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SECTION 1: DETAILED NOTES

Plant and Animal Tissues

A. A Quick Recall — Cells, Tissues & Organs

What is a Cell?
All plants and animals are made up of cells. A cell is an accumulation of living substance called
protoplasm, bounded by an outer membrane (plasma membrane) and containing a nucleus.

Hierarchy of Organisation:

Level Definition Example

Cell Basic structural and functional unit of life Plant cell, Animal cell
Tissue Group of cells performing the same function Muscle tissue, Xylem
Tissue System Collection of tissues performing a general function Vascular system
Organ Tissue systems make up an organ Leaf, Heart
Organ System Organs make up an organ system Digestive system
Organism Organ systems make up an organism Human, Tree

B. Plant Tissues
Plant tissues are of two main types: Meristematic tissues (capable of division) and Permanent tissues
(mature cells, incapable of division).

1. Meristematic Tissues
Definition: Tissues composed of actively dividing cells. They possess the power of growth and
differentiation.
Cell Features:
 Cells are spherical, oval, or polygonal with thin cell walls
 Protoplasm is abundant; intercellular spaces are absent
 Prominent nucleus present; vacuoles are either lacking or considerably reduced
 Cells are made up of cellulose
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Types of Meristematic Tissue:

Type Location Function
Apical Meristem Tips of roots and stems (growing tip) Causes elongation of root and stem;
increases length
Lateral Meristem Beneath the bark in dicot roots and Causes increase in diameter and girth
(Cambium) stems, in vascular bundles (secondary growth)
Intercalary Meristem Internodes of stem Increases distance around the trunk

Age of a Tree: You can tell the age of a tree from its growth rings. Count rings from the outermost dark
ring outward. Do not count the bark.

2. Permanent Tissues
A permanent tissue has completed its growth and differentiation. It cannot divide to produce new cells.
These cells are made up of cellulose. Two types: Simple Permanent Tissues and Complex Permanent
Tissues.

2a. Simple Permanent Tissues

Made up of only one type of cell.
i. Parenchyma Tissue
 Cells are generally spherical or oval, thin-walled, living cells
 Intercellular spaces are plenty; contains a large central vacuole
 Found in soft parts of plant — cortex of roots, ground tissues in stems, mesophyll of leaves
 Large vacuoles store water, food, oil, fats, proteins, and starch
 If chloroplasts are present, it is called Chlorenchyma and performs photosynthesis
 Example: Root vegetables (carrot, beetroot), potato tubers store starch

ii. Collenchyma Tissue

 Permanent tissue of living cells with comparatively longer and thickened cells
 Cell wall is thickened at corners with cellulose (uneven thickening); intercellular spaces absent
 Found in few layers below the epidermis of dicotyledonous stems, roots and leaves
 Absent in monocots; it is generally absent in roots
 Gives mechanical support to the plant
 Example: Stems of sunflower, stems of dicot plants

iii. Sclerenchyma Tissue

 Permanent tissue made up of long, narrow, dead cells
 Cell walls are evenly and heavily thickened with lignin; no intercellular spaces
 Intercellular spaces absent; cells taper at ends (like dead fibres)
 Found in stems, veins of leaves, hard coverings of seeds and nuts
 Purely mechanical in function — gives strength and rigidity to the plant body
 Example: Stone cells in seeds and nuts (provide protection)
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2b. Complex Permanent Tissues (Conducting Tissues)

Made up of more than one type of cell. They are conducting tissues found in vascular plants.
Comparison of Xylem and Phloem:
Feature Xylem Phloem
Cell type Dead cells (with lignin) Living cells
Composition Xylem vessels, tracheids, xylem fibres, xylem Sieve tubes, companion cells,
parenchyma phloem fibres, phloem
parenchyma
Function Conducts water and minerals from roots upward Conducts food (sugars) from
to leaves leaves to all parts
Direction Upward only Both directions (upward &
downward)
Location Inner part of vascular bundle Outer part of vascular bundle
(phloem is outer to xylem)

Cambium: Located between xylem and phloem. Phloem is outer to xylem in the vascular bundle.
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C. Animal Tissues
Animal tissues are classified into four main types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous tissue.

1. Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue lines the body inside and out. It is composed of one or more layers of thin, flat, irregular-
shaped cells that fit tightly together to form a compact tissue called squamous epithelium. It protects
underlying parts of the body from mechanical injury, entry of germs, chemicals and drying.
Types of Epithelial Tissue:
 Squamous epithelium: Thin, flat cells lining the skin and cavities of ducts
 Cuboidal epithelium: Cube-shaped cells; lines kidney tubules, salivary glands, tear glands
 Columnar epithelium: Taller than broad; lines intestines and stomach, adapted for secretion;
some cells have cilia (ciliated epithelium)
 Ciliated epithelium: Found in pharynx/trachea; cilia move mucus and particles toward the
pharynx

2. Connective Tissue
Connects the parts of the body. Cells are embedded in a non-living intercellular matrix (also called the
main bulk of the tissue).
 A. Areolar Tissue — binds and fills spaces between organs. Contains blood vessels and nerves.
Found around muscles and inside organs.
 B. Ligament — connects bone to bone; forms a packing around joints so they do not get
displaced.
 C. Tendon — connects muscle to bone.
 D. Bone — hard porous tissue; matrix impregnated with calcium phosphates and carbonates.
Long bones have a hollow cavity filled with bone marrow (richly supplied with blood vessels).
Provides attachment points for muscles, protects internal organs.
 E. Cartilage — non-porous, flexible tissue; matrix of proteins slightly hardened by calcium salts.
Found in ear pinna, nose tip, rings of trachea, epiglottis, ends of long bones, lower ribs. Gives
flexibility and reduces friction between bones at joints.
 F. Blood (Fluid Connective Tissue) — consists of plasma (non-living fluid matrix) containing:
Erythrocytes (RBCs — transport oxygen via haemoglobin), Leucocytes (WBCs — fight infection),
Thrombocytes (platelets — clotting). Transports nutrients, hormones, vitamins, and excretory
products.
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3. Muscular Tissue
Consists of very large cells with the ability to contract and relax. Three types:

Feature Striated (Skeletal) Unstriated (Smooth) Cardiac

Appearance Light and dark bands No stripes/striations Stripes + light/dark bands
Cell shape Long, cylindrical Long, narrow, spindle-shaped Cylindrical, branched
Nucleus Multiple nuclei Single, centrally located Single, centrally located
Control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Location Attached to bones; face, Walls of stomach, intestines, Heart only
neck uterus, blood vessels
Function Body movement, Moves food, controls urine Pumps blood tirelessly
locomotion flow, etc.

4. Nervous Tissue
The body's communication network. Consists of specialised cells called neurons that receive stimuli and
send impulses to different parts.
Structure of a Neuron:
 Cyton (cell body): Contains nucleus and Nissl's Granules (for protein synthesis)
 Dendrites: Short processes arising from the cell body that receive impulses
 Axon: Single long cylindrical process that transmits impulses; ends in terminal branches with
synaptic bulbs

Nerve: Several neurons enclosed in sheaths bound together in parallel bundles form a nerve.
Function: Nervous tissue found in brain and spinal cord. Responsible for responsiveness of animals,
perception, and all nervous functions.
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Plant and Animal Classification

1. Introduction
Planet Earth is teeming with plants and animals. Human beings depend upon them to fulfil many of their
needs — they serve as sources of food and clothing and also help maintain the balance in nature. Since
our very existence depends on plants and animals, it is important for us to know and understand as much
as we can about them.
Until biology became a science, people used common local names to identify plants and animals.
Language was a major constraint — even in one language, some organisms have several names while
others have none. This problem was resolved by the Swedish biologist, Carl Linnaeus, who put forth the
Binomial Nomenclature system of naming and classifying living things.
By this system, an organism is known by its generic name (name of genus) and species.

Parts of a Binomial Name

 Generic Name (Genus): All closely related organisms with very similar features share the same
generic name. Genus is written first, with the initial letter in capital. For example, lion and tiger
have the same generic name: Panthera.
 Species (Specific Name): This name distinguishes the organism from all others. The species
name is always written in italics, and its initial letter is always small. E.g., tigris (tiger), leo (lion),
pardus (black panther).

Examples of Binomial Names

Common Name Scientific Name (Genus + Species)

Tiger Panthera tigris

Lion Panthera leo

Black Panther Panthera pardus

The ultimate object of classification is to arrange organisms to show the sequence of their origin and
evolution — from simpler, primitive types to more complex advanced types — establishing a genetic
relationship.

Nomenclature and Taxonomy

 Nomenclature: The system of naming living organisms.
 Taxonomy: The science that deals with the naming and classification of living organisms.

Advantages of Binomial Nomenclature

 Since every living organism is known by a single name all over the world, there is no confusion.
 The names are generally related to some characteristic of the organism.
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 An incorrect binomial name can be corrected.

2. Units of Classification
Living organisms are classified in a hierarchy. The sequence from the largest to the smallest unit is:

Unit Description / Example

Kingdom Largest unit — e.g., Animalia, Plantae, Monera

Phylum Major subdivision of Kingdom

Class Subdivision of Phylum

Order Subdivision of Class

Family Subdivision of Order

Genus Closely related species grouped together

Species Smallest unit — individuals that can interbreed

Mnemonic: King Philip Came Over For Good Soup → Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus,
Species

3. The Five Kingdom Classification

All living organisms are divided into five kingdoms:

Kingdom Example Organisms

1. Monera Bacteria

2. Protista Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Bread mould

3. Fungi Mushrooms, Moulds

4. Plantae All flowering and non-flowering plants

5. Animalia All animals

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Classification Tree of Living Organisms

Living organisms are first divided into Prokaryotic (no true nucleus — Kingdom Monera) and Eukaryotic
(true nucleus present). Eukaryotes are further divided into Unicellular (Kingdom Protista) and Multicellular.
Multicellular eukaryotes with a cell wall and autotrophic nutrition form Kingdom Plantae; those with a cell
wall but heterotrophic nutrition form Kingdom Fungi; those without a cell wall form Kingdom Animalia.

4. Kingdom Monera
Monerans are the most primitive group of living organisms. A moneran cell is a simple prokaryotic cell —
it is not bound by a nuclear membrane but the genetic material exists free in the cytoplasm. This kingdom
includes tiny, microscopic unicellular organisms like bacteria. Bacteria are microscopic, unicellular and
asexually reproducing. They do not have a nuclear membrane or chlorophyll, and lead either a
saprophytic or parasitic mode of existence.

Study of Bacteria
Bacteria are found in air, water, soil, foodstuffs, the intestines of humans and animals, and on dead
decaying matter. They are among the smallest of all living organisms and can exist as single cells, in
pairs, chains or clusters. On the basis of shape, the three main types are:
 Coccus: Spherical in shape.
 Bacillus: Rod-shaped; may be flagellated or non-flagellated.
 Spirillum: Spirally twisted bacteria with flagella.

Types of Cocci

Type Arrangement

Micrococcus Solitary — occurring as single cells

Diplococcus Occurring in pairs

Streptococcus Occurring in chains

Staphylococcus Occurring in clusters (like grapes)

Characteristics of Bacteria
 A bacterial cell is prokaryotic. Chromatin material is present in the central region.
 Nucleolus is absent.
 Cell wall is composed mainly of chitin.
 A slime capsule or sheath surrounds the cell wall — it protects bacteria from toxic compounds
and helps them adhere to surfaces and resist drying.
 Mitochondria, plastids (chlorophyll) and other membrane-bound organelles are absent.
 Reserve food is glycogen.
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Saprophyte and Parasite

 Saprophyte: A plant, fungus or microorganism that derives nutrition from dead or decaying
organic matter.
 Parasite: An organism that obtains its nutrition from other living organisms (the host), often
harming it.

Useful Bacteria
1. Use in Medicine
 Life-saving antibiotic drugs like chloromycetin and streptomycin are derived from bacteria.
These control and cure diseases like pneumonia, typhoid, diphtheria, tuberculosis and other
infections.
 Certain bacteria dwelling in the intestines of humans and other vertebrates synthesise
vitamins, especially of the B group.
 The ability of certain bacteria to break down complex organic matter into simpler substances
is utilised in Gobar Gas plants.
2. Gobar Gas / Fuel Production
Cowdung and other excreta are collected in a Gobar Gas plant and subjected to bacterial action. Bacteria
break down the cellulose and release inflammable gases consisting mainly of methane, used for domestic
cooking. The solid and liquid residue serves as rich manure. Thus two purposes are served: (i) generation
of domestic fuel, and (ii) supply of rich manure.
3. The Nitrogen Cycle
Soil bacteria help fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into soluble nitrates, which plants absorb to
make proteins. During thunder and lightning, nitrogen and oxygen of the air combine to form soluble
nitrates. Decomposing bacteria break down dead organic matter into simple nitrogen compounds.
Leguminous plants use nitrogen directly with the help of symbiotic bacteria in their root nodules.
Key terms in decomposition:
 Decay: Complete breakdown of organic matter in the presence of air (aerobic), without foul
smell.
 Putrefaction: Bacterial decomposition in limited or no oxygen (anaerobic); incomplete
breakdown of organic matter; produces a foul smell.
 Fermentation: Breakdown of carbohydrates by anaerobic bacteria.
4. Curing of Cheese, Tobacco and Tea
The flavour of cheese, tea and tobacco depends upon the fermentation and putrefaction it undergoes — a
process called curing, brought about by different bacteria.
Production of Vinegar: Certain bacteria convert ethyl alcohol into acetic acid (vinegar).
Formation of Curd: Bacteria convert lactose (milk sugar) in milk into lactic acid, giving curd its sour taste.

