.
13. What is the equation for the first law of thermodynamics for a closed system?

o A) 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊
o B) 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
o C) 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑊 − 𝑄
o D) 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄
Answer: B) 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
Explanation: This is the standard form for a closed system.
14. What does the triple point on a phase diagram indicate?
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 o A) Where only solid and liquid coexist
o B) Where only liquid and vapor coexist
o C) Where all three phases coexist
o D) Where only vapor exists
Answer: C) Where all three phases coexist
Explanation: Triple point is unique for each substance.
15. Which process is characterized by 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = constant?
o A) Isobaric
o B) Isochoric
o C) Polytropic
o D) Isothermal
Answer: C) Polytropic
Explanation: Polytropic processes generalize other processes.
16. What is the main advantage of using a T-s diagram for cycles?
o A) Shows work directly
o B) Visualizes heat transfer and entropy changes
o C) Shows pressure changes
o D) Shows volume changes
Answer: B) Visualizes heat transfer and entropy changes
Explanation: T-s diagrams are best for this.
17. What is the equation for entropy change in an isothermal process for an ideal gas?

o A) 𝛥𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ln(𝑇2 /𝑇1 )

o B) 𝛥𝑆 = 𝑛𝑅ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
o C) 𝛥𝑆 = 0
o D) 𝛥𝑆 = 𝑄/𝑇
Answer: B) 𝛥𝑆 = 𝑛𝑅ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
Explanation: This is the correct formula for isothermal entropy change.
18. Which process is isenthalpic?
o A) Isothermal
o B) Throttling (Joule-Thomson)
o C) Isobaric
o D) Isentropic
Answer: B) Throttling (Joule-Thomson)
Explanation: Throttling is a constant enthalpy process.
19. What is the equation for work done in an adiabatic process for an ideal gas?

o A) 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
o B) 𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑃1 𝑉1 −𝑃2 𝑉2
o C) 𝑊 = 𝛾−1

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 o D) 𝑊 = 0
𝑃 𝑉 −𝑃 𝑉
Answer: C) 𝑊 = 1 1 2 2
𝛾−1
Explanation: This is the adiabatic work formula.
20. What is the main use of the P-T phase diagram?
o A) To calculate work
o B) To identify phase boundaries and locate triple and critical points
o C) To analyze entropy
o D) To analyze turbines
Answer: B) To identify phase boundaries and locate triple and critical points
Explanation: P-T diagrams are for phase boundaries.

10 Short Answer Equations

1. State the first law of thermodynamics for a closed system.

Answer: 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
2. What is the equation for work done in an isobaric process?
Answer: 𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
3. Write the equation for entropy change in an isochoric process.
Answer: 𝛥𝑆 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ln(𝑇2 /𝑇1 )
4. What is the equation for heat added in an isochoric process?
Answer: 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
5. Write the ideal gas law.
Answer: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
6. What is the equation for work done in a polytropic process?
𝑃 𝑉2 −𝑃1 𝑉1
Answer: 𝑊 = 2 1−𝑛 (for 𝑛 ≠ 1)

7. Write the equation for entropy change in an isothermal process for an ideal gas.
Answer: 𝛥𝑆 = 𝑛𝑅ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
8. What is the equation for heat added in an isobaric process?
Answer: 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

9. Write the equation for an adiabatic process for an ideal gas.

Answer: 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = constant
10. What is the equation for work done in an adiabatic process for an ideal gas?
𝑃 𝑉1 −𝑃2 𝑉2
Answer: 𝑊 = 1 𝛾−1

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10 Diagram Sketching (Step-by-Step: General Cases)

