Botany Notes by Anurag P S

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

➢ Flowering plants show sexual mode of reproduction and produce flowers as their
reproductive structure after the completion of vegetative phase.
A flower is considered as a modified shoot.
o The thalamus of a flower is the enlarged and condensed axis.
o It has nodes and very short internodes.
o It bears the floral whorls such as calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium at the
nodes.
PRE-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES AND EVENTS
➢ Several structural and hormonal changes
lead to formation and development of the
floral primordium.
➢ Flowers are born singly or in groups.
➢ A typical angiosperm flower consists of
four whorls of floral appendages attached
on the receptacle/thalamus.
➢ They are calyx, corolla, androecium,
and gynoecium.
➢ In a flower, male (androecium) and female
(gynoecium) reproductive structures later
produce male and female gametes.
Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen Grain
➢ Each stamen has long and slender stalk called filament and terminal box like structure called
anther.
➢ A typical angiosperm anther is bilobed with each lobe having two theca (chamber).
➢ In general, the anther is four-sided structure consisting of four microsporangia, two
in each lobes.
➢ Microsporangia develop further and become pollen sacs which contain pollen grains.
STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIUM
➢ Microsporangium is generally surrounded by four layered wall- the epidermis,
➢ endothecium, middle layer and tapetum.
➢ Innermost layer, tapetum nourishes the developing pollen grains.
➢ The cells of the tapetum are multinucleated (due to endomitosis) and have dense cytoplasm.
➢ The outer three wall layers perform the function of protection and help in dehiscence of
anther to release the pollen
Sporogenous tissues
➢ It is compactly arranged homogenous cells which are present at centre of each
microsporangium when the anther is young.
Microsporogenesis
➢ The process of the formation of microspores (pollen grains) from microspore mother
cells(MMC) by reduction division is called microsporogenesis.
➢ The cells of sporogenous tissues undergo meiotic division to form microspore tetrad.
➢ As the anther mature and dehydrate, the microspore dissociates and develops into pollen grains

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 Botany Notes by Anurag P S

POLLEN GRAIN
➢ Pollen grain represents the male gametophyte.
➢ Pollen grains have 2 layered wall, outer exine and inner intine.

EXINE
o Made up of sporopollenin- most resistant organic matter known.
o It can withstand high temperatures and strong acids and alkali.
o No enzyme can degrade sporopollenin
o Presence of sporopollenin helps the pollen to be preserved even in fossils.
INTINE.
o Thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
o Germ pores are minute apertures or openings on exine where sporopollenin is absent.
o After pollination pollen tube emerges through germ pore.
MATURE POLLEN
➢ A mature pollen consists of 2 cells with nucleus (Vegetative cell and Generative cell)
VEGETATIVE CELL
➢ Larger cell of the pollen grain with abundant food reserves
➢ Contains large irregular nucleus
➢ The function of the vegetative cell is to provide the medium for the movement of male gametes
inside the pollen tube
GENERATIVE CELL
➢ Smaller cell of the pollen grain and contain minimum amount of cytoplasm
➢ It divides mitotically to produce two functional male gametes.
➢ In about 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are liberated at 2-celled stage.
➢ In about 40% flowering plants, the generative cell divides mitotically to give rise to two
male gametes before pollen grains are shed at 3-celled stage.
Economic importance of Pollen grains
➢ Pollen grains of many species (e.g Parthenium) cause severe allergies and bronchial diseases in
some people (asthma, bronchitis, etc).
➢ Pollen grains are rich in nutrients and are used as pollen tablets as food supplements.
Pollen consumption increases the performance of athletes and race horses.
Pollen Viability
➢ Pollen viability denotes the ability of pollen to produce male gamete and effect fertilization.
Pollens of wheat and rice remain viable for 30 minutes. Pollens of same other plants may remain
viable for several months.
➢ Pollen grains of large number of species are stored in liquid nitrogen at temperature – 1960C,
and can be used as pollen bank.