Harmful Bacteria
 Cause diseases and allergies: Typhoid, tetanus, tuberculosis, pneumonia, dysentery, cholera,
diphtheria and whooping cough are all caused by bacteria.
 Cause food spoilage: Bacteria cause fermentation and putrefaction of food products. Certain
bacteria release toxic (poisonous) substances causing food poisoning. Clostridium botulinum
found in tinned or sealed foods causes botulism.
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 Cause plant diseases: Black rot in cabbage, canker in citrus fruits, ring disease of potato, fire
blight of apple and pear.

5. Kingdom Protista
This kingdom includes organisms mostly having a single eukaryotic cell. They are mostly aquatic. Three
main categories are recognised depending on how they move:
 Pseudopodia (false feet) — e.g., Amoeba. Engulf prey by phagocytosis.
 Flagellates — e.g., Euglena. Move using flagella.
 Ciliates — e.g., Paramecium. Move using cilia.
Most protists are single-celled organisms. The giant kelp is a complex species and is the largest protist in
the world.

Study of Amoeba
Although the amoeba is extremely simple in structure, it possesses all the fundamental properties of the
protoplasm. Its single-celled body performs all the metabolic activities of higher multicellular forms.
Key features of Amoeba:

Feature Details

Example Amoeba, Paramoecium, Euglena

Habitat Ditches, slimy bottom of fresh-water ponds, slow running streams

Size About 0.25 mm in diameter

Shape Jelly-like mass of protoplasm; changes shape constantly

Structure Plasmalemma (outer membrane), nucleus, contractile vacuole,

food vacuole

Locomotion
Amoeba moves with the help of pseudopodia (false feet) — temporary, finger-like projections of the
cytoplasm. Formation of pseudopodia in any direction causes movement of the organism. This is called
amoeboid movement.

Nutrition (Holozoic)
Amoeba uses holozoic nutrition — it engulfs solid food particles using pseudopodia (phagocytosis). The
five steps are:
 Ingestion: Pseudopodia surround and engulf the food particle; a food vacuole is formed.
 Digestion: Enzymes enter the food vacuole and break down the food.
 Absorption: Digested food diffuses from the vacuole into the cytoplasm.
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 Assimilation: Absorbed food is used for growth and energy; amoeba increases in size.
 Egestion: Undigested food is expelled from the body.

Excretion
Amoeba has no special excretory organ. The contractile vacuole collects metabolic wastes and excess
water, swells up, rises to the surface, and bursts — releasing waste into the surroundings. It also
regulates water content in the body (osmoregulation).

Respiration
Respiration in amoeba is a simple process involving free exchange of gases by diffusion through the
general body surface. Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is given out. The body surface is permeable
to dissolved gases.

Reproduction
Amoeba reproduces asexually by two methods:
Binary Fission (favourable conditions): When food is abundant and temperature is optimum, the
nucleus elongates and divides, followed by division of the cytoplasm, producing two genetically identical
daughter cells.
Multiple Fission (unfavourable conditions): The amoeba retracts its pseudopodia and secretes a thick
three-layered cyst wall. Inside the cyst, the nucleus divides multiple times, then the cytoplasm divides
around each nucleus to form many spores. When conditions improve, the cyst wall bursts and young
amoebae emerge.

Entamoeba histolytica
Entamoeba histolytica is an intestinal parasite in humans. It feeds by engulfing blood cells and causes
amoebic dysentery, characterised by stools containing blood and mucus, accompanied by griping pain.
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Kingdom Fungi — Detailed Notes

1.1 Introduction to Fungi

Organisms in Kingdom Fungi are non-green because they lack chlorophyll. They cannot prepare their
own food through photosynthesis and so they rely on other sources for nutrition. They are either
saprotrophic (deriving nutrition from dead organic matter) or parasitic (living on a living host) or
saprophytes.

Key Characteristics of Fungi:

 Fungi are non-green — they lack chlorophyll.
 They cannot manufacture their own food (heterotrophic).
 They may be parasites (on living hosts) or saprophytes (on dead matter).
 Moulds are saprotrophic — they grow on dead organic matter such as dung, leather, bread,
rotten fruits, and other substances.
 Examples of fungi include moulds, mushrooms, and bread moulds.

1.2 Study of Bread Mould

Bread mould is one of the most commonly studied fungi. It can be grown simply by placing a piece of
bread under a bell jar and keeping it in a warm place. After a few days, a cottony mass is observed on the
bread's surface.

Characteristic Features of Moulds:

 Chlorophyll is absent — moulds are heterotrophic and cannot make their own food.
 The body of the fungus consists of branched filaments called hyphae.
 The body of the mould is made up of hyphae — long, thread-like structures.
 The cottony mass seen on the surface of the mould is called the mycelium.
 Several hyphae that penetrate into the substrate are called rhizoids — these anchor the mould
and absorb nutrients.
 The cytoplasm of the mould contains many nuclei.
 Vacuoles are also present; these are filled with glycogen and oil droplets.
 Moulds respire aerobically — they need oxygen.
 Moulds grow on the upper surface of the substrate.
 Digestion takes place outside the body (extracellular digestion). Hyphae secrete enzymes which
convert the food into simpler, soluble forms that can then be absorbed.
 Some hyphae become erect and bear the spore-bearing structure called sporangiophores.
 Within the sporangiophore, walls form around individual nuclei and form cells. These develop into
spores.
 The sporangia (spore cases) split open at the end of their development, releasing numerous
spores.
 Spores germinate and give rise to new individuals.
 Moulds reproduce asexually by sporulation.
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1.3 Economic Importance of Fungi

Fungi play an important role in the food industry, medicine, agriculture, and the chemical industry.

Food Industry:
 Mushrooms are rich in proteins and vitamins. They are cultivated for their nutritive value.
 Food yeast contains vitamins of the B group. It is a useful cure for many vitamin deficiency
diseases. It contains 14% protein and 15% fat.
 In Breweries: Fermentation of sugar by yeasts produces wine. In wine-making industries, the
alcohol formed is the main product. Carbon dioxide given off is collected, solidified, and sold as
dry ice.
 In Bakeries: Yeast is used as a source of carbon dioxide. As the carbon dioxide rises through the
dough, air spaces form, lending sponginess to the bread.
 Cheese Processing Industry: Fungi like Penicillium and Aspergillus are used in the cheese
processing industry.

Role in Agriculture:
 Enhance soil fertility: Saprophytic fungi decompose the dead bodies of plants and animals by
secreting enzymes. The nutrients released from these organisms enrich the soil. Soil fungi absorb
inorganic salts and prevent them from being drained away by rainwater.
 Protect against disease: Certain soil fungi fight and protect plants against diseases caused by
other soil-borne fungi.

Harmful Activities of Fungi:

 Diseases: Fungi cause diseases in plants (e.g. causing damage to crops), humans, and cattle.
 Food spoilage: Fruits, vegetables, meat, dairy products, bread, etc. are spoiled by certain fungi,
especially moulds.
 Tropical deterioration: The warm, moist conditions of tropical regions provide a suitable
environment for the growth of fungi. The fungi invade clothing, leather goods, photographic
materials, electrical equipment, and damage them. This is called tropical deterioration.

Fungal Diseases of Plants:

 Downy mildew of grapes
 Late blight of potatoes
 Rust in wheat and other cereal crops
 Smut in wheat and other cereal crops
 Leaf spot in groundnut

Fungal Diseases of Humans:

 Thrush: A throat and mouth infection.
 Ringworm: A skin disease characterised by circular patches (with raised margins) and severe
itching.
 Hay fever and allergies.
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Kingdom Plantae

2.1 Introduction to Kingdom Plantae

The plant kingdom can be broadly grouped into two main categories:

 Non-seed bearing plants (plants that do not produce seeds) — collectively known as cryptogams.
These include mosses, liverworts, and ferns.
 Seed-bearing plants (plants that produce seeds) — these are further divided into Gymnosperms
and Angiosperms.
Unicellular green algae are placed in Kingdom Protista, while larger, multicellular red and green algae are
placed in Kingdom Plantae.

2.2 Bryophyta — Mosses and Liverworts

Mosses and liverworts belong to the group Bryophyta. They have stem-like and leaf-like structures but
lack true roots. Instead, they have root-like structures called rhizoids which anchor them to the soil or
substrate. They reproduce by means of spores.

 They are found in moist, shady environments.

 They are non-vascular — they lack xylem and phloem.
 They are terrestrial but require water for reproduction.
 Red algae are mostly aquatic, while green algae are terrestrial.
 Example: Moss (has capsule, leaves, sea, spores) and Liverwort (has a frond, spores on the
underside of leaves).

2.3 Pteridophyta — Ferns

Ferns belong to the group Pteridophyta. They are vascular plants and have true roots, stems, and leaves.
They reproduce asexually and sexually through spores.

 Ferns are vascular plants — they have xylem and phloem.

 They have true roots, stems, and leaves (called fronds).
 Spores are borne on the underside of the fronds.
 Ferns do not produce seeds or flowers.

2.4 Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants in which the seed is not enclosed inside an ovary (seed
naked/uncovered). The seeds are enclosed within fruit in Angiosperms but not in Gymnosperms.

 Seeds are naked — not enclosed within a fruit.

 Cycads and conifers (like pine and fir) are examples of gymnosperms.
 Conifers are found in abundance in cool temperate mountain tops and the warm humid tropics.
 In gymnosperms, the male flower is a cone called microsporophyll which produces aromatic
pollen. The female flower consists of megasporophylls alternating with the leaves.
 Examples: Pine, fir, cedar, cycads.
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2.5 Angiosperms
Angiosperms are seed-bearing plants in which the seeds are enclosed within a fruit (ovary). Angiosperms
are further divided into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.

Monocotyledons (Monocots):
 Seeds have one cotyledon (seed leaf).
 Leaves are long with parallel venation.
 Leaves are sessile or have sheathing leaf base.
 Root system is fibrous.
 Stem is weak or reduced.
 Floral parts arranged in multiples of 3.
 Examples: Maize, wheat, rice, lily.

Dicotyledons (Dicots):
 Seeds have two cotyledons.
 Leaves have reticulate (net-like) venation.
 Leaves are petiolate (have a petiole/stalk).
 Root system has a tap root.
 Stem is strong.
 Floral parts arranged in multiples of 4 or 5 (pentamerous arrangement of floral whorls).
 Examples: Bean, peas, gram, mango, sunflower.

Comparison: Monocots vs Dicots

Feature Monocotyledons Dicotyledons

Cotyledons One (1) Two (2)

Leaf venation Parallel Reticulate (net-like)

Root system Fibrous root Tap root

Stem Weak or reduced Strong

Floral parts Multiples of 3 Multiples of 4 or 5

Leaf base Sessile / sheathing Petiolate

Examples Maize, wheat, rice, lily Bean, mango, sunflower

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Kingdom Animalia

3.1 Introduction to Animal Classification

Approximately 2000 million years ago, the first animal appeared in the waters of the Earth. Since then,
millions of animals have evolved. Scientists classify them according to their complexity, assuming that
complex animals evolved from simpler ones.

Animals are broadly divided into:

 Invertebrates — Animals without a backbone (vertebral column).

 Vertebrates — Animals with a backbone (vertebral column).

3.2 Invertebrates
Phylum Porifera (Sponges):
Porifera are colonies of cells growing in simple or branched forms. These are marine or freshwater
animals which remain stationary, attached to underwater rocks, coral reefs, water plants, crabs, and
molluscs. They can regenerate.

 The variously shaped body often gives out finger-like branches consisting of a hollow tube with
numerous pores (ostia) through which water (along with food) is drawn into the body.
 Digestion is intracellular — it takes place inside the body.
 Examples: Sycon, Spongilla (freshwater sponge).

Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata):

These are the simplest animals to have a nervous system or gut.

 Two-layered body is radially symmetrical.

