Chapter 5: Learning

CBSE Class 11 Psychology — Detailed Notes

Chapter 5 explains how people acquire new knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes, and
behaviours through experience and practice. It covers the nature of learning, major
approaches to learning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning,
cognitive learning, and verbal learning.

1. Meaning of Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential that occurs
as a result of experience or practice.

In simple words:

Learning is the process through which experience brings about a

relatively lasting change in behaviour or knowledge.

Examples

●​ A child learns to speak.

●​ A student learns mathematics.
●​ A person learns to ride a bicycle.
●​ A dog learns to respond to a bell.
●​ A student develops a study habit.

2. Characteristics of Learning
Learning has several important characteristics.

1. Learning involves a change

Learning results in some change in:

●​ Behaviour
 ●​ Knowledge
●​ Skills
●​ Attitudes
●​ Habits

2. The change is relatively permanent

Learning produces a relatively lasting change.

A temporary change is not necessarily learning.

Example

If you perform poorly on a test because you are tired, this temporary change is not
necessarily learning.

3. Learning results from experience

Learning generally occurs through:

●​ Practice
●​ Observation
●​ Interaction
●​ Training
●​ Experience

4. Learning can involve behaviour or behavioural

potential
Sometimes learning may not immediately appear as observable behaviour.

A person may learn something but demonstrate it only later.

Example

A student may understand a mathematical concept today but use it several days later.
5. Learning is relatively permanent
Learning is different from temporary changes caused by:

●​ Fatigue
●​ Illness
●​ Drugs
●​ Temporary emotional states

6. Learning is not limited to school

Learning occurs throughout life.

We learn through:

●​ Family
●​ School
●​ Friends
●​ Work
●​ Media
●​ Experience
●​ Observation

3. What is NOT Learning?

Not every change in behaviour is learning.

Reflexes
Some behaviours are natural and do not need to be learned.

Example:

Pulling your hand away from a hot object.

Maturation
Changes caused mainly by biological development are not considered learning.

Example:

Physical growth during puberty.

Temporary Changes
Temporary changes caused by fatigue, illness, or certain substances are not learning.

4. Learning and Performance

Learning and performance are not exactly the same.

Learning

Refers to a relatively lasting change that has been acquired.

Performance

Refers to how that learning is demonstrated at a particular time.

Example

A student may have learned an answer but perform poorly in an examination because of:

●​ Anxiety
●​ Lack of sleep
●​ Illness
●​ Distraction

Therefore:

Poor performance does not always mean that learning has not occurred.

5. Major Approaches to Learning

Important approaches include:

1.​ Behavioural approach

2.​ Cognitive approach
3.​ Observational/social learning approach

The behavioural approach includes:

●​ Classical conditioning
●​ Operant conditioning

6. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is strongly associated with Ivan Pavlov.

It explains how an organism learns an association between two stimuli.

7. Pavlov's Experiment
Pavlov studied digestion in dogs.

He noticed that dogs naturally salivated when food was presented.

Before Conditioning

Food → Salivation

Food naturally produces salivation.

Therefore:

●​ Food = Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

●​ Salivation = Unconditioned Response (UCR)

8. Neutral Stimulus
Pavlov presented a bell before giving the dog food.
Initially:

Bell → No significant salivation

The bell was initially a neutral stimulus because it did not naturally produce salivation.

9. During Conditioning
Pavlov repeatedly paired:

Bell + Food → Salivation

After several pairings, the dog learned the association between the bell and food.

10. After Conditioning

Eventually:

Bell → Salivation

The dog salivated when it heard the bell even when food was not presented.

The bell had become a Conditioned Stimulus (CS).

Salivation in response to the bell became a Conditioned Response (CR).

11. Classical Conditioning Terms

Term Meaning Example

Unconditioned Stimulus Naturally produces response Food

(UCS)

Unconditioned Response Natural response to UCS Salivation to food

(UCR)
 Neutral Stimulus (NS) Initially does not produce target Bell before
response conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus Previously neutral stimulus that Bell after

(CS) acquires significance conditioning

Conditioned Response Learned response to CS Salivation to bell

(CR)

12. Classical Conditioning Example in

Everyday Life
Suppose a student receives painful criticism every time they speak in front of the class.