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 Botany Notes by Anurag P S

The Pistil, Megasporangium (Ovule) and Embryo sac

➢ Gynoecium represents female reproductive part of the flower.
➢ Gynoecium may consist of single carpel (monocarpellary) or more than one carpel (polycarpellary)
➢ Carpels may be fused (syncarpous [Link]) or free (apocarpous [Link]).
➢ Each pistil has three parts the stigma (terminal landing surface for pollen grain), style
(Elongated slender part) and ovary (swollen basal portion of the carpel).
➢ Inside the ovary is ovarian cavity (locule).
➢ The placenta is located inside the ovarian cavity. Megasporangium (ovule) arises from placenta.
➢ MEGASPORANGIUM (OVULE)
➢ Ovule is a small structure attached to placenta.
➢ Funicle –stalk by which ovule is attached to placenta.
➢ The point of attachment of funicle with the body of ovule is called hilum.
➢ The main body of the ovule is covered with one or two envelopes called integuments.
➢ Integuments leave an opening at the top of the ovule called micropyle.
➢ The body of the ovule shows two ends: the basal end, often called the chalazal end and the
upper end is called micropylar end.
➢ Parenchymatous tissue enclosed inside the integument is called nucellus

▪
➢ MEGASPOROGENESIS
➢ The process of formation of megaspore from megaspore mother cell by meiotic division
is known as megasporogenesis. This process takes place in ovule.
➢ Ovule differentiates a single megaspore mother cell (MMC) in the micropylar region of
nucellus.

•
➢ MMC undergoes meiotic division that results into the production of four megaspores.
➢ In most of the flowering plants three megaspores degenerate and remaining single megaspore
develops into female gametophyte (embryo sac).
➢ The nucleus of functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei which move to
opposite poles to form 2-nucleate embryo sac.

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 Botany Notes by Anurag P S

➢ Two more sequential mitotic division results into 8-nucleate embryo sac.
➢ One nucleus from each pole then moves towards the middle of the large central cell and forms
a pair of polar nuclei.
➢ The three nuclei of the micropylar end form the egg appaatus (one central egg and two lateral
➢ synergids) and the rest three at the chalazal end are called antipodal cells.
➢ At maturity, embryosac is 8-nucleate and 7 celled.
➢ Pollination
➢ Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma.
Autogamy
o Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same flower.
o It requires synchronous maturation of anther and stigma.
Cleistogamous Flower
o Flower which does not open.
o Cleistogamous flowers are autogamous as there is no chance of transfer of foreign pollen to
the stigma.
o Cleistogamous flowers ensure the development of seeds even in the absence of pollinators. e.g
Viola (common pansy), Oxalis, and Commelina.
o Chasmogamous Flower Open flowers with exposed anther and stigma.
Geitonogamy
o Transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to stigma of another flower of same plant.
o Geitonogamy is functionally a type of cross-pollination involving a pollinating agent.
o Genetically it is similar to autogamy since the pollen grains coming from the same plant
o Xenogamy
o Transfer of pollen grain from anther to the stigma of a different plant of the same species.
➢ Agents of pollination
➢ Pollinating agents includes abiotic (water, wind) and biotic (insects, butterfly, honey bee etc.)
Large number of pollen grains are produced by plants using abiotic mode of pollination to
compensate the loss of pollen grains during transfer.
➢ Adaptations in flowers for Pollination
➢ WIND POLLINATION
➢ Pollen grains light weighted and non- sticky.
➢ Have well-exposed stamens (so that the pollens are easily dispersed into wind currents)
➢ Large and feathery stigma helps to receive pollen grains moving in the air.
➢ In wind pollinating plants numerous flowers are packed into an inflorescence.
➢ Eg.: Corn, Rice, Maize, Papaya, Date palm.
WATER POLLINATION
➢ Pollen grains protected by mucilaginous covering.
➢ Large and ribbon shaped pollen grains in some species.
➢ They do not produce nectar/honey
➢ Eg: Fresh water plants- Vallisneria, Hydrilla
Marine Plants-Zostera