 The body cavity (coelom) opens at one end which serves as the mouth and anus.
 The outer layer of the body has tentacles armed with stinging cells called nematocysts or
cnidoblasts which help the organism to escape danger and obtain food by paralysing its prey.
 Examples: Sea anemone, corals, jellyfish, Hydra.

Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms):

 Body is flat, ribbon-like, and unsegmented.
 Body cavity is absent.
 Bilaterally symmetrical.
 Alimentary canal has only one opening for mouth and anus.
 Examples: Tapeworm.

Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms):

 Body is soft, long, cylindrical.
 Bilaterally symmetrical and without segments.
 False body cavity is present.
 Alimentary canal has separate openings for mouth and anus.
 Examples: Ascaris (Roundworm).
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Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms):

 Body is soft with ring-like segments.
 Bilaterally symmetrical. True body cavity is present.
 Alimentary canal opens at both ends.
 Examples: Earthworm.

Phylum Mollusca:
 Molluscs have no close relatives and they constitute the teeming life forms of the fresh and
marine waters.
 They have a ventral, muscular foot.
 Their soft bodies are supported by a hard shell.
 They breathe through gills called ctenidia. Land molluscs have lungs.
 Examples: Ant, spider, crab, centipede.

Phylum Arthropoda:
Arthropoda accounts for nearly 80% of the animal kingdom. They inhabit soil, fresh water and marine
water and are also found as parasites on other plants and animals.

 Body is bilaterally symmetrical, segmented.

 Divided into two regions: cephalothorax (head and thorax fused) and abdomen, or three regions:
head, thorax, and abdomen.
 Soft body is protected by a hard, chitinous, rigid exoskeleton.
 Exoskeleton has a number of joints with thin, flexible membrane. These may be variously
modified for walking, swimming, feeding, and feeling.
 Examples: Ant, spider, crab, centipede, cockroach, beetle, beetle.

Phylum Echinodermata:
 These are marine animals, gregarious (live in groups) and free-living, with unsegmented bodies.
 They have a spiny exoskeleton.
 Their body is characterised by the absence of head and presence of regularly arranged arms.
 Examples: Starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber.

3.3 Phylum Chordata — Vertebrates

A notochord (a flexible rod-like structure) is present in all chordates at some time in their life. In
vertebrates, it is replaced by the vertebral column. Vertebrata is the main subdivision of Phylum Chordata.

The five classes of vertebrates are:

 Pisces (Fish)
 Amphibia (Frogs, toads, salamanders)
 Reptilia (Snakes, lizards, crocodiles, turtles)
 Aves (Birds)
 Mammalia (Mammals)

Vertebrates — Detailed Descriptions:

Fish (Class Pisces): All fish belong to this group. Fish have slimy, scaly skin and breathe with the help of
gills. In vertebrates, the skeleton is internal (endoskeleton) and forms a framework to which muscles are
attached. This gives the body a definite shape and form to the organs of the body.
 18

Amphibians (Class Amphibia): Amphibians can live on land and in water. Hence called amphibians.
They have a smooth, slimy skin. Examples: Frog, toad, salamander, and newt.

Reptiles (Class Reptilia): Reptiles have dry, scaly skin. Examples: Turtles, tortoises, lizards, and
crocodiles.

Birds (Class Aves): The body of birds is covered with feathers. Examples: Penguin, ostrich, and
peacock.

Mammals (Class Mammalia): The body of mammals is covered with hair. Mammals give birth to live
young ones and have milk glands. Examples: Horse, humans, monkey, whale, bat, kangaroo.

Comparative Summary of Vertebrates:

Characteristic Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

Terrestrial and Terrestrial and

Habitat Aquatic Terrestrial Arboreal
aquatic aquatic

Slimy Feathers
Exoskeleton Slimy scales Dry and scaly Hair present
scales present

Respiration organ Gills Gills, Lungs Lungs Lungs Lungs

Limbs, Large
Locomotory organ Fins Limbs Wings Limbs
and small

Summary Table: Invertebrate Phyla

Body
Phylum Key Feature Example(s)
Symmetry

Porifera Asymmetrical Pores all over body; intracellular digestion Sycon, Spongilla

Cnidaria Radial Stinging cells (nematocysts); two layers Hydra, Jellyfish, Coral

Platyhelminthes Bilateral Flat, unsegmented; single gut opening Tapeworm, Liver fluke

Cylindrical; false body cavity; two gut

Nematoda Bilateral Roundworm (Ascaris)
openings

Segmented; true body cavity; two gut

Annelida Bilateral Earthworm, Leech
openings
 19

Body
Phylum Key Feature Example(s)
Symmetry

Mollusca Bilateral Soft body; muscular foot; shell Snail, Slug, Cuttlefish

Ant, Spider, Crab,

Arthropoda Bilateral Exoskeleton; jointed legs
Butterfly

Echinodermata Radial Spiny exoskeleton; no head; tube feet Starfish, Sea urchin
 20

SECTION 2: QUICK REVISION NOTES

Chapter 1: Plant and Animal Tissues

Topic Summary Point

Basic Unit All living organisms are made of cells. Cells → Tissues → Tissue Systems →
Organs → Organ Systems → Organism.
Plant Tissues Two main types — Meristematic (dividing) and Permanent (non-dividing/mature).
Permanent tissues are further Simple (one cell type) or Complex (multiple cell
types).
Meristematic Apical (tips → elongation), Lateral/Cambium (sides → girth), Intercalary
(internodes). Cells are thin-walled, no vacuoles, prominent nucleus.
Simple Permanent Parenchyma (living, thin-walled, storage/photosynthesis), Collenchyma (living,
corners thickened, mechanical support), Sclerenchyma (dead, lignin,
strength/protection).
Complex Permanent Xylem (dead cells, conducts water upward) and Phloem (living cells, conducts food
in both directions). Together form vascular tissue.
Animal Tissues Four types — Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous.
Epithelial Lines and protects body surfaces. Types: Squamous, Cuboidal, Columnar, Ciliated.
Connective Includes Areolar, Ligament, Tendon, Bone, Cartilage, Blood. All have cells in a non-
living matrix.
Blood Fluid connective tissue. RBCs (oxygen), WBCs (immunity), Platelets (clotting),
Plasma (transport medium).
Muscular Skeletal/Striated (voluntary), Smooth/Unstriated (involuntary), Cardiac (involuntary,
in heart only).
Nervous Neurons with cyton, dendrites, and axon. Responsible for impulse transmission and
communication throughout the body.
 21

Plant Tissue Types

 Meristematic: Divides actively. Apical (length) → Lateral/Cambium (girth) → Intercalary
(internode).
 Simple Permanent: Parenchyma (storage, thin wall) | Collenchyma (support, thickened corners)
| Sclerenchyma (dead, lignin, protection).
 Complex Permanent: Xylem (water up, dead) | Phloem (food both ways, living).

Animal Tissue Types

 Epithelial: Lines body surfaces. Squamous | Cuboidal | Columnar | Ciliated.
 Connective: Has matrix. Areolar | Ligament | Tendon | Bone | Cartilage | Blood.
 Muscular: Skeletal (voluntary) | Smooth (involuntary) | Cardiac (heart, involuntary).
 Nervous: Neurons (cyton + dendrites + axon). Communication network of body.

Key Definitions to Remember

 Tissue = group of similar cells performing same function.
 Meristematic tissue = actively dividing cells.
 Cambium = lateral meristem, gives secondary growth (girth).
 Chlorenchyma = parenchyma with chloroplasts (photosynthesis).
 Neuron = structural and functional unit of nervous system.
 Haemoglobin = red pigment in RBCs that carries oxygen.
 Sclerenchyma = dead cells with lignin → strength and protection.

Quick Facts
 Age of a tree → count growth rings (do NOT count the bark).
 Blood = fluid connective tissue. Plasma is the non-living matrix.
 Xylem conducts water; Phloem conducts food (sugars).
 Cardiac muscle never tires; beats involuntarily throughout life.
 Cartilage reduces friction at joints; wears out with age → painful joints.
 Ciliated epithelium in trachea moves particles away from lungs.
 Node of Ranvier = gaps in myelin sheath along axon.
 WBCs fight infection; Platelets aid in clotting of blood.
 22

Plant and Animal Classification

Binomial Nomenclature: System by Carl Linnaeus. Organism named by Genus (capital initial) + species
(small, italic). E.g., Panthera tigris (tiger).
Nomenclature: The scientific system of naming living organisms.
Taxonomy: Science of naming and classifying organisms.
Classification units: Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species (largest to
smallest)
5 Kingdoms: Monera | Protista | Fungi | Plantae | Animalia
Prokaryotic cell: No true nucleus / no nuclear membrane. Found in Kingdom Monera (bacteria).
Eukaryotic cell: True nucleus present. Found in Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.
Bacteria shapes: Coccus (spherical), Bacillus (rod-shaped), Spirillum (spiral/twisted)
Cocci types: Micrococcus (single), Diplococcus (pairs), Streptococcus (chains), Staphylococcus
(clusters)
Bacterial cell wall: Made of chitin; surrounded by a slime capsule / sheath.
Reserve food (bacteria): Glycogen
Useful bacteria: Antibiotics (medicine) | Vitamin B synthesis | Gobar gas (methane) | Nitrogen fixation |
Curing (cheese, tea, tobacco) | Curd and vinegar production
Harmful bacteria: Cause typhoid, tuberculosis, cholera, dysentery, diphtheria, food spoilage (botulism),
plant diseases (black rot, canker, fire blight)
Gobar Gas main gas: Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen cycle role: Soil bacteria fix N2 → nitrates → plants use for protein synthesis → decomposition
returns N2 to atmosphere
Decay: Complete aerobic breakdown of organic matter — no foul smell
Putrefaction: Incomplete anaerobic breakdown — foul smell produced
Fermentation: Breakdown of carbohydrates by anaerobic bacteria
Botulism: Food poisoning caused by Clostridium botulinum in tinned/sealed foods
Amoeba features: Unicellular, eukaryotic, no fixed shape, pseudopodia for movement and feeding
Amoeba nutrition: Holozoic: Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption → Assimilation → Egestion
Contractile vacuole: Regulates water content (osmoregulation) and removes metabolic waste in
amoeba
Amoeba respiration: Simple diffusion through body surface — no special respiratory organ
Binary fission: Asexual reproduction under favourable conditions; one cell → two identical daughter cells
Multiple fission: Asexual reproduction under unfavourable conditions; cyst formed; one cell → many
spores
Entamoeba histolytica: Intestinal parasite in humans; causes amoebic dysentery; feeds on blood cells
 23

Pseudopodia: Temporary finger-like cytoplasmic extensions used for movement (amoeboid movement)
and food capture
Phagocytosis: Engulfing of food particles using pseudopodia
Saprophyte: Organism that feeds on dead/decaying matter
Parasite: Organism that feeds on another living organism (the host)
 24

Kingdom Fungi — At a Glance

 Fungi are non-green, lack chlorophyll, and are heterotrophic.
 Body made of thread-like structures called hyphae; mass = mycelium.
 Rhizoids: anchor + absorb. Sporangiophores: bear spores.
 Reproduction: asexual by sporulation. Spores germinate to form new fungi.
 Digestion is extracellular; enzymes secreted outside the body.
 Economic uses: food (mushrooms, yeast), bakeries, breweries, cheese.
 Harmful: cause plant diseases (rust, smut, blight), human diseases (thrush, ringworm), food
spoilage.
 Penicillium and Aspergillus: used in cheese processing.
 Soil fungi: enhance soil fertility and protect plants.

Kingdom Plantae — At a Glance

 Two groups: Non-seed bearing (cryptogams: mosses, liverworts, ferns) and Seed-bearing
(gymnosperms + angiosperms).
 Bryophyta: mosses and liverworts; no true roots, have rhizoids; non-vascular; reproduce by
spores.
 Pteridophyta: ferns; vascular; true roots, stems, leaves; spores on underside of fronds.
 Gymnosperms: naked seeds (not in fruit); conifers (pine, fir); male = microsporophyll, female =
megasporophyll.
 Angiosperms: seeds enclosed in fruit; divided into Monocots and Dicots.
 Monocots: 1 cotyledon, parallel venation, fibrous root. E.g. wheat, rice, maize.
 Dicots: 2 cotyledons, reticulate venation, tap root. E.g. mango, bean, sunflower.

