Rice :

Rice Pre-Processing & Parboiling

Pre-processing cleans the paddy and prepares the internal starch matrix to
minimize grain breakage during milling.

Cleaning & Grading

Air-screen cleaners remove chaff, dust, and light impurities using air suction.

Specific gravity separators isolate stones, soil particles, and damaged grains
based on density.

Parboiling (Hydrothermal Treatment)

Soaking: Raw paddy is soaked in water (60–70°C) to achieve equilibrium

moisture content.

Steaming: Soaked paddy is treated with low-pressure steam to gelatinize the

internal starch granules.

Drying: Moisture content is uniformly reduced to 12–14% for stable milling.

Impact on Grain Quality

Gelatinized starch fills internal micro-cracks (sun-cracks), strengthening the

grain structure and significantly reducing kernel breakage during dehusking.

2. Rice Milling & Minimizing Grain Breakage

Milling separates the outer inedible husk and the nutrient-rich bran layer
from the starchy endosperm.

A. Milling Sequence

Dehusking: Rubber-roll shellers remove the outer husk gently using

differential-speed rollers without damaging the inner kernel.

Husk Separation: Aspirators remove the light husk from the heavier brown
rice.

Whitening/Polishing: Abrasive emery or friction polishers remove the bran

layer and germ to produce white polished rice.
Grading (Indent Cylinder/Length Grader): Milled rice is classified into head
rice (whole grains), large brokens, and small brokens according to kernel
length.

B. Causes & Prevention of Rice Breakage

Causes of Breakage

High moisture variation before milling causes thermal stress and internal
fissures.

Excessive pressure during single-stage polishing increases grain breakage.

Prevention Strategies

Parboiling hardens the rice kernel and reduces breakage.

Multi-stage polishing (2–3 light passes instead of one heavy pass) minimizes
friction-induced grain damage.

Maintaining accurate roller clearance in rubber-roll dehuskers reduces kernel

breakage.

3. Cooking of Rice (Thermal Processing)

Cooking changes the native crystalline starch into an easily digestible form.

Starch Gelatinization

In the presence of water and heat (60–75°C), starch granules absorb water,
swell, and rupture, forming a digestible gel matrix.

Nutritional Changes

Heat denatures native proteins and improves nutrient bioavailability.

Excessive washing or discarding the cooking water may result in the loss of
water-soluble B-complex vitamins.

4. Rice Fermentation

Fermentation utilizes naturally occurring or starter cultures of lactic acid

bacteria and yeasts acting on rice-based products (e.g., idli and dosa batter
prepared with black gram).

Biochemical Actions

Microorganisms produce carbon dioxide (CO₂), which leavens the batter and
gives it a light, soft, and spongy texture.
Organic acids, mainly lactic acid, lower the pH, inhibit pathogenic
microorganisms, and impart a characteristic mild sour flavour.

Nutritional Enhancement

Increases B-complex vitamins (especially thiamine and riboflavin).

Enzymatic degradation reduces phytic acid, thereby improving the

bioavailability of minerals such as iron and calcium.

5. Extrusion of Rice Products

Extrusion technology combines mixing, cooking, kneading, shearing, and

shaping into a single High-Temperature Short-Time (HTST) process to
manufacture products such as rice noodles, expanded rice snacks, and
reconstituted or fortified rice kernels.

Extrusion Process Steps

Conditioning: Rice flour or grits are mixed with water to adjust the moisture
content to 15–25%.

Thermal & Mechanical Shearing: Rotating single- or twin-screw extruders

force the material through a heated barrel (100–160°C) under high pressure,
resulting in complete starch gelatinization.

Die Expansion (Puffing): As the hot material exits through the shaped die into
atmospheric pressure, superheated water rapidly flashes into steam,
expanding the rice product into its final puffed or shaped structure.

Wheat:

Processing of Wheat
1. Structure & Composition of Wheat Grain
A wheat kernel (caryopsis) consists of three primary anatomical parts:

 Bran (14–15%): The outer protective fibrous layer, rich in insoluble

fibre, minerals (iron and phosphorus), and B-complex vitamins.
 Endosperm (80–85%): The inner starchy core containing starch
granules embedded in a protein matrix (glutenin and gliadin).
 Germ/Embryo (2–3%): The nutrient-dense sprouting portion, rich in
lipids (oils), vitamin E, and enzymes.
2. Pre-Processing Treatments
Pre-processing cleans raw wheat and conditions the kernel to optimize flour yield and separation
efficiency during milling.

A. Cleaning and Grading

 Air Aspirators & Screen Cleaners: Remove dust, chaff, light straw,
and weed seeds using controlled air currents and vibrating sieves.
 Specific Gravity Separators & Destoners: Remove heavy
impurities (stones, mud balls, and metal fragments) based on density
differences.
 Disc Separators (Trieurs): Separate foreign seeds (such as oats and
barley) based on grain shape and length.