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 Botany Notes by Anurag P S

➢ In vallisneria, the female flower reaches the surface of water by the long stalk and the
male flower or pollen grains are released into the surface of water.
➢ All aquatic plants are not pollinated by water
➢ Eichornia and Water lilly are insect pollinating hydrophytes.
INSECT POLLINATION
➢ The flowers pollinated by insects are bright-coloured and produce nectar.
➢ The fragrance of the flowers attracts the insects.
➢ The pollen grains are sticky, large, and rough so that stick to the body of the insects.
➢ The stigmas are also sticky so that the pollens depositing is not dispersed.
➢ [Link], Sunflower, Aster
➢ Certain rewards to pollinators:
➢ Pollen and nectar are the primary rewards offered by flowers to visiting animals.
Some flowers provide safe place for laying eggs. Eg. Amorphophallus, YUcca
➢ Many insects may consume pollen or the nectar without bringing about pollination. Such floral
visitors are referred to as pollen/nectar robbers.
➢ Outbreeding Devices
➢ Many plants have developed various mechanisms to discourage self-pollination and encourage
cross pollination - these are called as outbreeding devices
➢ Pollen release and stigma receptivity not synchronized (maturation of pollen and stigma at
different times – Dichogamy).
➢ Anther and stigma are placed at different position –(Herkogamy).
➢ Pollen grains of a flower do not germinate on the stigma of the same flower.(Self
sterility/self incompatibility)
➢ Production of unisexual flowers. (Dicliny)
➢ Pollen pistil interaction
➢ The pollen-pistil interaction begins with pollination (pollen deposited on the stigma)
➢ All pollinations do not lead to successful fertilization because, the pistil of a flower has
to recognize the pollen of the same species.
➢ The pistil has ability to recognize the right type of pollen to initiate post pollination events.
➢ ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDIZATION
➢ It is one of the innovative methods of the crop improvement program.
➢ In artificial hybridization, only desired pollen grains are used for pollination and
fertilization.
Emasculation:
o Removal of anther from a bisexual flower before it releases pollen grain.
o In the case of unisexual flowers, this step is not necessary.
Bagging:
o Bagging is the protection of emasculated flower from pollination by undesirable pollen grains.
o Here the flower is covered by a bag, until the stigma attains maturity.
o In unisexual flowers, bagging is done before the flowers are open.
o Once the flower attains stigma receptivity, the desired pollens are dusted on the stigma.
Events of pollen-pistil interaction proceed as follows:

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 Botany Notes by Anurag P S

➢ The landing of true pollen on the compatible ➢ Filiform apparatus guides the entry of
pollen tube into the ovule.
pistil.
➢ Right type of pollen absorbs water and
nutrients from the surface of stigma,
germinate and produce pollen tube.
➢ After the formation of pollen tube and
formation, pollen grains release its contents
to pollen tube.
➢ Pollen tube grows through the style of the
pistil towards the ovary.
➢ After reaching the ovary, the pollen tube
enters the ovule through one of the
synergids at micropylar end. ✓
DOUBLE FERTILISATION
➢ After entering into one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases two male gametes in
thecytoplasm of the synergid.
➢ One male gamete (n) fuses with egg (n) and form a zygote (2n). It is called Syngamy. Other
male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei to produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus
(PEN). This fusion is called triple fusion.
➢ Since two types of fusion takes place in an embryo sac the phenomenon is called double
fertilization.
➢ The PEN develops into the endosperm and zygote develops into embryo.
iii. POST FERTILISATION EVENTS.
➢ This phase includes endosperm and embryo development, maturation of ovules into seeds and
ovary into fruits.
ENDOSPERM
➢ The primary endosperm cell divides many times to forms a triploid endosperm tissue
having reserve food materials.
➢ An endosperm forms the surrounding tissue of the growing embryo and their main function is
to provide nutrients to the growing embryo.
➢ There are 2 types of endosperm development
(i) Free nuclear type (common method) (ii) Cellular type
o In this type, the cell divisions are free- o Cell wall formation follows each cell
nuclear, where each cell division is not division.
followed by cell wall formation. o Thus, the endosperm divides into many
o They may or may not form a cell wall segments.
towards later stages. Eg: Coconut
Embryo
➢ Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is located.
➢ Development of zygote to embryo starts only after endosperm formation has started.
➢ This is because endosperm provides nutrition needed for the embryo to develop.
Embryogeny
➢ Stages of embryo development are same in both monocot & dicot plants
➢ The zygote gives rise to the proembryo and subsequently to the globular, heart-shaped and
mature embryo.