Kingdom Animalia — At a Glance

 Animals: Invertebrates (no backbone) and Vertebrates (backbone present).
 Porifera: sponges; pores, stationary; intracellular digestion.
 Cnidaria: radial symmetry; nematocysts; Hydra, jellyfish.
 Platyhelminthes: flat, unsegmented; one gut opening; tapeworm.
 Nematoda: cylindrical; false body cavity; two gut openings; roundworm.
 Annelida: segmented; true body cavity; two gut openings; earthworm.
 Mollusca: soft body; muscular foot; hard shell; snail, slug.
 Arthropoda: 80% of animals; exoskeleton; jointed legs; ant, spider, crab.
 Echinodermata: marine; spiny exoskeleton; radial symmetry; starfish.
 Chordata: notochord → replaced by vertebral column in vertebrates.
 5 vertebrate classes: Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
 Pisces: gills; scaly; Amphibia: land+water, smooth skin; Reptilia: dry scaly; Aves: feathers;
Mammalia: hair, milk glands.
 25

SECTION 3: ANSWERS TO CHAPTER QUESTIONS

Chapter 1: Plant and Animal Tissues

Chapter Challenge — Plant Tissues

Q1. The following questions refer to illustrations A and B. (i) Why does A have a swollen
appearance?
Ans: A (onion) has a swollen appearance because it stores food (mainly sugars and starch) in the
fleshy leaf bases. These are parenchyma cells with large vacuoles filled with food materials.

Q1. (ii) Name the plant tissue that you would find in the hard covering of B (peanut/groundnut
shell).
Ans: Sclerenchyma tissue. The hard shell is made up of dead sclerenchyma cells with heavily lignified
walls.

Q1. (iii) Match the characteristics of tissues stated below with those found in A, B, both, or
neither: Nucleus is absent • Large vacuole present • Thin, cellulose cell wall present • Cell wall
thickened with lignin • Cell wall thickened at corners with cellulose
Ans: Nucleus is absent → Sclerenchyma (B only; dead cells); Large vacuole present → Parenchyma in
A (onion); Thin, cellulose cell wall present → A (parenchyma cells); Cell wall thickened with lignin → B
(sclerenchyma); Cell wall thickened at corners → Collenchyma (neither A nor B directly; collenchyma in
stems)

Q2. Study the diagram; select terms that describe the tissues at A, B, and C. (Terms: Meristematic,
Living, Simple, Complex, Permanent, Dead)
Ans: A (growing tip) → Meristematic tissue, Living tissue, Simple tissue. B (stem with vascular bundles)
→ Complex tissue, Permanent tissue. C (elongated cells shown) → Permanent tissue (Sclerenchyma),
Dead tissue

Q3. An activity was performed — water was taken in a jar and the stem of a herb was cut from its
base and placed in the jar coloured with red ink. (i) State the changes in the plant at the end of the
experiment.
Ans: The stem and leaves gradually turn red/pink. The red-coloured water moves upward through the
xylem vessels of the stem and reaches the leaves.

(ii) Show with an arrow the direction of movement of the coloured water in the plant.
Ans: The arrow should point UPWARD — from the base (roots) through the stem to the leaves. Xylem
transports water and minerals upward.

(iii) Name the tissue responsible for this movement of food.

Ans: Xylem tissue (specifically xylem vessels and tracheids) is responsible for conducting water and
dissolved minerals upward from roots to leaves.

(iv) Name any plant part other than those shown where such a type of tissue is found.
Ans: Roots — xylem is found throughout the root system for water absorption and conduction upward.
 26

(v) State one similarity and one difference between tissues named in (iii) and (iv).
Ans: Similarity: Both (xylem in stem and root) are complex permanent tissues made of dead cells.
Difference: In stems, xylem is arranged in vascular bundles; in roots, xylem forms a central cylinder
(xylem is solid in dicot roots).

(vi) State two functions of the stem, other than those already given.
Ans: 1. The stem provides mechanical support to hold the plant upright and bears leaves, flowers, and
fruits. 2. The stem stores food and water (e.g., succulents, potato tuber is a modified stem).

(vii) List any two features at the cellular level that make these tissues different from animal
tissues.
Ans: 1. Plant tissue cells have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose; animal cells lack a cell wall. 2. Plant
tissue cells (parenchyma/collenchyma) often have a large central vacuole; animal cells have small or
no vacuoles.

Chapter Challenge — Animal Tissues

Q1. The following questions refer to illustrations A, B, C, D and E. (i) Identify the major tissue
types.
Ans: A = Epithelial tissue (squamous/columnar layer); B = Muscular tissue (skeletal/striated muscle); C
= Connective tissue (bone and cartilage); D = Nervous tissue (neuron); E = Nervous tissue
(neuron/nerve cell)

(ii) Identify characteristic/function of Epithelium

Ans: Epithelium lines and protects body surfaces and organ cavities; it may also be involved in
secretion and absorption.

(iii) What tissue surrounds brain and spinal cord?

Ans: The brain and spinal cord are cushioned and protected by connective tissue (specifically the
meninges — a protective connective tissue covering).

Q2. The following questions refer to tissues A, B, C, D and E shown in the diagram. (i) It is found
lining the alimentary canal.
Ans: Columnar epithelial tissue (smooth/unstriated muscle in the walls, columnar epithelium lining it).

(ii) Name tissues A, B, C, D and E.

Ans: A = Skeletal (striated) muscle tissue; B = Bone tissue; C = Cartilage; D = Connective tissue
(areolar/fibrous); E = Nervous tissue (neuron)

(iii) Its pumping action maintains blood flow in the body.

Ans: Cardiac muscle tissue — found only in the heart, contracts involuntarily and continuously to pump
blood.

(iv) This keeps away unwanted substances from the trachea.

Ans: Ciliated epithelium — cilia on the cells sweep foreign particles and mucus away from the trachea
toward the pharynx.
 27

(v) Pick the odd one out from A, B, C, D and E. Give a reason.
Ans: E (Nervous tissue/Neuron) is the odd one out. Reason: A, B, C, D are all connective or muscle
tissues involved in structural/mechanical functions, while E is nervous tissue responsible for
communication and impulse transmission.

(vi) State one characteristic and one difference between B and C.

Ans: Bone (B): Hard porous tissue with calcium phosphate matrix; contains bone marrow. Cartilage
(C): Non-porous, flexible; matrix of protein slightly hardened by calcium salts; no blood vessels.
Similarity: Both are connective tissues with a non-living matrix. Difference: Bone is hard and has blood
supply; cartilage is flexible and avascular.

(vii) State two functions of D.

Ans: D (Connective tissue / Areolar): 1. Binds and holds organs in position. 2. Fills spaces between
organs and provides a packing material.

(viii) What would happen if E were absent?

Ans: Without nervous tissue (neurons): The body would have no communication network. There would
be no response to stimuli, no coordination of body functions, no sensation, no muscle control, and no
regulation of internal organs. The organism could not survive.

Q3. (i) Why is blood called a fluid connective tissue?

Ans: Blood is called a fluid connective tissue because: (a) it connects various parts of the body by
flowing through them, (b) it has a fluid matrix (plasma) in which blood cells are suspended (non-living
matrix), just like other connective tissues have a non-living intercellular matrix, and (c) it originates from
mesoderm like other connective tissues.

(ii) Name the blood component and the process that will stop the blood flow from the cut finger.
Ans: Blood component: Thrombocytes (Platelets) and clotting factors in plasma. Process: Blood clotting
(coagulation). When a blood vessel is cut, platelets gather at the site and form a mesh that traps blood
cells, forming a clot that seals the wound and stops bleeding.

(iii) Name two other formed elements of the blood and state one important function of each.
Ans: 1. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells / RBCs): Contain haemoglobin which transports oxygen from the
lungs to all tissues. 2. Leucocytes (White Blood Cells / WBCs): Fight infection by destroying disease
germs and producing antibodies.

(iv) Name three types of vessels through which blood flows.

Ans: 1. Arteries — carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. 2. Veins — carry deoxygenated blood
back to the heart. 3. Capillaries — thin-walled vessels where exchange of nutrients and gases between
blood and tissues takes place.
 28

Exercise Questions & Answers

Tick the Correct Answer
(i) Which of the following is NOT a permanent plant tissue? a. Parenchyma b. Xylem c. Cambium
d. Neuron
Ans: c. Cambium — Cambium is a meristematic (dividing) tissue, not a permanent tissue. Neurons are
animal tissue.

(ii) Which of the following is NOT a component of blood? a. Platelet b. Red blood cell c. Axon d.
White blood cell
Ans: c. Axon — Axon is a part of a neuron (nerve cell), not a blood component.

(iii) Which of the following is NOT a component of the neuron? a. Axon b. Cyon c. Sclerenchyma
d. Dendrites
Ans: c. Sclerenchyma — Sclerenchyma is a plant tissue type, not part of a neuron.

(iv) Which of the following is NOT a simple, permanent plant tissue? a. Phloem b. Sclerenchyma c.
Apical meristem d. Cartilage
Ans: a. Phloem — Phloem is a complex permanent tissue (not simple). Sclerenchyma is a simple
permanent tissue.

(v) Which of the following is true for meristematic tissue? a. Found at growing tips of roots and
stems b. Has large vacuoles c. Both (a) and (c) are true d. Has large nucleus and small vacuole
Ans: a. Found at growing tips of roots and stems — and d: Has large nucleus and small/absent
vacuole. Both a and d are true. Option c as worded → answer d (large nucleus, small vacuole) best.

(vi) Which of the following is an epithelial tissue? a. Areolar b. Adipose c. Squamous d. Nerve
Ans: c. Squamous — Squamous epithelium is an epithelial tissue. Areolar and Adipose are connective
tissues.

(vii) Which statement is NOT true for blood? a. It has light and dark bands b. It is a fluid tissue c. It
contains minerals like calcium d. None of these
Ans: a. It has light and dark bands — This describes striated (skeletal) muscle tissue, not blood.

(viii) Blood transports the following: a. Nutrients b. Respiratory gases c. Hormones d. All of these
Ans: d. All of these — Blood transports nutrients, respiratory gases (oxygen and CO2), hormones,
vitamins, excretory products, etc.

(ix) Its cavity is filled with marrow: a. Areolar b. Ligament c. Squamous d. Blood vessels are
absent
Ans: The correct question refers to BONE — Long bones have a hollow cavity filled with bone marrow.

(x) Which of the following is NOT true for cardiac muscle? a. Found only in the heart b. Cells are
branched c. All of these d. Cells are branched
Ans: The cardiac muscle features: found only in heart, cells are branched, single central nucleus,
involuntary. All stated features are TRUE for cardiac muscle.
 29

(xiii) Ciliated epithelium is found in: a. Respiratory tract b. Chest muscles c. Lungs d. Bone
Ans: a. Respiratory tract — Ciliated epithelium lines the trachea and bronchi of the respiratory tract.

Fill in the Blanks

(i) Meristematic tissue in the vascular bundles of dicot roots and stems is called ___.
Ans: Cambium (Lateral meristem / Intercalary meristem)

(ii) The ___ is found in stems, veins of leaves, hard coverings of seeds and nuts — ___ tissue.
Ans: Sclerenchyma tissue

(iii) Conducting tissues are also called ___.

Ans: Complex permanent tissues (Vascular tissues)

(iv) ___ is the fundamental unit of the nervous system.

Ans: Neuron

(v) The ___ tissue is found in the soft parts of the plant such as cortex of roots, ground tissues in
stems, and mesophyll of leaves.
Ans: Parenchyma

True or False
(i) The cells of the connective tissue are living.
Ans: FALSE — In connective tissue, many cells are embedded in a non-living matrix. Also, some
connective tissue cells like those in bone and blood are surrounded by a non-living intercellular
substance. However, the actual cells ARE living; the MATRIX is non-living. → TRUE (the cells
themselves are living).

(ii) Xylem is an animal tissue.

Ans: FALSE — Xylem is a plant tissue (complex permanent tissue).

(iii) Areolar tissues form a packing around organs.

Ans: TRUE — Areolar connective tissue binds and fills spaces between organs, acting as a packing
material.

(iv) Blood plasma is non-living.

Ans: TRUE — Plasma is the non-living fluid matrix of blood (the actual blood cells are living).

(v) White blood cells carry oxygen to the tissues for the oxidation of food.
Ans: FALSE — Red blood cells (RBCs/erythrocytes) carry oxygen. White blood cells
(WBCs/leucocytes) fight infection.
 30

Match the Columns

Column A Column B (Answer)

(i) Bone d. Hard porous tissue
(ii) Cartilage e. Non porous tissue
(iii) Smooth muscles b. Involuntary
(iv) Skeletal muscles a. Voluntary
(v) Blood c. Fluid tissue
(vi) Xylem j. Water conduction
(vii) Dendrons g. Cyton
(viii) Node of Ranvier f. Axon
(ix) Synaptic bulb h. Terminal branches
(x) Platelet k. Clotting of blood

Name the Kind of Tissue

(i) Binding bones together.
Ans: Ligament (connective tissue)

(ii) Joining muscle and bone.

Ans: Tendon (connective tissue)

(iii) Lining the mouth and nose.

Ans: Squamous epithelial tissue (ciliated epithelium in nose)

(iv) In the brain and spinal cord.

Ans: Nervous tissue

(v) In the heart.

Ans: Cardiac muscle tissue

(vi) In covering of seeds and nuts.