1. P-v Diagram for a Pure Substance

o Draw axes: y = Pressure (P), x = Specific Volume (v).
o Draw a bell-shaped curve (saturation dome).
o Label: left = Compressed Liquid, inside = Mixture, right = Superheated Vapor.
o Mark the top as Critical Point.
o Draw horizontal lines inside dome for phase change at constant P.
o Explain: Left = liquid, inside = mixture, right = vapor. [page 7]
2. T-v Diagram for a Pure Substance
o Draw axes: y = Temperature (T), x = Specific Volume (v).
o Draw a bell-shaped dome (saturation curve).
o Label: left = Compressed Liquid, inside = Mixture, right = Superheated Vapor.
o Mark the top as Critical Point.
o Draw isobars (lines of constant pressure) as curves above the dome.
o Explain: At constant P, moving right means vaporization. [page 7]
3. T-s Diagram
o Draw axes: y = Temperature (T), x = Entropy (s).
o Draw a dome (saturation curve).
o Label: left = Compressed Liquid, inside = Mixture, right = Superheated Vapor.
o Mark the top as Critical Point.
o Draw isobars (curves) and lines of constant dryness fraction (vertical lines inside dome).
o Explain: Used for cycles, area under curve = heat transfer. [page 8]
4. P-T Phase Diagram
o Draw axes: y = Pressure (P), x = Temperature (T).
o Draw three curves meeting at a point (triple point): fusion, vaporization, sublimation.
o Mark regions: left = solid, middle = liquid, right = vapor.
o Mark the triple point and critical point.
o Explain: Crossing a curve = phase change. [page 6]
5. h-s (Mollier) Diagram
o Draw axes: y = Enthalpy (h), x = Entropy (s).
o Draw a curved saturation line.
o Label: left = Saturated Liquid, right = Saturated Vapor, above = Superheated.
o Draw isobars and isotherms as curves.
o Explain: For turbines, follow vertical (isentropic) or sloped (real) lines. [page 9]
6. P-v-T 3D Diagram
o Draw three axes: P, v, T.
o Draw a curved surface with a dome (liquid-vapor region).
o Mark the critical point at the top of the dome.
14
 o Mark the triple point where three surfaces meet.
o Explain: Slices at constant T, P, or v give P-v, T-v, or P-T diagrams. [page 7]
7. P-v Diagram with Process Paths
o Draw axes: y = P, x = v.
o Draw a hyperbola for isothermal, horizontal for isobaric, vertical for isochoric, steeper
curve for adiabatic.
o Label each path.
o Explain: Each path represents a different thermodynamic process. [page 10]
8. T-s Diagram for a Rankine Cycle
oDraw axes: y = T, x = s.
oDraw a dome (saturation curve).
oMark four points: 1 (pump exit), 2 (boiler exit), 3 (turbine exit), 4 (condenser exit).
oConnect points: 1-2 (vertical, isentropic), 2-3 (horizontal, isobaric heat rejection), 3-4
(vertical, isentropic), 4-1 (horizontal, isobaric heat addition).
o Explain: Shows heat/work in power cycles. [page 8]
9. P-v Diagram for a Refrigeration Cycle
o Draw axes: y = P, x = v.
o Draw a dome (saturation curve).
o Mark four points: evaporator (low P, low v), compressor (increase P), condenser (high P,
high v), expansion valve (drop P).
o Connect points in a loop.
o Explain: Each segment represents a device in the cycle. [page 14]
10. T-s Diagram for a Refrigeration Cycle
o Draw axes: y = T, x = s.
o Draw a dome (saturation curve).
o Mark four points: evaporator (low T, low s), compressor (vertical up), condenser
(horizontal left), expansion valve (vertical down).
o Connect points in a loop.
o Explain: Shows heat absorption/rejection and work input. [page 8]

20 Numerical Problems: Step-by-Step Solutions (Easy)

1. Isothermal Expansion (Work Done)

Q: An ideal gas expands isothermally from 2 L to 6 L at 300 K. If 𝑛 = 1 mol, calculate the work done.
Solution:
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
= 1 × 8.314 × 300 × ln(6/2)
= 8.314 × 300 × ln(3)
ln(3) = 1.0986

15
 = 8.314 × 300 × 1.0986
= 2494.2 J

2. Isochoric Heating (Change in Internal Energy)

Q: A rigid tank contains 2 kg of air at 400 K. The air is heated at constant volume until the temperature
reaches 600 K. 𝐶𝑣 = 0.718 kJ/kg·K. Find the change in internal energy.
Solution:
𝛥𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 2 × 0.718 × (600 − 400)
= 2 × 0.718 × 200
= 287.2 kJ

3. Isobaric Heating (Heat Added)

Q: Calculate the heat added in an isobaric process where 3 kg of a gas is heated from 350 K to 500 K.
𝐶𝑝 = 1.005 kJ/kg·K.

Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 3 × 1.005 × (500 − 350)
= 3 × 1.005 × 150
= 452.25 kJ

4. Adiabatic Expansion (Final Temperature)

Q: For an adiabatic expansion, 1 mol of an ideal gas expands from 5 L to 10 L. If 𝑇1 = 400 K and 𝛾 =
1.4, find 𝑇2 .
Solution:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑉1 /𝑉2 )𝛾−1
= 400 × (5/10)0.4
= 400 × (0.5)0.4
= 400 × 0.7579
= 303.2 K

5. Polytropic Process (Work Done)

Q: A gas undergoes a polytropic process with 𝑛 = 1.3 from 𝑃1 = 200 kPa, 𝑉1 = 0.1 m³ to 𝑉2 = 0.2 m³.
Find the work done.
Solution:
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 (𝑉1 /𝑉2 )𝑛 = 200 × (0.1/0.2)1.3 = 200 × 0.406 = 81.2 kPa

16
 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊=
1−𝑛
81.2 × 0.2 − 200 × 0.1
=
1 − 1.3
16.24 − 20
=
−0.3
−3.76
=
−0.3
= 12.53 kJ

6. Isothermal Entropy Change

Q: Calculate the entropy change for 2 mol of an ideal gas expanding isothermally from 4 L to 8 L at 350
K.
Solution:
𝛥𝑆 = 𝑛𝑅ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
= 2 × 8.314 × ln(8/4)
= 2 × 8.314 × ln(2)
ln(2) = 0.6931
= 2 × 8.314 × 0.6931
= 11.52 J/K

7. Adiabatic Compression (Final Temperature)

Q: A piston compresses 0.5 mol of an ideal gas adiabatically from 10 L to 2 L. If 𝑇1 = 300 K and 𝛾 =
1.4, find 𝑇2 .
Solution:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑉1 /𝑉2 )𝛾−1
= 300 × (10/2)0.4
= 300 × (5)0.4
= 300 × 1.9037
= 571.1 K

8. Throttling Process (Enthalpy)

Q: In a throttling process, the enthalpy remains constant. If ℎ1 = 250 kJ/kg, what is ℎ2 ?
Solution:
ℎ2 = ℎ1 = 250 kJ/kg

17
9. Reversible Adiabatic (Final Temperature)
Q: For a reversible adiabatic process, 1 mol of an ideal gas changes from 𝑃1 = 100 kPa, 𝑇1 = 300 K to
𝑃2 = 400 kPa. Find 𝑇2 if 𝛾 = 1.4.
Solution:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑃2 /𝑃1 )(𝛾−1)/𝛾
= 300 × (400/100)0.4/1.4
= 300 × (4)0.2857
= 300 × 1.485
= 445.5 K

10. Isothermal Expansion (Work Done)

Q: Calculate the work done by 2 mol of an ideal gas during an isothermal expansion from 1 L to 5 L at
400 K.
Solution:
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
= 2 × 8.314 × 400 × ln(5/1)
ln(5) = 1.6094
= 2 × 8.314 × 400 × 1.6094
= 10,708 J

11. Isochoric Heating (Change in Internal Energy)

Q: A 1 kg sample of air is heated at constant volume from 300 K to 500 K. 𝐶𝑣 = 0.718 kJ/kg·K. Find the
change in internal energy.
Solution:
𝛥𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 1 × 0.718 × (500 − 300)
= 1 × 0.718 × 200
= 143.6 kJ

12. Isothermal Compression (Work Done)

Q: A gas is compressed isothermally from 8 L to 2 L at 350 K. If 𝑛 = 1 mol, find the work done.
Solution:
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
= 1 × 8.314 × 350 × ln(2/8)
ln(0.25) = −1.3863
= 1 × 8.314 × 350 × (−1.3863)
= −4,034 J (work done on the gas)

18
13. Isobaric Heating (Heat Added)
Q: Calculate the heat added in an isobaric process for 4 kg of gas heated from 300 K to 450 K. 𝐶𝑝 =
1.005 kJ/kg·K.
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 4 × 1.005 × (450 − 300)
= 4 × 1.005 × 150
= 603 kJ

14. Polytropic Process (Work Done)

Q: For a polytropic process with 𝑛 = 1.2, 𝑃1 = 150 kPa, 𝑉1 = 0.5 m³, 𝑉2 = 1.0 m³, find the work done.
Solution:
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 (𝑉1 /𝑉2 )𝑛 = 150 × (0.5/1.0)1.2 = 150 × 0.4353 = 65.3 kPa
65.3 × 1.0 − 150 × 0.5
𝑊=
1 − 1.2
65.3 − 75
=
−0.2
−9.7
=
−0.2
= 48.5 kJ