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 Botany Notes by Anurag P S

STRUCTURE OF EMBRYO
➢ Dicotyledonous embryo has the following important parts:
➢ Embryonal axis - Main axis of the embryo which divides into different regions
[Link]/embryonic leaves provide nourishment to the developing radicle & plumule
[Link](upper end of the embryonal axis)and radicle(lower end of the embryonal axis)
[Link] - Part of embryonal axis above the cotyledons which terminates at plumule
[Link] - Part of embryonal axis below the cotyledons which terminates at radical
Monocotyledonous embryo has
the following parts
➢ Embryonal axis - Main axis of the embryo
which divides into different regions
[Link] cotyledon called scutellum located
at one side of the axis.
➢ [Link] (upper end of the embryonal axis)
and radicle (lower end of the embryonal
axis)
➢ [Link]: undifferentiated sheath
covering radical & root cap
➢ [Link]: sheath covering plumule

Seed
➢ Seed is a fertilized ovule.
➢ Integuments of ovule harden to form Seed coat, however micropyle is still present on the seed
coat as minute opening for entry of water and oxygen.
➢ In dicot plants the seed coat has 2 layers, thick outer layer(testa) thin inner layer(tegmen)
➢ Hilum is the scar on seed coat through which the seed was attached to the fruit.
➢ Perisperm: Remnants of nucellus that is persistent in the seed. Eg. Black pepper, Sugar beet.
➢ In some seeds general metabolic activity of embryo slows down and seeds enter into a state of
inactivity called Dormancy.
➢ Seeds are extremely useful in agriculture. Some of the important applications of seeds are:
➢ Help plant species to be colonized in different areas
➢ Provide nourishment to young seedlings
➢ Ensure protection to the young embryo
➢ Results in variations with new genetic combinations
➢ Can be easily stored for future usage
Fruits
➢ Fertilized and mature ovaries are called fruits
➢ The wall of ovary develops into wall of fruit called pericarp.

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 Botany Notes by Anurag P S

➢ In some fruits the pericarp is further differentiated into three layers, namely:
o Epicarp: Outermost layer, forms the peel.
o Mesocarp: Middle layer, fleshy, edible portion of the fruits
o Endocarp: Innermost layer, inner rough portion where the seed is accommodated.
➢ In true fruits only ovary contributes in fruit formation but in false fruit thalamus also
contributes in fruit formation (Eg. Apple, Strawberry, Cashew
➢ Fruits formed without pollination and fertilization are called Parthenocarpic [Link]
➢ Parthenocarpic fruits are generally seedless in nature

Apomixis
➢ Apomixis is a mechanism to produce seeds without fertilization.
➢ This mechanism produces clones, hence can be considered as a form of asexual reproduction
➢ Apomixis can occur in a number of ways, some of which are mentioned below:
➢ Nucellar cells which are diploid & located outside the embryo sac continuously divide and enter
➢ inside embryo sac and later develop into embryos.
➢ Sometimes, the egg cell is not formed as a result of reduction division, hence diploid. This
diploid egg cell later directly develops into an embryo.
➢ Apomixis is extremely useful these days because of the following reasons: Clonal
reproduction through seeds
➢ New hybrids produced in lesser time.
➢ During apomixis, chromosomal segregation and recombination does not occur.
So, characters are stable for several generations.
POLYEMBRYONY
➢ Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed
➢ Often associated with apomixis. Ex: Citrus, groundnut
➢ In many citrus and mango varieties, some of the nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac
start dividing, protrude into the embryo sac and develop into embryos.
➢ Polyembryony plays a main role in plant breeding and horticulture

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8
 Botany Notes by ANURAG P S / 9645242397

BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES & PROCESSES

Biotechnology is the technological exploitation of biological ▪ Stanley Cohen & Herbert Boyer (1972) constructed the first
processes for the benefit of mankind. recombinant DNA.
➢ Biotechnology has two aspects or views- They linked a gene of antibiotic resistance from the plasmid of
Salmonella typhimurium with a plasmid of E. coli and
Modern Biotechnology / transferred into E. coli.
Classical Biotechnology rDNA technology /
Genetic engineering
✓ It includes the processes ✓ Modifying the organism
based on the natural genetically and then is used
capabilities of microbes. for obtaining the products
e.g.: making curd, e.g.: In vitro fertilization,
bread, wine Preparation of vaccines
using rDNA technology,
gene therapy
➔ Merits of genetic engineering over traditional hybridization
Hybridization techniques lead to inclusion and multiplication of
undesirable genes along with desired genes.
Genetic engineering helps to isolate and introduce only desirable
genes into the target organism.

ii. Removal of impurities from the DNA

Explanation: -  RNA - removed by treating with ribonuclease
I. Isolation of a desired DNA fragment  Proteins - removed by treating with protease.
i. Breaking the cell wall. Other molecules can be removed by appropriate treatments.
Depending on cell which has to be lysed, different lytic enzymes
are used. iii. Separation of purified DNA
For bacterial cell → lysozyme Add chilled ethanol to precipitates out the purified DNA (can be
For plant cells → cellulase seen as collection of fine threads in the suspension). This can be
For fungal cell → chitinase separated by spooling.