Ans: Sclerenchyma (stone cells)

(vii) At the tips of stem and root.

Ans: Meristematic tissue (Apical meristem)

(viii) In green stems and leaves.

Ans: Chlorenchyma (parenchyma with chloroplasts)

(ix) In the mesophyll of leaves.

Ans: Parenchyma (Chlorenchyma)
 31

(x) In the veins of leaves.

Ans: Sclerenchyma / Xylem (vascular tissue)

One Term or Phrase

(i) A group of cells similar in structure and function that work together to perform a specific
activity.
Ans: Tissue

(ii) Tissues made of more than one type of cell that work together as a unit.
Ans: Complex tissue

(iii) The structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

Ans: Neuron

(iv) The liquid component of blood.

Ans: Plasma

(v) Type of tissue that protects against friction at the knee joint.
Ans: Cartilage

Differentiate: Parenchyma vs Collenchyma

Feature Parenchyma Collenchyma

Shape Spherical or oval Elongated / polygonal
Cell wall Thin, cellulose Cellulose, thickened at CORNERS
(uneven)
Intercellular spaces Plenty (large spaces) Absent or very few
Occurrence Cortex of roots, ground tissue of stems, Below epidermis in stems of dicots;
mesophyll of leaves absent in monocots and roots
Function Storage (food, water); photosynthesis if Mechanical support to young growing
chloroplasts present (chlorenchyma) parts of plant

Q8. (i) Name the main parts of the neuron.

Ans: The three main parts of a neuron are: 1. Cyton (Cell body) — contains nucleus and Nissl's
Granules. 2. Dendrites — short, branched processes that receive nerve impulses. 3. Axon — single
long cylindrical fibre that transmits impulses to other cells; ends in terminal branches with synaptic
bulbs.

Q8. (ii) State the function of dendrites.

Ans: Dendrites receive nerve impulses (stimuli) from other neurons or from receptor organs and
transmit them to the cell body (cyton).
 32

Chapter 2: Plant and Animal Classification

Review — Kingdom Monera

Q1a. Arrange the following units of classification from the smallest to the largest unit:
(Order, phylum, genus, family, kingdom, class, species)
Answer: Species → Genus → Family → Order → Class → Phylum → Kingdom
Q1b. Fill in the blanks:
 The system of naming living organisms is called Binomial Nomenclature / Nomenclature.
 Taxonomy is the science that deals with the naming and classification of living organisms.
 Genus is the generic name of living organisms.
 All living organisms are known by two names: a Generic (Genus) name and a Species name.
 Tiger and lion belong to the genus Panthera.
 The species name always has a small initial letter and is written in italics.
 Classifying living organisms is the science of Taxonomy. Putting forth a system of naming them is
called Nomenclature.
Q2. Match the Kingdoms (Column A) with their characteristics (Column B):
 Monera → Consists of a simple prokaryotic cell.
 Protista → Includes organisms that have eukaryotic cells like diatoms and amoeba.
 Fungi → Cells of organisms in this kingdom do not have a rigid cell wall.
 Plantae → Flowering and non-flowering plants or saprophytes belong to this kingdom.
 Animalia → They lack chlorophyll and may be parasites.
Q3. Identify the type of bacteria A, B and C and state one feature of each:
 A (rod-shaped) = Bacilli — Rod-shaped; may be flagellated or non-flagellated.
 B (spiral-shaped) = Spirilli — Spirally twisted bacteria with flagella.
 C (clustered spherical) = Staphylococcus (Cocci) — Spherical bacteria occurring in clusters.
Q4. Which of the following are NOT bacterial diseases in humans?
(Cholera, Fire blight, Dysentery, Black rot, Tetanus, Cancer, Typhoid, Pneumonia)
Answer: Fire blight (a plant disease, not a human disease) and Cancer (not caused by bacteria) are NOT
bacterial diseases in humans.
Q5. Give one term or phrase for the following:
 Soil bacteria help fix atmospheric nitrogen → Nitrogen fixation
 Group of drugs like streptomycin and chloromycetin → Antibiotics
 Bacterial decomposition of organic matter in limited air → Putrefaction
 Complete breakdown of organic matter in presence of air without foul smell → Decay
 Process of flavouring tea, cheese and tobacco → Curing
 Breakdown of carbohydrates by anaerobic bacteria → Fermentation
 33

Review — Kingdom Protista

Q1. Label the parts indicated by guidelines in the amoeba diagram:
1 = Pseudopodia
2 = Nucleus
3 = Contractile vacuole
4 = Food vacuole
Q2(i). If amoeba had organ systems, which part could be compared to the following?
a. Digestive system → Food vacuole
b. Excretory system → Contractile vacuole
c. Limbs for locomotion → Pseudopodia
Q2(ii). Name a protist that locomotes by means of: a. Cilia b. Flagella
a. Cilia → Paramecium
b. Flagella → Euglena
Q2(iii). State the feature that distinguishes the named organisms as protists:
They are unicellular eukaryotic organisms — they have a true nucleus but consist of only a single cell.
Q2(iv). Label diagram X; describe diagram Y:
Diagram X labels: Plasmalemma (outer membrane), Nucleus, Contractile vacuole, Food vacuole,
Pseudopodia.
Diagram Y represents Binary Fission in Amoeba: The nucleus elongates and divides first
(karyokinesis), followed by division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis), resulting in two genetically identical
daughter amoebae.
Q3. Stages in a type of reproduction in amoeba:
(i) Type of reproduction: Multiple Fission
(ii) Correct sequence of stages: 1 → 3 → 2 → 4 → 5
(iii) Description of each stage:
Stage 1: Amoeba retracts pseudopodia under unfavourable conditions (extreme temp / food scarcity).
Stage 2: A thick, three-layered protective cyst wall forms around the amoeba.
Stage 3: The nucleus inside divides multiple times (repeated nuclear division).
Stage 4: Cytoplasm divides around each nucleus, forming many spores inside the cyst.
Stage 5: Conditions improve; cyst wall bursts and young amoebae emerge to live independently.
Q4. Fill in the blanks:
 Entamoeba histolytica is an intestinal parasite in humans which feeds by engulfing blood cells
and causes amoebic dysentery.
 Amoeba reproduces by binary fission and multiple fission.
 Amoeba responds to light, heat, acids and electric stimuli.
 34

 The three-layered protective wall secreted by amoeba during unfavourable conditions is called a
cyst.
 Individual units that develop within the cyst in the parent amoeba are called spores.
Q5. Match Column A (process) with Column B (description):
 Locomotion → Pseudopodia helps in this process (favourable conditions).
 Excretion → Contractile vacuole helps in this process.
 Respiration → Takes place by diffusion across cell membrane.
 Binary fission → Mode of reproduction that occurs under favourable conditions.
 Digestion → By secretion of enzymes.
 Multiple fission → Mode of reproduction that occurs under unfavourable conditions.
Q6. State if the following statements about amoeba are True or False:
(i) Amoeba lacks organ systems but is able to feed, locomote, respire, excrete and reproduce. →
TRUE
(ii) Under adverse conditions the amoeba forms a cyst. → TRUE
(iii) Amoeba can react and adjust to changed conditions in the environment. → TRUE
(iv) Amoeba can change its shape constantly. → TRUE
(v) The contractile vacuole regulates the water content in the body of amoeba. → TRUE
(vi) Amoeba belongs to the kingdom Monera. → FALSE — Amoeba belongs to Kingdom Protista.
(vii) Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission and multiple fission. → TRUE
(viii) Mode of nutrition in amoeba is holophytic. → FALSE — Mode of nutrition in amoeba is holozoic.
(ix) Movement due to pseudopodia is known as amoeboid movement. → TRUE
 35

Chapter 3: Living World & Classification — Kingdom Fungi, Plantae,

Animalia

Chapter Challenge — Kingdom Fungi (Page 36)

Question 1(a): Label the parts indicated by guidelines in the diagram of bread mould.

The labelled parts are:

 1 — Sporangium (spore case)

 2 — Sporangiophore (stalk bearing sporangium)
 3 — Mycelium (cottony mass)
 4 — Rhizoid (root-like absorbing hyphae)
 5 — Spores
Question 1(b): Give one term for each of the following:

Part/Description Term

(i) The cottony mass which constitutes the body of the mould Mycelium

(ii) The branched filaments arising from the body Hyphae

(iii) The branched filaments which bear spores Sporangiophores

(iv) Erect filaments that penetrate the substrate Rhizoids

Saprotrophic
(v) The mode of nutrition in moulds
(Heterotrophic)

Question 2: Explain:

(i) Moulds are seen growing on the upper layers of the bread or substrate.

Ans: Moulds grow on the upper surface of the substrate because the upper surface provides optimal
oxygen availability for aerobic respiration. The hyphae penetrate into the substrate to absorb nutrients
through extracellular digestion.

(ii) Fungi are parasitic or saprophytic.

Ans: Fungi lack chlorophyll and cannot prepare their own food. Hence they must obtain nutrition from
other sources. When they derive nutrition from dead organic matter, they are called saprophytic. When
they derive nutrition from a living host (causing harm), they are called parasitic.

(iii) Fungi are used in breweries.

Ans: Yeast (a fungus) is used in breweries to ferment sugar. The yeast breaks down sugar in the
absence of oxygen to produce alcohol (ethyl alcohol) and carbon dioxide. This process is called
fermentation. The alcohol formed is the main product (wine, beer).
 36

(iv) Yeast is used in bakeries.

Ans: Yeast is used in bakeries because it ferments sugars in the dough and releases carbon dioxide gas.
This CO2 gets trapped in the dough, causing it to rise and become light and spongy. This makes bread
soft and fluffy.

(v) The mode of nutrition of moulds.

Ans: Moulds are saprotrophic (saprophytic). They secrete digestive enzymes outside their body
(extracellular digestion), which break down complex organic compounds from dead matter into simpler,
soluble substances. These soluble substances are then absorbed by the hyphae. Hence their mode of
nutrition is called absorptive heterotrophic nutrition.

Question 3: State one use of yeast in the following:

(i) Food industry

Ans: Yeast is used in the food industry to leaven (raise) bread. CO2 produced by yeast fermentation
makes the bread soft and spongy.

(ii) Bakeries

Ans: In bakeries, yeast is added to dough to make it rise. The CO2 released by yeast fermentation
creates air pockets in the dough.

(iii) Breweries

Ans: In breweries, yeast is used to ferment sugar solutions (from grapes, barley, etc.) to produce
alcoholic beverages like wine and beer.

Question 4: Fungal disease in humans:

(i) Thrush

Ans: A fungal infection of the mouth and throat caused by the yeast Candida. It results in white patches
and soreness.

(ii) Ringworm

Ans: A fungal skin infection characterised by circular, raised-margin patches with severe itching. Not
caused by a worm despite the name.

(iii) Harmful activities of fungus

Ans: Fungi cause diseases in plants (rust, smut, blight, downy mildew), humans (thrush, ringworm), and
animals. They spoil food (bread, fruits, vegetables) and cause tropical deterioration of goods (clothes,
leather, electrical equipment).

Question 5: Fill in the blanks:

 (i) In fungi, food is stored in the form of ___ and ___. → Glycogen and oil droplets
 (ii) Moulds reproduce asexually by ___. → Sporulation
 (iii) In fungi, food is stored in the form of ___. → Glycogen
 (iv) Moulds reproduce asexually by ___. → Sporulation (forming spores)
 (v) Under warm, moist conditions fungi grow on leather goods and clothing. This is known as ___.
→ Tropical deterioration
 (vi) The spore bearing erect hypha is called ___. → Sporangiophore
 (vii) Fungal disease in humans — (i) ___ (ii) ___ → (i) Thrush (ii) Ringworm
 37

 (viii) Fungal disease in plants — (i) ___ (ii) ___ → (i) Downy mildew of grapes (ii) Late blight of
potatoes

Review — Kingdom Plantae (Pages 38–39)

Question 1: The following questions are based on the diagrams given (Plants A–F).

(i) Which of the above do not belong to Kingdom Plantae? Give a reason to support your answer.

Ans: Diagrams showing organisms like cactus or pine tree structures (non-flowering, naked seed) would
be gymnosperms, which DO belong to Kingdom Plantae. If any organism shown is a fungus or alga
classified under another kingdom, that would be the exception. Based on the chapter context, organism E
(showing mushroom-like structure) does not belong to Kingdom Plantae — it belongs to Kingdom Fungi,
because it lacks chlorophyll and obtains food by absorption.

(ii) Classify C and F as a monocot or a dicot. State two features seen on the diagram that enables you to
distinguish between them.

Ans: Based on typical exam diagrams — C (grass/cereal) is a Monocot; F (lily/flower) is a Monocot. If C

is a broad-leaved plant it is a Dicot.