15. Isothermal Entropy Change

Q: Calculate the entropy change for 3 mol of an ideal gas expanding isothermally from 2 L to 10 L at 400
K.
Solution:
𝛥𝑆 = 𝑛𝑅ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
= 3 × 8.314 × ln(10/2)
ln(5) = 1.6094
= 3 × 8.314 × 1.6094
= 40.18 J/K

16. Adiabatic Compression (Final Temperature)

Q: A piston compresses 1 mol of an ideal gas adiabatically from 12 L to 3 L. If 𝑇1 = 350 K and 𝛾 = 1.4,
find 𝑇2 .
Solution:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑉1 /𝑉2 )𝛾−1

19
 = 350 × (12/3)0.4
= 350 × (4)0.4
= 350 × 1.7411
= 609.4 K

17. Throttling Process (Enthalpy)

Q: In a throttling process, if ℎ1 = 320 kJ/kg, what is ℎ2 ?
Solution:
ℎ2 = ℎ1 = 320 kJ/kg

18. Reversible Adiabatic (Final Temperature)

Q: For a reversible adiabatic process, 2 mol of an ideal gas changes from 𝑃1 = 120 kPa, 𝑇1 = 320 K to
𝑃2 = 480 kPa. Find 𝑇2 if 𝛾 = 1.4.
Solution:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑃2 /𝑃1 )(𝛾−1)/𝛾
= 320 × (480/120)0.4/1.4
= 320 × (4)0.2857
= 320 × 1.485
= 475.2 K

19. Isothermal Expansion (Work Done)

Q: Calculate the work done by 1 mol of an ideal gas during an isothermal expansion from 2 L to 8 L at
350 K.
Solution:
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
= 1 × 8.314 × 350 × ln(8/2)
ln(4) = 1.3863
= 1 × 8.314 × 350 × 1.3863
= 4,034 J

20. Isochoric Heating (Change in Internal Energy)

Q: A 2 kg sample of air is heated at constant volume from 250 K to 450 K. 𝐶𝑣 = 0.718 kJ/kg·K. Find the
change in internal energy.
Solution:
𝛥𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
= 2 × 0.718 × (450 − 250)
= 2 × 0.718 × 200
20
= 287.2 kJ

10 Numerical Problems: Step-by-Step Solutions (complex)

1. Combined Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion

Problem:
A piston-cylinder contains 2 mol of an ideal gas at 400 K and 5 L. The gas first expands isothermally to
10 L, then adiabatically to 20 L. Assume 𝛾 = 1.4.
(a) Calculate the total work done by the gas.
(b) Find the final temperature.
Solution:
Step 1: Isothermal Expansion (5 L → 10 L, T = 400 K)
𝑊1 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 ) = 2 × 8.314 × 400 × ln(10/5)
ln(2) = 0.6931
𝑊1 = 2 × 8.314 × 400 × 0.6931 = 4,609 J$
Step 2: Find 𝑇2 after isothermal (still 400 K)
Step 3: Adiabatic Expansion (10 L → 20 L, 𝑇2 = 400 K)
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 (𝑉2 /𝑉1 )1−𝛾
𝑇3 = 400 × (10/20)0.4
0.4
= 400 × (0.5) = 400 × 0.7579 = 303.2 K
Step 4: Work for Adiabatic Expansion
𝑊2 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇3 )
𝑅 8.314
𝐶𝑣 = 𝛾−1 = = 20.785 J/mol·K
0.4
𝑊2 = 2 × 20.785 × (400 − 303.2) = 2 × 20.785 × 96.8 = 4,029 J
Step 5: Total Work
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = 4,609 + 4,029 = 8,638 J
Tips:
• Always keep track of the state at the end of each process.
• For adiabatic, use the final T from the previous process as the initial T.

2. Rankine Cycle (Power Plant) Analysis

Problem:
A steam power plant operates on a Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa, 600 K and expands
isentropically to 0.1 MPa. The condenser brings the steam to saturated liquid.
(a) Sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram.
(b) Calculate the work output of the turbine per kg if ℎ1 = 3583 kJ/kg, ℎ2 = 2400 kJ/kg.