1
iv. Cutting of DNA at specific location using Restriction ▪ Polymerase Chain Reaction is technique used to amplify
Endonuclease. (synthesis multiple copies) the gene of interest
Cut the purified source DNA as well as the vector DNA with a Kary Mullis (1983) developed this technique.
specific restriction enzyme. Requirements-
Restriction Enzymes  DNA template whose copies are to be produced
 Free nucleotides
These enzymes actually occur in bacteria to ‘restrict’ the  2 sets of primers - Primers are small chemically synthesized
replication of attacking bacteriophages by identifying their oligonucleotides that are complementary to 3’ end of template.
introduced phage DNA and cut it into pieces (cleave (Primers provide a free 3’-OH required by DNA polymerase for
phosphodiester bond). the formation of the phosphodiester bond)
▪ Restriction enzymes belong to a class of enzymes called ▪ DNA polymerase- Thermostable Taq polymerase (isolated from
nucleases. They include exonucleases & endonucleases. a bacterium, Thermus aquaticus) is used.

Restriction enzyme Steps: -

Denaturation: The DNA fragment is heated about 940C results
Exonucleases Endonuclease in separation of DNA strands.
Remove nucleotides Cuts at specific Annealing of primer: The solution is allowed to cool to 600C.
from the ends of DNA positions within the DNA During this time, one primer anneals (join) with 3’ end of one
DNA strand and the other primer binds with the 3’ end of its
Action of Endonuclease: complementary strand.
Cuts at specific recognition sequences (often 4/6 base pairs long) Primer extension: DNA polymerase extends the primers by
which are palindromic. adding nucleotides complementary to the template.
→Cut leaves a single stranded overhanging stretches portions at each Amplification: The process of replication is repeated.
ends (Sticky ends-they form H-bonds with their complementary cut
counterparts. This stickiness of the ends facilitates the action of the
enzyme DNA ligase).
▪ The first restriction endonuclease–Hind II from Haemophilus
influenzae. I
Naming of restriction enzymes: - Eg: EcoRI
✓ 1 letter (in capital and italics) - Genus of the
st
II
prokaryotic cell from which enzyme were isolated. E- Escherichia
✓ 2nd & 3rd letters - Indicate species. co- coli
✓ 4th letter- The strain name of bacteria. R- RY 13
III
✓ Following Roman numerals indicates the
order of isolation from the strain. I- first
IV
v. Desired DNA fragment is separated using Gel
electrophoresis.
Because the endonuclease’s recognition sequence is likely to occur
many times within the source DNA, cleavage will produce a large
number of different fragments.
▪ Of these, desired DNA fragment can be separated by a technique
known as gel electrophoresis. Developed by [Link].
It separate DNA fragments based on their size, under the influence of - The amplified fragment can be used to ligate with a vector for
electric field. further cloning.
Steps:
a. DNA are forced to move under an electric field through the II. Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector
agarose gel (medium). Negatively charged DNA will move (Preparing rDNA)
towards anode a/c to their size through sieving effect provided by Cloning Vectors: -
the medium. (Hence, the smaller sized fragment moves farther). They are the DNA molecules that can carry a foreign DNA segment
b. To see DNA on gel block, it is stained with Ethidium Bromide and replicate inside a host cells.
and when viewed in UV light, it is seen as bright orange- ▪ The desired DNA fragments are incorporated into the vector, which
coloured bands. have been cleaved with the same restriction endonuclease as the
▪ Elusion: The process of extracting separated DNA bands from source DNA, using DNA ligase.
the agarose gel. Desired DNA + Vector = rDNA
Desirable features of a cloning vector-
(a) Presence of Ori (Origin of Replication)
➢ This is a sequence from where replication starts. A piece of DNA
linked to ori can only replicate within the host cells.
(b) High copy no.
➔ Copy number is the number of plasmids needed for a host cell.
➢ When the piece of DNA linked with bacteriophage or plasmid
vectors, it multiplies to the numbers equal to the copy number of
the vector.
(c) Presence of selectable markers.
vi. Amplification of gene of interest using PCR. ➢ Selectable markers are genes which help in differentiating
A single piece of desired DNA fragment obtained by the above transformants and non-transformants. Upon the introduction of
procedures may loss or damaged during the further procedure.