Features to distinguish Monocot from Dicot:

 Monocot leaves show parallel venation; Dicot leaves show reticulate (net-like) venation.
 Monocot seeds have one cotyledon; Dicot seeds have two cotyledons.
(iii) Which of the above is a non-flowering plant of the Kingdom Plantae? In the absence of flowers, how
do these plants reproduce sexually?

Ans: Ferns, mosses, and liverworts are non-flowering plants of Kingdom Plantae. In the absence of
flowers, these plants reproduce sexually by means of spores. Spores are produced in sporangia and,
when dispersed, germinate into new plants.

(iv) One member of the plant kingdom is not shown here. It has stems and leaves but lacks true roots.
Name this group of plants.

Ans: Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts). They have stem-like and leaf-like structures but lack true roots.
Instead they have rhizoids.

Question 2: Pick the odd one out giving a reason for your choice:

(i) Rose, lily, shoeflower, fern, sunflower

Ans: Fern is the odd one out. All others are flowering plants (angiosperms), whereas fern is a non-
flowering plant (pteridophyte) that reproduces by spores.

(ii) Maize, wheat, rice, bean, grass

Ans: Bean is the odd one out. All others are monocots (parallel venation, one cotyledon), whereas bean
is a dicot (reticulate venation, two cotyledons).

(iii) Apple, pear, chickoo, pine cone, orange

Ans: Pine cone is the odd one out. All others are fruits (angiosperms with seeds enclosed in fruit),
whereas pine cone is from a gymnosperm with naked seeds.

(iv) Moss, cycas, liverwort, fern

 38

Ans: Cycas is the odd one out. Moss, liverwort, and fern are non-seed bearing plants (cryptogams),
whereas cycas is a gymnosperm (seed-bearing plant).

(v) Peas, gram, wheat, bean

Ans: Wheat is the odd one out. All others are dicots (peas, gram, bean), whereas wheat is a monocot.

Question 3: Find out the features of the cactus plant and pine tree that enable them to survive in their
natural environment.

Ans: Cactus plant — adapted to desert conditions: (1) thick, fleshy stem stores water. (2) Leaves
modified into spines to reduce water loss. (3) Deep, wide-spreading roots absorb maximum water. (4)
Stem is green and performs photosynthesis.

Pine tree — adapted to cold, mountainous conditions: (1) Needle-like leaves reduce surface area and
hence water loss. (2) Conical shape helps snow to slide off easily. (3) Seeds protected within cones.

In which type of region or part of the world are you likely to find the following plants?

(i) Cactus plant

Ans: Deserts and arid regions — such as the Sahara Desert in Africa, and the deserts of Mexico and the
southwestern United States.

(ii) Pine and fir trees

Ans: Cool temperate mountain regions — such as the Himalayas, Alps, and other coniferous forests in
the Northern Hemisphere.
 39

Review — Kingdom Animalia (Pages 44–45)

Question 1a: Name the five main classes into which vertebrates are grouped.

Ans: The five main classes of vertebrates are:

 1. Pisces (Fish)
 2. Amphibia (Frogs, toads)
 3. Reptilia (Snakes, lizards, turtles)
 4. Aves (Birds)
 5. Mammalia (Mammals)
Question 1b: How do members of each class differ from the others with respect to their body surface?

Class Body Surface

Pisces (Fish) Body covered with slimy scales

Amphibia Body has smooth, slimy skin

Reptilia Body has dry, scaly skin

Aves (Birds) Body covered with feathers

Mammalia (Mammals) Body covered with hair/fur

Question 1b(i)–(viii): Name the class to which each of the following belongs:

Animal Class

(i) Lizard Reptilia

(ii) Cow Mammalia

(iii) Crow Aves

(iv) Elephant Mammalia

(v) Toad Amphibia

(vi) Snake Reptilia

(vii) Peacock Aves

 40

Animal Class

(viii) Turtle Reptilia

Question 1c: How do members of each class differ from the others with respect to their body surface?

Ans: See table above. Pisces — scaly; Amphibia — smooth slimy; Reptilia — dry scaly; Aves — feathers;
Mammalia — hair.

Question 2: Distinguish between vertebrates and invertebrates.

Feature Vertebrates Invertebrates

Backbone Present (vertebral column) Absent

Notochord Present (replaced by backbone) Absent

Body plan Bilaterally symmetrical (mostly) Various symmetries

Complexity Generally more complex Generally simpler

Sponge, jellyfish, earthworm,

Examples Fish, frog, snake, bird, mammal
insect

Question 3: Fill in the blanks:

 (i) ___ have jointed legs and bodies. → Arthropods

 (ii) Echinoderms have ___ pairs of legs. → No legs (tube feet instead)
 (iii) Molluscs locomote by means of ___. → Muscular foot
 (iv) Echinoderms locomote by means of ___. → Tube feet
Question 4: Match the phylum in Column A with the appropriate features in Column B:

Column A (Phylum) Column B (Features)

(b) Body consists of a hollow tube with pores; food drawn in

Porifera
through pores; intracellular digestion

(a) Hollow tube body; nematocysts; mouth and anus same

Cnidaria
opening
 41

Column A (Phylum) Column B (Features)

(d) Flat, unsegmented body; false body cavity; one alimentary

Platyhelminthes
opening

(e) Body is soft, long, cylindrical; false body cavity; two gut
Nematoda
openings

(c) Worm with ring-like segments; true body cavity; alimentary

Annelida
canal opens at both ends

(g) Exoskeleton; jointed legs; segmented body; regularly

Arthropoda
arranged arms

(f) Calcareous shell; muscular foot; breathe through gills

Mollusca
(ctenidia)

Echinodermata (h) Spiny exoskeleton; no head; tube feet; radially arranged arms

Question 5: Identify the class of vertebrates from the clues given below:

Clue Class/Answer

(i) They have slimy, scaly skin and breathe with the
Pisces (Fish)
help of gills.

(ii) They have a smooth, slimy skin and can live on

Amphibia
land and in water.

(iii) They have a dry, scaly skin and breathe with

Reptilia
lungs.

(iv) Their body is covered with feathers and they have

Aves (Birds)
wings.

(v) Their body is covered with hair and they have milk
Mammalia
glands.

(vi) They can live on land as well as in water and have

Amphibia
smooth, slimy skin.
 42

Clue Class/Answer

(vii) Their body is covered with hair and they breathe

Mammalia
with lungs.

(viii) They have dry, scaly skin and breathe with lungs. Reptilia

Vertebrates (organisms with

(ix) Chordata
notochord / vertebral column)

Marine animals with spiny

(x) Echinodermata
exoskeleton and tube feet

Animals with jointed legs and

(xi) Arthropoda
chitinous exoskeleton

Soft-bodied animals with muscular

(xii) Mollusca
foot and hard shell

Exercise Questions — Full Syllabus (Pages 46–47)

Section 1: Select the correct option:

No. Question Answer

The sequence of representing the units of (b) Kingdom, Phylum, Class,

(i)
classification is: Family, Order, Genus, Species

(b) Transverse arrangement of

(ii) Which statement is true for a dicotyledon plant? floral whorls (Pentamerous
arrangement)

(iii) Locomotion in molluscs is with: (b) Muscular foot

(iv) Microorganisms like bacteria belong to Kingdom: (b) Monera

Feature common to both nematodes and

(v) (c) Bilateral symmetry
platyhelminthes:

(vi) Which is a reptilian characteristic? (b) Dry scaly skin

 43

No. Question Answer

(vii) Which is a reptilian characteristic? (b) Dry scaly skin

(viii) Earthworm and leech belong to this phylum: (b) Annelida

(ix) In vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by: (b) Vertebral column

Which of the following does NOT belong to class (b) Reptilia — Crocodile does
(x)
Aves? not belong to Aves

(b) Frog (Peacock is incorrect

(xi) Which of the following has a smooth, slimy skin?
— Frog has smooth slimy skin)

(xii) Which of the following would give live birth? (a) Elephant (Mammalia)

(xiii) Which of the following has a dry, scaly skin? (a) Python

Python (reptile) has dry scaly

(xiv) Which of the following has a dry, scaly skin?
skin, not fish

(xv) Which of the following is a Fish? (a) Fish

Section 2: Give one term for:

Description Term

(i) Plants in which seeds are borne enclosed within the fruit Angiosperms

(ii) Plants in which seeds are borne in capsules (no fruit) Gymnosperms

(iii) Plants that have roots, stems, leaves but no flowers Pteridophyta (Ferns)

(iv) Plants with stem, leaves, and false roots (rhizoids) Bryophyta

(v) Parts which produce pollen in gymnosperms Microsporophyll

(vi) Plants which produce pollen on the undersurface of the leaf Pteridophyta (Ferns)

(vii) Seeds enclosed within the fruit Angiosperm seeds

 44

Description Term

(viii) A plant where the leaf is called a frond Fern (Pteridophyta)

Section 3: Identify the phylum using the clues:

Clue Phylum

Worm with ring-like segments; true body cavity; two gut openings Annelida

Worm with soft, long, cylindrical body; false body cavity; cylindrical Nematoda

The exoskeleton has a number of joints; regularly arranged arms;

Echinodermata
spiny

Arthropods have jointed legs and while spiders and scorpions have
Arthropoda
4 pairs of legs

Echinoderms locomote by means of tube feet Echinodermata

Body consists of hollow tube; pores; drawn into body; intracellular

Porifera
digestion

Have tentacles and stinging cells called nematocyst Cnidaria

Flat, unsegmented body; single gut opening Platyhelminthes

Body covered with hard shell; soft body; muscular foot Mollusca

Section 4: From the characteristic mentioned, identify as either Monocot or Dicot:

Characteristic Monocot/Dicot

Leaf is petiolate, with reticulate venation Dicot

Leaf has parallel venation Monocot

 45

Characteristic Monocot/Dicot

Has adventitious fibrous root system Monocot

Flowers have petals in multiples of 4 or 5 Dicot

Has one seed leaf Monocot

Leaves are absent Cannot determine

Stem is arranged in pentamerous whorls of flowers Dicot

Section 5 — State one difference and one similarity between each pair:
Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

Difference: In angiosperms, seeds are enclosed within a fruit (ovary); in gymnosperms, seeds are naked
(not enclosed within a fruit).

Similarity: Both are seed-bearing (spermatophytic) plants.

Cryptogams and Pteridophyta

Difference: Cryptogams is a broader group including mosses, liverworts, and ferns; Pteridophyta
specifically refers to ferns which are vascular.

Similarity: Both are non-seed bearing plants that reproduce by spores.

Bryophyta and Pteridophyta

Difference: Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts) are non-vascular and lack true roots, stems and leaves;
Pteridophyta (ferns) are vascular with true roots, stems, and leaves.

Similarity: Both are non-seed bearing plants that reproduce through spores.
 46

SECTION 4: EXTRA PRACTICE Q&A

Chapter 1: Plant and Animal Tissues
Q1. What is the difference between simple and complex plant tissues?
Ans: Simple tissues are made up of only one type of cell (e.g., parenchyma, collenchyma,
sclerenchyma). Complex tissues are made up of more than one type of cell working together (e.g.,
xylem and phloem).

Q2. Why are meristematic tissues important for plants?

Ans: Meristematic tissues are important because they are the only tissues capable of cell division. They
are responsible for the growth of plants — both in length (apical meristem) and in girth/width (lateral
meristem/cambium). Without them, plants cannot grow.

Q3. What is chlorenchyma? Where is it found?

Ans: Chlorenchyma is parenchyma tissue that contains chloroplasts. It is found in green parts of the
plant, particularly in the mesophyll of leaves and green stems. It performs photosynthesis.

Q4. Explain why sclerenchyma cells are dead.

Ans: Sclerenchyma cells become dead at maturity because their walls become so heavily thickened
with lignin that there is no room for the living protoplasm to survive. The lignin deposits fill the entire cell
lumen. The dead cells retain their shape and provide maximum strength and rigidity to the plant.

Q5. What is the role of cambium in plants?

Ans: Cambium (lateral meristem) is responsible for secondary growth — the increase in girth
(thickness/diameter) of stems and roots. It also produces the annual growth rings visible in the cross-
section of tree trunks.

Q6. How do xylem and phloem differ in the direction of transport?

Ans: Xylem transports water and minerals only in one direction — upward from roots to leaves
(unidirectional). Phloem transports food (sugars manufactured in leaves) in both directions — upward
and downward — to reach all parts of the plant (bidirectional).

Q7. What is the significance of cartilage in the human body?

Ans: Cartilage: (1) Provides flexibility to parts like the ear pinna, nose, and epiglottis. (2) Acts as a
shock absorber at joints. (3) Reduces friction between bones at joints. (4) Supports softer tissues in the
respiratory tract (rings of trachea). If cartilage wears out, joints become painful (e.g., arthritis).

Q8. Distinguish between a ligament and a tendon.