21
Solution:
Step 1: Sketch T-s diagram
• Draw the dome, mark points: 1 (turbine inlet), 2 (turbine exit), 3 (condenser exit), 4 (pump exit).
Step 2: Turbine Work
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 3583 − 2400 = 1,183 kJ/kg
Tips:
• For isentropic expansion, entropy remains constant.
• Use enthalpy values from steam tables for real cycles.

3. Mixing of Two Ideal Gases

Problem:
A rigid, insulated vessel contains 1 mol of N₂ at 300 K and 2 mol of O₂ at 500 K. The gases are allowed to
mix. Find the final equilibrium temperature.
Solution:
Step 1: Energy Balance (No heat loss, rigid vessel)
$\left. Q = 0\text{\:\,}\Longrightarrow\text{\:\,}\Delta U_{total} = 0 \right.$
Step 2: Internal Energy Change
𝛥𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 )
Let 𝐶𝑣 (N₂) = 𝐶𝑣 (O₂) = 20.8 J/mol·K (approx.)

1 × 20.8 × (𝑇𝑓 − 300) + 2 × 20.8 × (𝑇𝑓 − 500) = 0

20.8(𝑇𝑓 − 300) + 41.6(𝑇𝑓 − 500) = 0
20.8𝑇𝑓 − 6240 + 41.6𝑇𝑓 − 20800 = 0
62.4𝑇𝑓 = 27040
𝑇𝑓 = 433.4 K

Tips:
• For mixing, use conservation of energy.
• Assume constant 𝐶𝑣 if not given.

4. Air Conditioning (Psychrometrics + Energy Balance)

Problem:
Air at 35°C, 40% relative humidity is cooled and dehumidified to 15°C. If the initial mass flow rate is 1
kg/s, calculate the rate of condensation (water removed).
Solution:
Step 1: Find initial and final absolute humidity (𝜔) using psychrometric charts or equations.
• At 35°C, 40% RH: 𝜔1 ≈ 0.015 kg H₂O/kg dry air
• At 15°C (saturated): 𝜔2 ≈ 0.007 kg H₂O/kg dry air
22
Step 2: Water condensed per second
𝛥𝜔 = 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 = 0.015 − 0.007 = 0.008
Condensation rate = 1 × 0.008 = 0.008 kg/s
Tips:
• Use psychrometric charts for humidity values.
• Always check if final air is saturated.

5. Real Gas (Van der Waals Equation)

Problem:
Calculate the pressure exerted by 1 mol of CO₂ in a 10 L vessel at 300 K using the Van der Waals
equation. (𝑎 = 3.59 L²·atm/mol², 𝑏 = 0.0427 L/mol, 𝑅 = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K)
Solution:
Van der Waals:
𝑎
(𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉2
𝑉 = 10 L, 𝑛 = 1 mol
3.59
(𝑃 +) (10 − 0.0427) = 0.0821 × 300
102
(𝑃 + 0.0359)(9.9573) = 24.63
24.63
𝑃 + 0.0359 = = 2.474
9.9573
𝑃 = 2.474 − 0.0359 = 2.438 atm
Tips:
• Always use the correct units for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑅.
• Substitute values carefully and solve stepwise.

6. Two-Step Heating and Expansion (First Law + Phase Change)

Problem:
A 1 kg sample of water at 20°C (liquid) is heated at constant pressure (1 atm) until it becomes steam at
120°C.
(a) Calculate the total heat required.
(b) Sketch the process on a T-v diagram.
Solution:
Step 1: Heat to 100°C (liquid):
𝑄1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝛥𝑇 = 1 × 4.18 × (100 − 20) = 334.4 kJ

Step 2: Vaporize at 100°C:

Latent heat of vaporization ℎ𝑓𝑔 ≈ 2257 kJ/kg
𝑄2 = 1 × 2257 = 2257 kJ

23
Step 3: Heat steam from 100°C to 120°C:
𝐶𝑝,𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 ≈ 2.0 kJ/kg·K
𝑄3 = 1 × 2.0 × (120 − 100) = 40 kJ
Step 4: Total heat:
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 334.4 + 2257 + 40 = 2631.4 kJ
Step 5: T-v Diagram:
• Draw a horizontal line at 1 atm.
• Mark 20°C (liquid), 100°C (liquid), horizontal line (phase change), then 120°C (vapor).
Trick:
Don’t forget the phase change step and use the correct 𝐶𝑝 for each phase.