B. Conditioning and Tempering

 Objective: To toughen the fibrous bran layer (preventing it from
breaking into fine particles during milling) while softening the starchy
endosperm.
 Process: Water is added to the cleaned wheat to raise its moisture
content to 15–16.5% (depending on whether it is soft, hard, or durum
wheat), followed by a tempering period of 6–24 hours.

3. Wheat Milling (Roller Milling Process)

Modern wheat milling separates the endosperm from the bran and germ, grinding the endosperm
into various fractions (atta, maida, and suji/semolina).

A. The Break System (Corrugated Rollers)

 First Break Rollers: Corrugated steel rollers rotating in opposite
directions at differential speeds split open the wheat kernel.
 Subsequent Breaks: Gradually scrape the endosperm away from the
bran without pulverizing the tough bran layer.
B. Purification (Purifiers)
 Air & Sieve Separation: A combination of reciprocating sieves and
upward air currents separates bran particles from coarse endosperm
particles (semolina/suji).

C. The Reduction System (Smooth Rollers)

 Smooth steel rollers grind purified semolina into fine flour under
controlled pressure.

Milling Fractions

 Whole Wheat Flour (Atta): Contains endosperm, bran, and germ.

 Refined Wheat Flour (Maida): Prepared only from the starchy
endosperm; bran and germ are completely removed.
 Semolina (Suji/Rava): Coarse, purified endosperm particles used for
pasta, upma, and halwa.

4. Gluten Formation & Cooking Mechanics

Wheat proteins are unique because of their gluten-forming properties.

A. Chemistry of Gluten Development

When water is added to wheat flour and the dough is kneaded, two storage proteins combine:

Gliadin (provides elasticity and viscosity) + Glutenin (provides strength and elasticity) →
Gluten Complex

 Gluten Network: Forms a three-dimensional viscoelastic matrix that

traps carbon dioxide (CO₂) during leavening.

Cooking & Thermal Processing

 Starch Gelatinization: During wet cooking or baking (60–80°C),
starch granules absorb water, swell, and form a firm, digestible gel
matrix.
  Protein Coagulation: Heat denatures and sets the gluten network,
stabilizing the soft, porous structure of baked products such as bread,
chapati, and cakes.

5. Wheat Fermentation
Fermentation is essential in yeast-leavened bakery products such as bread, buns, and naan.

A. Biochemical Reaction
Baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) ferments simple sugars derived from wheat starch:

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂ ↑

B. Nutritional & Textural Impact

 Leavening & Texture: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) produced during
fermentation causes the dough to rise, resulting in a soft and porous
crumb structure.
 Acidification & Bioavailability: Organic acids lower the pH, activate
native phytase enzymes, degrade phytic acid, and improve the
bioavailability of iron, zinc, and calcium.
 B-Complex Enrichment: Microorganisms synthesize B-complex
vitamins during fermentation.

6. Extrusion of Wheat Products

Extrusion technology uses High-Temperature Short-Time (HTST) processing and mechanical
shearing to manufacture wheat products such as pasta, macaroni, spaghetti, noodles, and
expanded snacks.

A. Process Flow
 Dough Preparation: Durum wheat semolina or flour is mixed with
water (25–30% moisture) to form a cohesive dough.
 Barrel & Screw Kneading: High-pressure rotating single- or twin-
screw extruders convey, knead, and thermally process the dough
inside a heated barrel.
  Die Shaping & Cutting: The molten dough is forced through
precision dies to produce macaroni, vermicelli, or noodle strands and is
cut to the required length by rotating knives.
 Drying: Extruded products are dried under controlled conditions (55–
85°C) until the final moisture content is less than 12%, ensuring a
long shelf life and preventing spoilage.

Millets :

Pulse:

1. Pre-Processing Treatments

Pre-processing prepares raw pulses for hulling by loosening the fibrous outer
layer (seed coat or testa) from the inner cotyledons. The bond between the
hull and cotyledons is held by mucilaginous gums and pectins, which pre-
processing seeks to break down.

Cleaning and Grading

Air-Screen Cleaners & Aspirators: Remove light impurities such as chaff, dust,
broken pods, and dried leaves using controlled air blasts.

Specific Gravity Separators: Separate heavy impurities (stones, mud balls)

and light insect-damaged seeds from sound pulse grains based on density
differences.

Sieving: Sizes pulses uniformly to ensure even treatment during conditioning

and milling.

Pre-Conditioning (Loosening the Seed Coat)

Wet Method:

Pulses are soaked in water for several hours to hydrate the outer layer.

They are mixed with a red earth (clay) slurry and sun-dried for 2–4 days.
The clay absorbs moisture uniformly, loosening the adhesive mucilaginous
layer between the husk and cotyledon.