Ans: Ligament: Connects bone to bone; forms a packing around joints; it is elastic and flexible. Tendon:
Connects muscle to bone; it is non-elastic and strong.

Q9. What are the components of blood and their functions?

Ans: 1. Plasma (liquid matrix, ~55%): Transports nutrients, hormones, waste, and proteins. 2.
Erythrocytes / RBCs (~45%): Contain haemoglobin; carry oxygen from lungs to tissues. 3. Leucocytes /
WBCs: Fight infection; produce antibodies; engulf pathogens. 4. Thrombocytes / Platelets: Help in
blood clotting to stop bleeding.
 47

Q10. Why is cardiac muscle unique compared to skeletal and smooth muscle?
Ans: Cardiac muscle is unique because: (1) It is found ONLY in the heart. (2) It is involuntary — cannot
be consciously controlled. (3) It never tires and beats continuously throughout life. (4) Its cells are
branched (unlike skeletal muscle cells which are unbranched). (5) It has a single nucleus (like smooth
muscle) but also shows striations (like skeletal muscle).

Q11. Explain how the nervous system works with an example.

Ans: The nervous system consists of neurons that transmit electrical impulses. When you accidentally
touch a hot object: (1) Receptors in skin detect heat (stimulus). (2) Sensory neurons carry impulse to
spinal cord/brain. (3) Brain processes and sends impulse via motor neurons. (4) Muscles contract and
you withdraw your hand (response). The response can be automatic (reflex) or voluntary.

Q12. What is a synapse?

Ans: A synapse is the junction between the terminal branches (synaptic bulb) of one neuron and the
dendrites of the next neuron. Nerve impulses are transmitted across synapses using chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters.

Q13. Why does blood clot when a blood vessel is cut?

Ans: When a blood vessel is cut, platelets (thrombocytes) gather at the injury site and release clotting
factors. These factors, along with fibrinogen in plasma, form a network of fibrin threads that traps red
blood cells, forming a solid clot (scab). This prevents further blood loss and protects the wound.

Q14. Compare plant cell and animal cell with respect to cell wall, vacuole, and plastids.
Ans: Cell wall: Present in plant cells (cellulose); Absent in animal cells. Vacuole: Large, central vacuole
in plant cells; Small, temporary vacuoles in animal cells. Plastids: Present in plant cells (e.g.,
chloroplasts for photosynthesis); Absent in animal cells.

Q15. What are Nissl's Granules? What is their function?

Ans: Nissl's Granules are protein-synthesising bodies (rough endoplasmic reticulum) found in the cyton
(cell body) of neurons. Their function is protein synthesis, which is essential for the repair and
maintenance of the neuron.

Q16. Explain the experiment demonstrating the role of xylem and phloem (as described in the
chapter).
Ans: Two twigs: (A) Phloem intact but xylem removed. (B) Xylem intact but phloem removed. Result A
(Phloem intact, xylem removed): Twig wilts and leaves become turgid initially but eventually the shoot
dies because water cannot travel up without xylem. Food accumulates at base. Result B (Xylem intact,
phloem removed): Leaves remain turgid (water moves up) but food does not move down, so the shoot
below the cut shrivels and dies. Conclusion: Xylem conducts water upward; Phloem transports food.
Removing either disrupts plant function.

Q17. What are the four main types of animal tissue?

Ans: 1. Epithelial tissue — lining and protective. 2. Connective tissue — binding and supporting. 3.
Muscular tissue — contraction and movement. 4. Nervous tissue — communication and coordination.
 48

Q18. Define: (i) Tissue (ii) Organ (iii) Organism

Ans: (i) Tissue: A group of cells similar in structure and function, organised to perform a specific
function. (ii) Organ: A structure made up of two or more different types of tissues that work together to
perform a specific function (e.g., heart, leaf). (iii) Organism: A living being made up of organ systems
working together to sustain life.
 49

Chapter 2: Plant and Animal Classification

A. Short Answer Questions (2 marks each)

1. What is Binomial Nomenclature? Who introduced it?
Binomial Nomenclature is the scientific system of naming organisms using two names — the generic
name (genus, capital initial) and the specific name (species, small initial, written in italics). It was
introduced by the Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus. This system is accepted worldwide and eliminates
confusion caused by local or common names.

2. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

A prokaryotic cell (e.g., bacteria) has no true nucleus — the genetic material lies freely in the cytoplasm
without a nuclear membrane, and membrane-bound organelles are absent. A eukaryotic cell (e.g.,
amoeba, plant cells) has a well-defined nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane, and membrane-bound
organelles like mitochondria are present.

3. Why is the nitrogen cycle important?

Plants need nitrogen to synthesise proteins, but cannot use atmospheric nitrogen directly. Soil bacteria fix
N2 and convert it to soluble nitrates, which plants absorb. Decomposing bacteria break down dead
organisms and return nitrogen to the atmosphere. Without this cycle, nitrogen would not be available to
plants, disrupting the entire food chain.

4. What is the role of the contractile vacuole in amoeba?

The contractile vacuole serves two key roles: (a) Osmoregulation — it regulates the water content in the
body of the amoeba. (b) Excretion — it collects metabolic wastes, swells up, rises to the cell surface and
bursts, releasing wastes outside the cell.

5. What is curing? Give two examples.

Curing is the process of developing the flavour, taste or quality of a product through bacterial fermentation
and putrefaction. Examples: (i) Curing of cheese — bacteria ferment milk proteins and fats to develop its
specific flavour. (ii) Curing of tea — bacterial action develops the characteristic aroma and taste of tea.

6. How does amoeba reproduce under unfavourable conditions?

Under unfavourable conditions (extreme temperature, food scarcity), amoeba undergoes Multiple Fission.
It retracts its pseudopodia and secretes a thick, three-layered cyst wall around itself. Inside the cyst, the
nucleus divides many times, followed by cytoplasmic division to form many spores. When conditions
improve, the cyst bursts and young amoebae emerge.

7. Name two diseases caused by bacteria in plants.

(i) Black rot — affects cabbage leaves. (ii) Canker — affects citrus fruit trees. Other examples: Ring
disease of potato, Fire blight of apple and pear.

8. What is holozoic nutrition? Name the five steps involved.

Holozoic nutrition is a type of nutrition in which an organism ingests solid organic food particles and
digests them internally. The five steps are: (1) Ingestion — taking in food, (2) Digestion — breaking down
food by enzymes, (3) Absorption — digested food enters the cytoplasm, (4) Assimilation — food is used
for growth and energy, (5) Egestion — undigested material is expelled from the body. Amoeba follows this
mode of nutrition.
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B. Long Answer Questions (5 marks each)

1. Describe the useful roles of bacteria.
(a) Medical Uses: Antibiotics like chloromycetin and streptomycin derived from bacteria treat pneumonia,
typhoid, diphtheria and tuberculosis. Gut bacteria also synthesise B vitamins for humans.
(b) Gobar Gas / Fuel: Bacteria act on cowdung in Gobar Gas plants, breaking down cellulose to release
methane gas for cooking. The residue is used as manure.
(c) Nitrogen Fixation: Soil bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates for plants to absorb and
make proteins. Leguminous plants have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules.
(d) Curing: Bacterial fermentation is used to cure cheese, tea and tobacco. Bacteria also convert milk to
curd (lactic acid) and alcohol to vinegar (acetic acid).
(e) Decomposition and recycling: Bacteria decompose dead organic matter, returning minerals to the
soil.
2. Describe all the life processes of Amoeba.
(a) Locomotion: Amoeba moves using pseudopodia (amoeboid movement) — temporary cytoplasmic
projections that flow in the direction of movement.
(b) Nutrition: Holozoic nutrition — pseudopodia engulf food (phagocytosis) → food vacuole → enzyme
digestion → absorption → assimilation → egestion.
(c) Respiration: Simple diffusion of O2 in and CO2 out through the permeable body surface. No special
respiratory organ.
(d) Excretion: Contractile vacuole collects wastes and excess water, bursts to release them outside. No
special excretory organ.
(e) Response to Stimuli: Amoeba responds to light, heat, acids and electric stimuli.
(f) Reproduction: Binary fission under favourable conditions (1 cell → 2 identical daughter cells). Multiple
fission under unfavourable conditions (cyst forms → many spores → young amoebae).
(g) Disease caused: Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic dysentery in humans.

C. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Who introduced the Binomial Nomenclature system?
a) Darwin b) Carl Linnaeus c) Mendel d) Pasteur
Answer: b) Carl Linnaeus

2. The species name in Binomial Nomenclature is:

a) Written in capitals b) Written first c) In italics with a small initial d) In bold
Answer: c) In italics with a small initial

3. Which of the following is a prokaryotic organism?

a) Amoeba b) Euglena c) Bacterium d) Mushroom
Answer: c) Bacterium
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4. Amoeba belongs to Kingdom:

a) Monera b) Animalia c) Protista d) Fungi
Answer: c) Protista

5. The contractile vacuole in amoeba is responsible for:

a) Locomotion b) Digestion c) Osmoregulation and excretion d) Reproduction
Answer: c) Osmoregulation and excretion

6. Amoeba reproduces by multiple fission under:

a) Favourable conditions b) Unfavourable conditions c) Both d) Never
Answer: b) Unfavourable conditions

7. Which gas is mainly produced in a Gobar Gas plant?

a) Carbon dioxide b) Oxygen c) Hydrogen d) Methane
Answer: d) Methane

8. Botulism is caused by:

a) Staphylococcus b) Salmonella c) Clostridium botulinum d) Streptococcus
Answer: c) Clostridium botulinum

9. The smallest unit of classification is:

a) Kingdom b) Genus c) Family d) Species
Answer: d) Species

10. Movement of amoeba using pseudopodia is called:

a) Ciliary movement b) Flagellar movement c) Amoeboid movement d) Peristaltic movement
Answer: c) Amoeboid movement
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Chapter 3: Living World & Classification — Kingdom Fungi, Plantae,

Animalia
Q1. What is the difference between hyphae and mycelium?

Ans: Hyphae are individual, thread-like filaments that make up the body of a fungus. Mycelium is the
collective term for the entire network or mass of hyphae — it is the visible cottony mass seen on the
surface of the mould or substrate.

Q2. Why is bread mould classified as a heterotroph?

Ans: Bread mould is classified as a heterotroph because it cannot manufacture its own food through
photosynthesis (it lacks chlorophyll). It derives nutrition by secreting enzymes onto the substrate (bread),
breaking down complex organic molecules into simpler soluble forms, which are then absorbed. This
process is called saprotrophic (or saprophytic) nutrition.

Q3. What is sporulation? Describe the process in moulds.

Ans: Sporulation is the asexual reproductive process in moulds. During sporulation: (1) Some hyphae
become erect and form sporangiophores. (2) The tip of the sporangiophore swells to form a sporangium
(spore case). (3) Within the sporangium, walls form around individual nuclei, producing spores. (4) When
the sporangium is mature, it splits open and releases the spores. (5) The spores are dispersed by air and,
upon landing on a suitable substrate, germinate into new mould colonies.

Q4. Why is Penicillium important in medicine?

Ans: Penicillium is the fungus from which the antibiotic Penicillin was first derived by Alexander Fleming.
Penicillin was one of the first antibiotics discovered and revolutionised medicine by treating bacterial
infections such as pneumonia, meningitis, and septicaemia. Penicillium notatum and Penicillium
chrysogenum are used commercially for antibiotic production.

Q5. Compare the three major groups of non-seed plants (Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta).

Ans: Algae: Mostly aquatic, unicellular or multicellular, contain chlorophyll but lack true
roots/stems/leaves; classified in Protista (unicellular) or Plantae (multicellular). Bryophyta: Terrestrial but
grow in moist places; have stem-like and leaf-like structures but NO true roots; anchor by rhizoids; non-
vascular; reproduce by spores. Pteridophyta: Terrestrial; have true roots, stems, and leaves (fronds);
vascular (possess xylem and phloem); reproduce by spores borne on the underside of leaves. More
evolved than bryophytes.

Q6. What is the significance of the notochord in Phylum Chordata?

Ans: The notochord is a flexible, rod-like supportive structure that is present in all chordates at some
stage of their life. It provides structural support to the body. In higher vertebrates (fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, mammals), the notochord is present only in the embryonic stage and is later replaced by
the vertebral column (backbone). The presence of the notochord is the defining feature of Phylum
Chordata.

Q7. Why do arthropods need to moult (shed their exoskeleton)?

Ans: Arthropods have a rigid exoskeleton made of chitin that cannot grow. As the arthropod grows in size,
the exoskeleton becomes too small. Therefore, arthropods periodically shed (moult) their old exoskeleton
and secrete a new, larger one. This process is called moulting or ecdysis. During moulting, the arthropod
is temporarily vulnerable to predators as its new exoskeleton is soft.
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Q8. State three ways in which Kingdom Fungi differ from Kingdom Plantae.