Eventually, merely standing in front of the class may produce:

●​ Fear
●​ Nervousness
●​ Anxiety

The classroom situation has become associated with the unpleasant experience.

This demonstrates how emotional responses can be conditioned.

13. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage during which a conditioned response is learned.

It occurs when the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Example

Bell + Food → Salivation

Repeated pairing eventually produces:

Bell → Salivation
14. Extinction
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus, causing the conditioned response to weaken.

Example

If the bell is repeatedly presented without food:

Bell → No Food

Eventually:

Bell → Reduced/No Salivation

The conditioned response decreases.

15. Spontaneous Recovery

Sometimes an extinguished conditioned response can reappear after a rest period.

This is called spontaneous recovery.

Example

After the dog stops salivating to the bell, the bell is presented again after some time.

The dog may temporarily salivate again.

16. Generalisation
Stimulus generalisation occurs when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also
produce the conditioned response.

Example

A dog conditioned to respond to one particular tone may also respond to similar tones.

Everyday example
A child frightened by one particular dog may become afraid of other similar-looking dogs.

17. Discrimination
Stimulus discrimination is the ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and
other similar stimuli.

Example

A dog may learn to respond to one specific tone but not to other tones.

18. Generalisation vs Discrimination

Generalisation Discrimination

Similar stimuli produce similar responses Organism distinguishes between stimuli

Response spreads to similar stimuli Response becomes specific

Example: fear of similar dogs Example: fear only of one particular dog

19. Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is mainly associated with B. F. Skinner.

It explains learning through the consequences of behaviour.

Basic principle:

Behaviour followed by favourable consequences is more likely to occur

again.

Behaviour followed by unfavourable consequences is less likely to occur.

20. Skinner's Experiment
Skinner used a device commonly known as a Skinner box.

It could contain:

●​ A lever
●​ Food dispenser
●​ Other controlled stimuli

A hungry rat placed inside might accidentally press a lever.

If pressing the lever produced food:

Lever pressing → Food

The rat gradually learned to press the lever more frequently.

21. Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring
again.

There are two major types:

1.​ Positive reinforcement

2.​ Negative reinforcement

22. Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant or desirable consequence after a
behaviour.

Example

Student studies → Gets praise → Studies more

Here, praise increases studying behaviour.

Other examples:

●​ Good grades
●​ Rewards
●​ Appreciation
●​ Bonuses

23. Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour, which
increases the likelihood of that behaviour.

Example

A person wears a seat belt:

Seat belt worn → Warning sound stops

The removal of the unpleasant sound encourages seat-belt use.

⭐ Important: Negative Reinforcement ≠

Punishment
This is a very common exam question.

Negative Reinforcement

Increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant.

Punishment

Decreases behaviour.

24. Punishment
Punishment is a consequence that reduces the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

It can involve:

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant.

Example:

Student breaks a rule → Receives a reprimand.

Negative Punishment

Removing something pleasant.

Example:

Child misbehaves → Loss of a privilege.

25. Reinforcement vs Punishment

Reinforcement Punishment

Increases behaviour Decreases behaviour

Encourages behaviour Discourages behaviour

Can be positive or negative Can be positive or negative

Example: praise for studying Example: loss of privilege for breaking rules

26. Positive vs Negative

The words positive and negative do not mean "good" and "bad."

They mean:

●​ Positive = adding something

●​ Negative = removing something
Four combinations
Increases Behaviour Decreases Behaviour

Positive Positive reinforcement Positive punishment

Negative Negative reinforcement Negative punishment

27. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers
These satisfy basic biological needs.

Examples:

●​ Food
●​ Water
●​ Warmth

Secondary Reinforcers
These acquire reinforcing value through learning.

Examples:

●​ Money
●​ Grades
●​ Praise
●​ Certificates
●​ Tokens

28. Continuous and Partial

Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs.

Example

Every time a child completes homework, they receive praise.

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement
A behaviour is reinforced only some of the time.

Example

A student receives praise for some assignments but not every assignment.

Partial reinforcement can make behaviour more resistant to extinction.

29. Shaping
Shaping is the process of teaching a complex behaviour by reinforcing successive steps or
approximations toward the desired behaviour.

Example

To teach a child to write:

1.​ Hold a pencil.

2.​ Make lines.
3.​ Draw shapes.
4.​ Write letters.
5.​ Write words.