2
 foreign gene in this marker sequence, phenotype is loaded & that ❖ Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumifaciens
helps in screening whether the cell has been transformed or not. - Tumor inducing plasmid is modified into a cloning vector which
e.g.: Antibiotic resistance gene (such as ampR, tetR), does not produce tumour, but is able to use the mechanisms to
Enzyme producing gene (such as lac Z gene which produces deliver genes of interest into plants.
-galactosidase)
(d) Presence of unique recognition sequence in cloning sites.
➢ It should have at least one recognition site for restriction enzymes
in order to link the desired DNA.
(Presence of more than one recognition sites generates several
fragments, which complicates the gene cloning).

Types of Vectors:
1. Plasmids
These are circular extra-chromosomal DNA of bacteria.
e.g.: pBR322, Ti plasmid
❖ pBR322
- Plasmid of Boliver and Rodriguez. Numeral ‘322’ is assigned to
distinguish the plasmid from others that are also studied in their
laboratory. 2. Retroviruses
Retroviruses in animals have the ability to transform normal cells
into cancerous cells. Disarmed (incapable of causing disease)
retroviruses are used to transfer the rDNA into the animal cells.
3. Bacteriophages

III. Transferring the rDNA into the host

(transformation)
Gene transfer may be done by 2 ways-
A. Vector through gene transfer
pBR322 consists of- B. Vector less gene transfer
- 8 restriction enzyme recognition sites
- ori VECTOR LESS Gene Transfer-
- rop (Replication of Plasmid Protein) is a gene synthesising the The process of transfer of genes directly into the host cells. It can
proteins necessary for replication of plasmids. be done in 3 methods-
- 2 selectable markers – ampicillin and tetracycline resistance
gene.
Restriction endonuclease on pBR322, their source and
restriction sites
Prokaryote from which Recognition
Enzyme
enzyme is extracted sequence

Haemophilus influenzae 5’- AAGCTT -3’

Hind III
D-strain 3’- TTCGAA- 5’

Escherichia coli RY13 - 5’- GAATTC -3’

EcoR I
strain 3’- CTTAAG- 5’ (1st-way) Heat-shock method
Since DNA is a hydrophilic (water soluble) molecule, rDNA
cannot pass through cell membranes (lipid soluble). In this, making
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens 5’- GGATCC -3’ the host cell competent (ready to take up rDNA)
BamH I
H-strain 3’- CCTAGG- 5’
Steps:-
a. Treating bacterial cell with a specific concentration of a divalent
5’- CGATCG -3’ cation (such as Ca2+)
Pvu I Proteus vulgaris b. Incubate the cells with rDNA on ice.
3’- GCTAGC- 5’
c. Placing them briefly at 420C (heat shock)
This makes temporary holes in the cell surface enables the bacteria
5’- CAGCTG -3’ permeable to recombinant plasmid to enter.
Pvu II
” 3’- GTCGAC- 5’ d. Put them back on ice.
(2nd-way) By micro-injection
5’- GTCGAC -3’ • Micro needle of 1-2µ is used to inject DNA directly into the
Sal I Streptomyces albus
3’- CAGCTG- 5’ nucleus of an animal cell.
(3rd-way) By gene gun method
5’- CTGCAG -3’
• In this, DNA coated micro-particles of gold or tungsten are
Pst I Providencia stuartii shoted with high velocity (1400ft/s) to plant cells.
3’- GACGTC- 5’

5’- ATCGAT -3’

Cla I Caryophanon latum
3’- TAGCTA- 5’

3
 Selection of transformants
Selection of transformed cells from non-transformed ones with the
help of selectable markers & its insertional inactivation.
Selection is of 2 types:-
A. Using antibiotic resistance gene as marker
o The ligation of foreign DNA is carried out at a restriction site
present in 1 of the 2 antibiotic resistance genes.
E.g. Normal [Link] cells do not carry resistance against antibiotics
(non-transformant).
If pBR322 is added to [Link] then they are transformant and
they can grow on both ampicillin and tetracyclin medium. Thus
these marker genes help in differentiating transformants from the
non-transformants
If a foreign DNA is added at the BamH I site of tetR gene, this
gene get inactivated due to insertion of foreign DNA (this is
called insertional inactivation). Hence the bacteria/
transformant will not grow on tetracycline, but will grow on IV. Culturing the host cells
ampicillin. ▪ To produce large quantities of products, the bioreactors are used
where large volumes (100-1000 litres) of culture can be processed.
▪ A bioreactor provides the optimal growth conditions (temperature,
pH, substrate, salts, vitamins, oxygen) for achieving the desired
product.