Ans: (1) Fungi lack chlorophyll and are heterotrophic; plants have chlorophyll and are autotrophic. (2)
Fungi store food as glycogen; plants store food as starch. (3) The body of fungi is made of hyphae (no
true roots, stems, or leaves); plants have true roots, stems, and leaves (except bryophytes which have
rhizoids).

Q9. What is tropical deterioration and what causes it?

Ans: Tropical deterioration refers to the damage caused to goods and materials by fungi in tropical
regions. The warm, moist conditions of tropical regions provide ideal growing conditions for fungi. These
fungi invade and destroy clothing, leather goods, photographic materials, electrical equipment, and other
materials. This widespread deterioration of goods in tropical climates is called tropical deterioration.

Q10. Why are earthworms called the 'friends of farmers'?

Ans: Earthworms are called friends of farmers because: (1) They burrow through the soil, aerating it and
improving drainage. (2) Their burrows allow water and air to penetrate the soil more easily, improving root
growth. (3) Their excretions (castings) enrich the soil with nutrients. (4) They break down dead organic
matter, increasing soil fertility. (5) Their movement mixes soil layers, improving soil texture.
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SECTION 5: GLOSSARY OF BIOLOGICAL TERMS

Chapter 2: Plant and Animal Classification

Amoeboid movement: Movement of amoeba by flowing cytoplasm into pseudopodia, pulling the
organism in that direction.
Antibiotic: A chemical substance derived from microorganisms that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria.
E.g., streptomycin, chloromycetin.
Asexual reproduction: Reproduction that does not involve the fusion of sex cells. E.g., binary fission,
multiple fission.
Bacilli: Rod-shaped bacteria (singular: bacillus).
Binary fission: Asexual reproduction in which one cell divides into two equal daughter cells. Occurs
under favourable conditions.
Binomial Nomenclature: The two-name system for naming organisms using genus (capital) and species
(small, italic). Introduced by Carl Linnaeus.
Botulism: Severe food poisoning caused by a toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum bacteria in tinned
or sealed foods.
Chitin: The structural polysaccharide that forms the cell wall of bacteria and fungi.
Cilia: Short, hair-like projections on the surface of certain cells used for movement. E.g., Paramecium.
Classification: The process of arranging living organisms into groups based on their similarities and
differences.
Coccus: Spherical-shaped bacteria (plural: cocci). Subtypes: Diplococcus, Streptococcus,
Staphylococcus, Micrococcus.
Contractile vacuole: Organelle in amoeba that regulates water balance (osmoregulation) and assists in
excretion by periodically expelling its contents.
Curing: The process of improving the quality or flavour of a product (cheese, tea, tobacco) through
bacterial fermentation and putrefaction.
Cyst: A thick-walled, protective structure formed by amoeba during unfavourable conditions, enabling
survival.
Cytoplasm: The jelly-like fluid inside a cell, excluding the nucleus, where most cellular activities occur.
Decay: Complete aerobic breakdown of organic matter by bacteria, without producing a foul smell.
Decomposition: Breaking down of dead organic matter into simpler substances by bacteria and fungi.
Diffusion: Movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration without
energy use. Used by amoeba for respiration.
Diplococcus: Spherical bacteria that occur in pairs.
Egestion: The expulsion of undigested food material from the body of an organism.
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Entamoeba histolytica: A parasitic amoeba that lives in the human intestine, feeds on blood cells, and
causes amoebic dysentery.
Euglena: A unicellular protist that moves using a flagellum and has characteristics of both plants and
animals.
Eukaryotic cell: A cell with a true, membrane-bound nucleus. Found in Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia.
Fermentation: The breakdown of carbohydrates by anaerobic bacteria or yeast in the absence of
oxygen.
Flagella: Whip-like structures used for locomotion by certain bacteria and protists such as Euglena.
Food vacuole: A membrane-bound sac in amoeba containing ingested food and digestive enzymes.
Genus: A group of closely related species. Written with a capital initial letter and in italics.
Glycogen: The carbohydrate reserve food stored in bacteria and animals.
Holozoic nutrition: Mode of nutrition in which solid food particles are ingested, digested, absorbed,
assimilated and waste is egested. E.g., Amoeba.
Ingestion: The process of taking food into the body.
Kingdom: The largest and most inclusive unit in the hierarchy of biological classification.
Micrococcus: A coccus (spherical bacterium) that exists as a solitary, single cell.
Monera: The kingdom of most primitive unicellular prokaryotic organisms — bacteria.
Multiple fission: Asexual reproduction in which a cell divides into many daughter cells (spores) inside a
cyst under unfavourable conditions.
Nitrogen fixation: The process by which bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia or
nitrates usable by plants.
Nomenclature: The scientific system of naming living organisms.
Nucleolus: A small spherical body inside the nucleus involved in ribosome synthesis. Absent in bacteria.
Nucleus: The membrane-bound control centre of a eukaryotic cell containing the genetic material.
Osmoregulation: Regulation of water and salt balance in an organism. In amoeba, performed by the
contractile vacuole.
Paramecium: A slipper-shaped unicellular protist that moves with cilia. A member of Kingdom Protista.
Parasite: An organism that lives on or inside a host organism and obtains nutrients from it, usually
causing harm.
Phagocytosis: The process by which amoeba engulfs food particles by wrapping pseudopodia around
them to form a food vacuole.
Plasmalemma: The thin, elastic outer plasma membrane of the amoeba's cell.
Prokaryotic cell: A cell that lacks a true nucleus (no nuclear membrane). Found in Kingdom Monera
(bacteria).
Protista: The kingdom of unicellular eukaryotic organisms including amoeba, paramecium and euglena.
 56

Pseudopodia: Temporary, finger-like extensions of the cytoplasm of amoeba used for movement and
food capture (singular: pseudopodium).
Putrefaction: Incomplete anaerobic bacterial decomposition of organic matter that produces foul-smelling
compounds.
Saprophyte: An organism that feeds on dead or decaying organic matter by secreting enzymes onto it
and absorbing the products.
Slime capsule: A protective outer coating secreted around the bacterial cell wall, made of
polysaccharides. Protects from toxic substances, drying and helps bacteria adhere to surfaces.
Species: The smallest unit of classification; a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring.
Spirillum: Spiral-shaped bacteria with flagella (plural: spirilla).
Staphylococcus: Cocci bacteria arranged in grape-like clusters. E.g., causes skin infections in humans.
Streptococcus: Cocci bacteria arranged in chains. Causes throat infections and other diseases.
Taxonomy: The branch of biology concerned with identifying, naming and classifying organisms.
Unicellular: An organism consisting of a single cell. E.g., Amoeba, Paramecium, bacteria.
Vacuole: A membrane-bound space within the cytoplasm. Food vacuoles digest food; contractile
vacuoles regulate water.
Aerobic respiration — Respiration that requires oxygen to break down organic molecules and release
energy.

Alimentary canal — The digestive tract — the passage through which food passes from the mouth to the
anus.

Angiosperms — Flowering plants whose seeds are enclosed within a fruit (ovary). Divided into monocots
and dicots.

Annelida — Phylum of segmented worms. E.g. earthworm, leech.

Arthropoda — The largest phylum of animals, characterised by a chitinous exoskeleton and jointed legs.
Includes insects, spiders, crabs.

Asexual reproduction — Reproduction involving only one parent and no fusion of gametes. In moulds,
this occurs by sporulation.

Autotrophic — Able to manufacture own food using sunlight (photosynthesis) or chemicals. Plants are
autotrophs.

Bilateral symmetry — Body plan in which the organism can be divided into two mirror-image halves
along only one plane.

Binomial nomenclature — The scientific system of naming organisms using two names — genus and
species (e.g. Homo sapiens).

Bryophyta — Group of non-vascular, non-seed plants including mosses and liverworts. Reproduce by
spores.

Cephalothorax — Fused head and thorax region found in many arthropods like spiders and crabs.
 57

Chitin — Hard, nitrogen-containing polysaccharide that forms the exoskeleton of arthropods and the cell
walls of fungi.

Chlorophyll — Green pigment in plants used to absorb light energy for photosynthesis. Absent in fungi.

Cnidaria (Coelenterata) — Phylum of radially symmetrical animals with stinging cells (nematocysts). E.g.
jellyfish, Hydra, coral.

Cnidoblasts — Stinging cells in cnidarians. Also called nematocysts. Used for capturing prey and
defence.

Coelom — Body cavity in animals. In cnidarians, it serves as both digestive cavity and body cavity.

Conifer — A gymnosperm tree bearing cones and needle-like leaves. E.g. pine, fir, cedar.

Cotyledon — Seed leaf — the first leaf (or leaves) present in the seed embryo. Monocots have one;
dicots have two.

Cryptogams — Non-seed bearing plants that reproduce by spores. Includes algae, mosses, liverworts,
and ferns.

Cycads — Ancient gymnosperm plants with palm-like leaves. Found in warm tropical/subtropical regions.

Dicotyledon — An angiosperm with two cotyledons in the seed. Leaves show reticulate venation. E.g.
mango, bean.

Dry ice — Solidified carbon dioxide (CO2). A byproduct of fermentation in breweries.

Echinodermata — Phylum of spiny-skinned marine animals with radial symmetry and tube feet. E.g.
starfish, sea urchin.

Endoskeleton — Internal skeleton found in vertebrates. Provides support and protects organs.

Exoskeleton — External skeleton found in arthropods and echinoderms. Provides protection and
support.

Extracellular digestion — Digestion that takes place outside the cell. Fungi secrete enzymes onto their
food, then absorb the digested products.

Fermentation — The anaerobic breakdown of sugar by yeast producing alcohol and CO2.

Frond — The leaf of a fern.

Fungi — Non-green, heterotrophic organisms that reproduce by spores. Include moulds, yeasts, and
mushrooms.

Gymnosperms — Seed-bearing plants with naked seeds (seeds not enclosed in fruit). E.g. pine, fir,
cycads.

Heterotrophic — Unable to produce own food; must obtain nutrition from other organisms or organic
matter.

Hyphae — Microscopic, thread-like filaments that make up the body of a fungus. Singular: hypha.

Intracellular digestion — Digestion that takes place inside the cell (within food vacuoles). Found in
sponges.

Invertebrates — Animals without a backbone. Includes all animal phyla except vertebrates.

Megasporophyll — The female cone-like structure in gymnosperms, bearing the egg cells.
 58

Microsporophyll — The male cone-like structure in gymnosperms, producing pollen grains.

Monocotyledon — An angiosperm with one cotyledon in the seed. Leaves show parallel venation. E.g.
wheat, rice.

Mycelium — The mass of hyphae forming the body of a fungus (the visible cottony growth).

Nematocysts — Stinging cells (cnidoblasts) in cnidarians used for capturing prey and defence.

Nematoda — Phylum of cylindrical, unsegmented roundworms. E.g. Ascaris (roundworm).

Notochord — A flexible, rod-like supportive structure in chordates; replaced by the vertebral column in
vertebrates.

Parallel venation — Leaf vein arrangement where veins run parallel to each other. Found in monocots.

Parasite — An organism that lives on or in a host organism and derives nutrients at the host's expense.

Porifera — Phylum of sessile (stationary), pore-bearing aquatic animals. E.g. sponges.

Pteridophyta — Group of vascular, non-seed plants including ferns. Reproduce by spores.

Radial symmetry — Body plan in which the organism can be divided into equal halves through any plane
passing through the central axis.

Reticulate venation — Leaf vein arrangement where veins form a network pattern. Found in dicots.

Rhizoid — Root-like structures in fungi and bryophytes that anchor the organism and absorb
water/nutrients. Not true roots.

Rhizoid (Fungi) — Hyphae that penetrate the substrate to anchor the mould and absorb nutrients.

Saprophyte / Saprotrophic — An organism that derives nutrition from dead or decaying organic matter.

Spore — A small, usually single-celled reproductive unit in fungi, mosses, ferns, etc. that can develop into
a new individual.

Sporangiophore — An erect hypha in moulds that bears the sporangium (spore case) at its tip.

Sporangium — A structure (spore case) in which spores are produced. Plural: sporangia.

Sporulation — The process of producing and releasing spores as a method of asexual reproduction (in
moulds).

Taxonomy — The science of classifying and naming living organisms.

Tropical deterioration — Damage caused to goods (clothes, leather, electrical equipment) by fungi in
tropical regions.

Vacuole — A membrane-bound sac within the cytoplasm of a cell that stores substances (in fungi:
glycogen and oil droplets).

Vertebrates — Animals possessing a backbone (vertebral column). Includes fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds, and mammals.

Xylem — Vascular tissue in plants that transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves.

Yeast — A unicellular fungus used in brewing (fermentation of sugar to alcohol) and baking (CO2
production to leaven bread).