Each step can be reinforced.

30. Observational Learning

Observational learning occurs when an individual learns by observing the behaviour of
others.
It is strongly associated with Albert Bandura.

A person does not always need direct reinforcement to learn.

They can learn simply by watching:

●​ Parents
●​ Teachers
●​ Friends
●​ Athletes
●​ Celebrities
●​ Other role models

31. Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura conducted experiments in which children observed adults behaving aggressively
toward a Bobo doll.

Children who observed aggressive behaviour were more likely to reproduce similar
behaviours.

The experiment demonstrated the importance of:

Observation and imitation in learning.

32. Processes in Observational Learning

Bandura identified four important processes:

1. Attention

The learner must pay attention to the model.

2. Retention

The learner must remember the observed behaviour.

3. Reproduction

The learner must be capable of performing the behaviour.

4. Motivation

The learner must have a reason or motivation to reproduce the behaviour.

Memory Trick:

A→R→R→M

Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation

33. Role of Models

A model is a person whose behaviour is observed and potentially imitated.

Models may be:

●​ Parents
●​ Teachers
●​ Friends
●​ Siblings
●​ Public figures
●​ Characters in media

Characteristics that can make a model influential

●​ Similarity
●​ Status
●​ Competence
●​ Popularity
●​ Rewarded behaviour

34. Vicarious Reinforcement

Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a person observes someone else being rewarded for
a behaviour and becomes more likely to perform that behaviour.

Example

A student sees another student praised for answering questions.

The observer may become more willing to answer questions.

35. Vicarious Punishment

Vicarious punishment occurs when a person observes someone being punished for a
behaviour and becomes less likely to perform that behaviour.

Example

A student sees another student being punished for cheating.

The student may avoid cheating.

36. Cognitive Learning

Not all learning is explained through direct reinforcement or conditioning.

People can also learn through:

●​ Thinking
●​ Understanding
●​ Reasoning
●​ Problem-solving
●​ Observing relationships

This is known as cognitive learning.

37. Insight Learning

Insight learning involves suddenly understanding the relationship between different parts of
a problem and arriving at a solution.

It is associated with Wolfgang Köhler.

Example

An individual suddenly realises:

 "I can use this object to reach the goal."

The solution appears through understanding rather than gradual trial and error.

38. Latent Learning

Latent learning refers to learning that occurs without an immediate observable reward and
becomes apparent later when there is a reason to demonstrate it.

Example

A student may learn the layout of a school simply by moving around it, even without
consciously trying to memorise it.

Later, they may use that knowledge to find a classroom.

39. Verbal Learning

Verbal learning involves learning and remembering verbal material.

Examples:

●​ Words
●​ Sentences
●​ Poems
●​ Definitions
●​ Lists
●​ Facts

40. Methods of Verbal Learning

Verbal material can be learned through:

Rote Learning

Material is memorised through repetition without necessarily understanding its meaning.

Example:

Memorising a list of definitions word-for-word.

Meaningful Learning

Information is understood and connected with existing knowledge.

Example:

Understanding the concept of conditioning rather than merely memorising its

definition.

Meaningful learning generally supports better understanding and retention.

41. Factors Affecting Learning

Learning is influenced by several factors.

1. Motivation
Motivated learners generally put more effort into learning.

Example

A student preparing for an important examination may study more consistently.

2. Practice
Repeated practice strengthens learning.

Example

Regularly solving mathematics problems improves skill.

3. Reinforcement
Positive consequences can strengthen desired behaviours.
4. Feedback
Feedback informs learners about their performance.

Example

A teacher tells a student which parts of an answer were correct and which need
improvement.

5. Attention
Learning requires attention to the material.

Distraction can reduce learning efficiency.

6. Intelligence and Abilities

Individual differences in cognitive abilities can influence learning.

7. Previous Knowledge
New information is easier to understand when connected with existing knowledge.

8. Emotional State
Stress, anxiety, excitement, and mood can affect learning.

9. Environment
Learning is affected by:
 ●​ Noise
●​ Lighting
●​ Temperature
●​ Classroom conditions
●​ Social environment

42. Learning Curve

A learning curve represents changes in performance as practice increases.

Initially, performance may improve rapidly.

Later, improvement may slow down.

43. Plateau in Learning

A learning plateau is a period during which performance shows little or no apparent
improvement despite continued practice.