7. Gas Turbine (Brayton Cycle) with Regeneration

Problem:
Air enters a compressor at 100 kPa, 300 K and is compressed to 1 MPa. It is heated to 1400 K, expands in
a turbine back to 100 kPa, and passes through a regenerator that preheats the air entering the combustor.
Assume isentropic processes, 𝛾 = 1.4, 𝐶𝑝 = 1.005 kJ/kg·K.
(a) Find the compressor and turbine work per kg.
(b) Find the net work output.
Solution:
Step 1: Compressor (isentropic):
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑃2 /𝑃1 )(𝛾−1)/𝛾 = 300 × (10)0.286 = 300 × 1.93 = 579 K
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 1.005 × (579 − 300) = 280.5 kJ/kg

Step 2: Turbine (isentropic):

𝑇4 = 𝑇3 (𝑃4 /𝑃3 )(𝛾−1)/𝛾 = 1400 × (0.1)0.286 = 1400 × 0.518 = 725.2 K
𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) = 1.005 × (1400 − 725.2) = 679.6 kJ/kg

Step 3: Net Work:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 679.6 − 280.5 = 399.1 kJ/kg

Trick:
Use isentropic relations for temperature changes and always subtract compressor work from turbine work
for net output.

8. Mixing and Final State (Energy + Entropy)

Problem:
A 2 kg block of copper at 500 K is dropped into 5 kg of water at 300 K in an insulated container. Find the
final equilibrium temperature and the total entropy change. (𝐶𝑝,𝐶𝑢 = 0.385 kJ/kg·K, 𝐶𝑝,𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4.18
kJ/kg·K)

24
Solution:
Step 1: Energy balance:
2 × 0.385 × (𝑇𝑓 − 500) + 5 × 4.18 × (𝑇𝑓 − 300) = 0
0.77(𝑇𝑓 − 500) + 20.9(𝑇𝑓 − 300) = 0
0.77𝑇𝑓 − 385 + 20.9𝑇𝑓 − 6270 = 0
21.67𝑇𝑓 = 6655
𝑇𝑓 = 307 K

Step 2: Entropy change:

𝛥𝑆𝐶𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ln(𝑇𝑓 /𝑇𝑖 ) = 2 × 0.385ln(307/500) = 0.77 × (−0.484) = −0.372 kJ/K\Delta S_{water}
= 5 \times 4.18 \ln(307/300) = 20.9 \times 0.023 = 0.481𝑘𝐽/𝐾
𝛥𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = −0.372 + 0.481 = 0.109 kJ/K
Trick:
Always use the correct mass and 𝐶𝑝 for each substance, and remember entropy can be negative for the
hotter object.

9. Two-Stage Compression with Intercooling

Problem:
Air is compressed from 100 kPa, 300 K to 1 MPa in two stages with perfect intercooling (air is cooled to
300 K between stages). Assume 𝛾 = 1.4, 𝐶𝑝 = 1.005 kJ/kg·K.
(a) Find the work required per kg.
Solution:
Step 1: Pressure ratio per stage:
Total ratio = 10, so each stage: √10 = 3.16
Step 2: Work per stage:
𝑇2 = 300 × (3.16)0.286 = 300 × 1.37 = 411 K
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 1.005 × (411 − 300) = 111.5 kJ/kg
Total work = 2 × 111.5 = 223 kJ/kg
Trick:
For perfect intercooling, each stage returns to the original temperature.

10. Steam Quality after Expansion (Phase Change + Property Table)

Problem:
Steam at 2 MPa, 400°C expands adiabatically to 0.1 MPa in a turbine. If the final enthalpy is ℎ2 = 2100
kJ/kg and ℎ𝑓 at 0.1 MPa is 419 kJ/kg, ℎ𝑓𝑔 is 2257 kJ/kg, find the quality 𝑥2 of the steam at the exit.

Solution:
ℎ2 − ℎ𝑓 2100 − 419 1681
𝑥2 = = = = 0.745
ℎ𝑓𝑔 2257 2257

25
Trick:
Always use the correct enthalpy values for the phase and pressure, and remember quality is a ratio (0 to
1).

26