Simple Stirred-tank reactor

Cylindrical reactor having-
• Stirrer / An agitator system- Facilitates even mixing of the
reactor contents
• An oxygen delivery system
• A foam control system
• A temperature control system
• pH control system
• Sampling ports (for periodic withdrawal of the culture).

B. Using enzyme producing gene as marker

On the basis of colour production in presence of chromogenic
substrate, the transformant and non- transformant can be
differentiated.
o This method involves insertional inactivation of lac-Z gene and Sparged stirred-tank reactor
also known as Blue-white selection method. ➔ It is a stirred type reactor in which air is bubbled at the bottom
Normal bacteria (non- transformant) contain Lac-Z gene on of the tank through a porous ring called spranger.
their plasmid and Lac-Z gene is responsible for the production of
enzyme β –galactosidase.
β –galactosidase
White substance Blue colour
If the plasmid in bacteria have no an insert it gives blue coloured
colonies
Tranformant bacteria in which foreign DNA is inserted within
the Lac-Z gene, it gets inactivated and thereby no enzyme β –
galactosidase is produced. Such colonies remain white. These are
identified as recombinant colonies.

V. Extraction of the desired product

The product obtained from bioreactor is not in pure form.
▪ The extraction & purification of desired product from the
culture medium is known as Downstream processing.
Procedure-
Step 1. Separation and purification of gene products.
Step 2. Addition of suitable preservatives.
Step 3. Goes thorough clinical trials (in case of drugs).
Step 4. Quality control test.

4
 BIOTECHNOLOGY & ITS APPLICATIONS
Biotechnology has a wide range application such as B. Bt-cotton
- Biopharmaceuticals, therapeutics, and diagnostics Some insect larva attacks crops such as cotton.
- Genetically modified crops for agriculture and processing food
- For bioremediation (cleaning toxic chemicals present in soil Order Insects
by transgenic plants or microbes) Lepidopterans Tobacco budworm, armyworm
- Waste treatment, energy production etc. Coleopterans Beetles
Dipterans Flies, mosquitoes
APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE It destroys the leaves or cotton boll which results in great
Advantages of Genetically Modified crops: reduction in yield.
Increased stress tolerance (against cold, drought, salt, heat etc).
Pest-resistant crops reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
Reduced post-harvest loss.
Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants.
Enhances nutritional value of food. E.g. Vit.‘A’ enriched
Golden rice. Traditionally we use insecticides to prevent insect attack.
Recently we modified the cotton plant using Bt toxin gene (from
[Link] Culture Bacillus thuringiensis) which itself produce insecticides.
➔ Plant tissue culture is the technique of growing plant in an
artificial culture medium under sterile conditions. How B. thuringiensis resist insects?
➢ It is based on the principle of cellular totipotency i.e., a plant Step 1. B. thuringiensis produces insecticidal protein crystals / Bt-
cell can generate a whole plant. toxin. (It does not kill the Bacillus itself as it exists as
inactive protoxins).
Step 2. Insect ingest the protoxin
Step 3. In the gut of insect, due to the alkaline pH, crystal protoxin
solubilise to form active toxin.
Step 4. The toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells
Procedure:- and creates pores.
(Step-1) Take an explant (any part of parent plant). Step 5. It leads to the death of the insect.
If it is a virus infected plant, meristems are used as explant
to obtain healthy plants from it. It is because meristems will
be free of virus because virus cannot reach at there due to
absence of vascular tissues
(Step-2) Grow the explant in a nutrient media containing sucrose, salts,
certain vitamins, amino acids and growth regulators (auxins,
cytokinins etc).
(Step-3) Thousands of plants produced in short duration (micropropagation).
These plants are genetically similar to parental plant so called How to develop insect-resistance in cotton?
somaclones. Step 1. Bt-toxin genes were isolated from B. thuringiensis.
Toxins producing cry genes are insect specific-
SOMATIC HYBRIDIZATION
➔ Somatic hybridization is the fusion of protoplasts of 2 somatic cry gene Insect controlled
cells from different varieties of plants (with desirable characters) cryIAb Corn borer
to develop hybrid protoplasts. cryIAc
Cotton bollworms
Procedure:- cryIIAb
Step 1. Isolate a single cell from tomato and potato
Step 2. Incorporated into cotton.
Step 2. Digest their cell walls and isolate protoplasts
Step 3. Bt toxins produced by cotton plant, if attacked by insect, kill
Step 3. Fuse the protoplasts to obtain hybrid protoplasts, in tissue
them.
culture media.
Step 4. They regenerate cell wall and grown to form a new plant,
pomato (Somatic hybrid).