Possible reasons

●​ Fatigue
●​ Lack of motivation
●​ Ineffective practice
●​ Difficulty of the task
●​ Need for a new strategy

A plateau does not necessarily mean that learning has completely stopped.

44. Transfer of Learning

Transfer of learning occurs when previous learning influences new learning or
performance.
Positive Transfer
Previous learning helps new learning.

Example

Knowing Hindi may help someone learn another language with similar vocabulary or
structure.

Negative Transfer
Previous learning interferes with new learning.

Example

A person accustomed to driving on one side of the road may initially find it difficult to adapt to
a different driving system.

Zero Transfer
Previous learning has little or no effect on new learning.

45. Positive vs Negative vs Zero Transfer

Type Effect

Positive transfer Previous learning helps

Negative transfer Previous learning interferes

Zero transfer Previous learning has little/no effect

46. Learning by Trial and Error

Trial-and-error learning involves trying different responses until a successful one is
discovered.

It is associated with Edward L. Thorndike.

Thorndike's Puzzle Box

Thorndike placed cats in a puzzle box.

The cat initially made various unsuccessful movements.

Eventually, it performed the action needed to escape and receive food.

With repeated trials, the successful behaviour occurred more quickly.

47. Law of Effect

Thorndike proposed the Law of Effect.

It states, broadly, that:

Behaviours followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated,

while behaviours followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be
repeated.

This principle influenced later work on operant conditioning.

48. Classical vs Operant Conditioning

This is a very important comparison.

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Associated with Pavlov Associated with Skinner

Learning through association between Learning through consequences

stimuli
Response is elicited by a stimulus Behaviour is emitted and followed by
consequences

Focuses on stimulus-response Focuses on behaviour and its consequences

association

Example: salivating to a bell Example: studying more after receiving praise

49. Classical Conditioning vs

Observational Learning
Classical Conditioning Observational Learning

Learning through stimulus association Learning through observing others

Direct experience is usually involved Direct experience is not always necessary

Pavlov Bandura

Example: fear associated with a stimulus Example: copying a parent's behaviour

50. Operant Conditioning vs

Observational Learning
Operant Conditioning Observational Learning

Learning through consequences Learning through observing models

Reinforcement/punishment is important Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

are important

Skinner Bandura
 Behaviour changes based on its Behaviour can be learned by watching
consequences others

51. Learning and Motivation

Motivation plays an important role in learning.

A motivated learner is more likely to:

●​ Pay attention
●​ Practise
●​ Persist
●​ Use effective strategies
●​ Seek feedback

Example

A student who has a strong goal of entering a particular course may be more motivated to
study difficult subjects.

52. Learning and Reinforcement

Reinforcement can strengthen learning.

Example

A student receives praise after completing homework.

Homework → Praise → Increased likelihood of completing homework

However, effective learning is not dependent only on external rewards. Understanding,

interest, curiosity, and intrinsic motivation can also support learning.

53. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in

Learning
Intrinsic Motivation
Learning because the activity itself is interesting or satisfying.

Example:

Reading about astronomy because you genuinely enjoy it.

Extrinsic Motivation
Learning to obtain an external outcome.

Example:

Studying to obtain good grades.

54. Role of Practice

Practice strengthens skills and improves performance.

Effective Practice

●​ Regular
●​ Distributed over time
●​ Focused
●​ Combined with feedback

Distributed Practice

Practice is spread across several sessions.

Massed Practice

Practice is concentrated into a short period.

For long-term retention, distributed practice is generally more effective than cramming.

55. Forgetting and Learning

Forgetting is related to learning because information that is not adequately encoded, stored,
or retrieved may not be available later.

Learning can be improved through:

●​ Repetition
●​ Meaningful organisation
●​ Practice
●​ Active recall
●​ Connecting new knowledge with existing knowledge

56. Applications of Learning Principles

Education
Teachers can use:

●​ Reinforcement
●​ Feedback
●​ Demonstration
●​ Practice
●​ Meaningful learning

Parenting
Parents can encourage desirable behaviours through:

●​ Appropriate reinforcement
●​ Consistent rules
●​ Positive role modelling

Workplace
Organisations use learning principles for:

●​ Employee training
●​ Skill development
●​ Performance improvement
Behaviour Modification
Learning principles can be used to increase desirable behaviours and reduce undesirable
behaviours.