Dry Method:

Pulses are treated with small amounts of edible oils (such as sesame,
linseed, or mustard oil at 0.2–0.5% by weight).

After oil application, pulses are tempered and sun-dried. The oil penetrates
the outer coat, making it brittle and weakening the bond to the cotyledons.

2. Dehulling (Pulse Milling)

Dehulling refers to removing the fibrous hull (dehusk) and splitting the whole
seed into two cotyledons to obtain dhal.

Mechanical Operations

Abrasion & Friction Milling: Pulses are passed through machines such as
abrasive emery rollers, stone millstones (chakkis), or attrition mills. The
abrasive surface strips away the outer husk without shattering or crushing
the internal cotyledons.

Aspiration: High-velocity air currents are passed through the milled mixture
to blow away the lightweight husk particles from the heavier cotyledons.

Splitting & Polishing:

Whole dehulled pulses pass through counter-rotating rollers or polishers with

controlled clearance to split them cleanly into dhal halves.

Polishing: Commercial dhal is often polished using small amounts of water,

oil, or soapstone powder to improve visual appearance and market value.

3. Cooking (Thermal Processing)

Thermal treatment improves digestibility, enhances palatability, and

inactivates naturally occurring anti-nutritional factors (ANFs).

Primary Cooking Methods

Boiling (Wet Cooking): Heating pulses in boiling water (100°C) softens

structural cell-wall pectins and gelatinizes starch granules, making proteins
more accessible to digestive enzymes.

Pressure Cooking (Autoclaving): High-pressure steam (121°C) rapidly soft-

cooks pulses while effectively destroying heat-labile anti-nutritional factors
such as:
Trypsin and Chymotrypsin Inhibitors (which interfere with protein digestion).

Lectins (Hemagglutinins) (which bind to intestinal epithelial cells).

Roasting & Puffing (Dry Heat): High-Temperature Short-Time (HTST) exposure

reduces moisture content to very low levels, develops characteristic toasted
flavours, and partially dextrinizes starches (e.g., roasted Bengal gram or
roasted chana).

4. Sprouting (Germination)

Sprouting activates the seed's metabolism, initiating biochemical changes

that enhance the pulse's overall nutritional quality.

Process Flow

Soaking: Whole pulses are submerged in clean water for 8–12 hours at room
temperature until fully imbibed.

Incubation: Excess water is drained, and the seeds are placed in a dark,
humid environment (or wrapped in a damp cloth) at 25–30°C for 24–48 hours
until plumule and radicle growth appears.

Biochemical & Nutritional Changes

Enzyme Activation: Induces the synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes—α-

amylases, proteases, and phytases.

Nutritional Enhancement:

Complex proteins are broken down into easily digestible free amino acids and
small peptides.

Significant synthesis of Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and B-complex vitamins.

Reduction of Anti-Nutrients:

Phytases break down phytic acid, improving the bioavailability of minerals

such as iron, zinc, and calcium.

Reduces non-digestible oligosaccharides (raffinose and stachyose)

responsible for flatulence.

5. Fermentation

Fermentation utilizes beneficial microorganisms (lactic acid bacteria and

yeasts) to modify pulse matrices, creating fermented foods (e.g., idli and
dosa batters made from black gram and rice mixtures).
Key Mechanisms

Enzymatic Degradation: Microbial activity hydrolyses complex proteins and

starches into simpler, more bioavailable nutrients.

Acidification: Lactic acid bacteria produce lactic and acetic acids, lowering
the pH. This acidic environment inhibits spoilage microorganisms and
pathogens while extending shelf life.

Nutritional Benefits

Mineral Bioavailability: Low pH activates native phytases, destroying

phytates and releasing bound minerals (iron, calcium, and magnesium).

Improved Digestibility: Pre-digestion of complex macromolecules reduces

intestinal gas formation and increases the overall Protein Efficiency Ratio
(PER).

6. Fumigation of Pulses

Fumigation is a chemical post-harvest control method used during bulk

storage to protect stored whole pulses and dhals against insect pests, most
notably the pulse beetle (Callosobruchus maculatus).

Standard Chemical Agents

Phosphine (PH₃): Produced in situ using Aluminium Phosphide or Magnesium

Phosphide tablets reacting with atmospheric moisture. It is the primary
fumigant due to its high penetrating power without affecting seed viability
when applied correctly.

Operational Protocols & Safety

Hermetic Enclosure: Storage structures, silos, or stacks wrapped in gas-tight

tarpaulins or polyethylene sheets are sealed to maintain the required gas
concentration over a mandatory exposure period (5–7 days).

Aeration & Venting: Following the treatment period, the structures are
thoroughly ventilated to dissipate residual gas.

Residue Monitoring: Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) are strictly regulated

under food safety standards (such as FSSAI and Codex) to ensure that no
toxic residues remain before pulses enter processing streams or the food
supply chain.