57. Important Terms

Term Meaning

Learning Relatively permanent change due to experience/practice

Classical Learning through association between stimuli

conditioning

Operant conditioning Learning through consequences of behaviour

Reinforcement Consequence that increases behaviour

Punishment Consequence that decreases behaviour

Positive Adding something pleasant to increase behaviour

reinforcement

Negative Removing something unpleasant to increase behaviour

reinforcement

Extinction Weakening of a conditioned response when

reinforcement/association is no longer provided

Spontaneous Reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period

recovery

Generalisation Responding similarly to similar stimuli

Discrimination Distinguishing between similar stimuli

Observational Learning by observing others
learning

Model Person whose behaviour is observed

Insight Sudden understanding of a solution

Latent learning Learning that is not immediately expressed

Transfer of learning Influence of previous learning on new learning

Shaping Learning a complex behaviour through successive

approximations

Learning plateau Period of little apparent improvement

⭐ Important Psychologists
Psychologist Major Contribution

Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning

B. F. Skinner Operant conditioning

Albert Bandura Observational/social learning

Edward L. Thorndike Trial-and-error learning; Law of Effect

Wolfgang Köhler Insight learning

⭐ Important Diagrams
Classical Conditioning
BEFORE CONDITIONING

Food ─────────────→ Salivation

(UCS) (UCR)
Bell ──────────────→ No Salivation
(NS)

DURING CONDITIONING

Bell + Food ───────→ Salivation

NS UCS UCR

AFTER CONDITIONING

Bell ──────────────→ Salivation

(CS) (CR)

Operant Conditioning
Behaviour
↓
Consequence
↓
┌─────────────────────┐
│ │
│ Reinforcement │ Punishment
│↓ │↓
│ Behaviour increases │ Behaviour decreases
│ │
└─────────────────────┘

Observational Learning
Observe Model
↓
Attention
↓
Retention
↓
Reproduction
↓
Motivation
↓
Behaviour
⭐ Four Types of Consequences
CONSEQUENCE
│
┌───────────┴───────────┐
│ │
INCREASES DECREASES
BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOUR
│ │
REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT
│ │
┌─────┴─────┐ ┌─────┴─────┐
│ │ │ │
Positive Negative Positive Negative
│ │ │ │
Add Remove Add Remove
pleasant unpleasant unpleasant pleasant

Remember:

Positive = Add​
Negative = Remove

Reinforcement = Increase behaviour​

Punishment = Decrease behaviour

⭐ Chapter 5 Quick Revision

Learning

Experience → Relatively permanent change

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov → Association between stimuli

Key concepts:

UCS → UCR​
CS → CR
Processes:

Acquisition → Extinction → Spontaneous Recovery → Generalisation →

Discrimination

Operant Conditioning

Skinner → Consequences of behaviour

Reinforcement → Increases behaviour

Punishment → Decreases behaviour

Observational Learning

Bandura → Learning by observing models

Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation

Cognitive Learning

Insight → Sudden understanding

Latent learning → Learning without immediate performance

Trial and Error

Thorndike → Law of Effect

Transfer

Positive → Helps

Negative → Interferes

Zero → No significant effect

⭐ Chapter 5 in 15 Lines
1.​ Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential
resulting from experience or practice.
2.​ Learning is different from temporary changes, reflexes, and maturation.
3.​ Classical conditioning was studied by Ivan Pavlov.
4.​ Classical conditioning involves learning an association between stimuli.
5.​ Important terms are UCS, UCR, CS, and CR.
6.​ Important processes include acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery,
generalisation, and discrimination.
7.​ Operant conditioning was developed mainly through the work of B. F. Skinner.
8.​ Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of behaviour.
9.​ Reinforcement increases behaviour, whereas punishment decreases behaviour.
10.​Positive means adding and negative means removing a consequence.
11.​Observational learning was developed prominently by Albert Bandura.
12.​Observational learning involves attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation.
13.​Insight learning involves sudden understanding, while latent learning may remain
unexpressed until needed.
14.​Thorndike's Law of Effect explains learning through trial and error and
consequences.
15.​Learning is influenced by motivation, attention, practice, feedback, previous
knowledge, emotional state, and environment.