But Pomato has no desired characters for its commercial utilization.

 In 1983, Eli Lilly an American company prepared human insulin.
C. Nematode resistance in tobacco plants:
• A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of tobacco
plants and causes a great reduction in yield.
The process of RNA interference (RNAi) is used to prevent this
infestation.
What is RNAi?
• RNAi prevents / interfere the translation of a specific mRNA
(silencing) from the gene by binding of a complementary dsRNA
molecule.

How RNAi works in tobacco?

(Step-1) Prepared 2 DNA sequences corresponding to A & B chains

of human insulin
(Step-2) Introduced them in plasmids of E. coli separately.
(Step-3) E. coli produced insulin chains A & B and extracted from it.
(Step-4) Chains are combined by creating disulfide bonds to form
human insulin.
B. Gene Therapy:
o Gene therapy is a method to correct a gene defect diagnosed in
a child/embryo.
By inserting normal gene, the defective genes are replaced or
non-functional genes are compensated.
o First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to Ashanti
DeSilva of U.S, a 4-year old girl with adenosine deaminase
(ADA) deficiency.
It is due to the deletion of the gene for adenosine deaminase
(the enzyme crucial for the immune system to function).
(Step-1) Isolate nematode-specific gene from RNA viruses or mobile
genetic elements (transposons).
(Step-2) Introduce nematode-specific genes into the tobacco plant
using Agrobacterium.
(Step-3) It produces both sense & anti-sense RNA in host cells.
This 2 RNA’s being complementary to each other formed a
dsRNA which silence the specific mRNA of nematode
(RNAi) which is responsible for the synthesis of protein
which is essential for the growth of the nematode.
(Step-4) The parasite cannot survive in a transgenic host and die. This can be cured by –
1. Bone marrow transplantation
APPLICATION IN MEDICINE 2. Enzyme replacement therapy (injection of functional ADA).

Advantages of rDNA technology in medicine: - But a permanent cure can be achieved through gene therapy.
a. Enable the mass production of safe and effective drugs.
b. Since the recombinant therapeutics are identical to human proteins,
they do not induce unwanted immunological responses
A. Humulin (Genetically Engineered Human Insulin)
o In early days, insulin used for diabetes was extracted from
pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs. It caused allergy to some
patients.
But now we could make human insulin using bacteria.
Structure of Insulin-
• Insulin consists of 2 short polypeptide chains that are linked
together by disulphide bridges. (Step-1) Lymphocytes are collected from the patient
(Step-2) It is grown in a culture.
(Step-3) Introduce functional ADA cDNA into these lymphocytes
using a retroviral vector.
• Insulin is synthesized as a pro-hormone containing an extra stretch (Step-4) Return the lymphocytes to the patient’s body.
called C-chain. This should be periodically repeated as these cells are mortal.
The pro-hormone, after removal of C-chain (processing), becomes
a fully mature hormone. ➔ For permanent cure, the ADA gene (from marrow cells) is
introduced into cells at early embryonic stages.
 C. Molecular Diagnosis:
Molecular diagnosis is the techniques for early detection of
diseases even before detecting from urine or serum analysis. It
aids in effective treatment of a disease.
rDNA technology, PCR & ELISA are some of these techniques.
1. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
Very low concentration of a pathogen can be detected by
amplification of pathogen’s nucleic acid by PCR.

Applications of PCR
- It is a technique to identify many genetic disorders.
- Used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients.
- It is used to detect mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients. TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
➔ Transgenic animals are animals whose DNA possess a foreign
2. rDNA technology gene and express it.
(Step-1) Clone of cells are isolated from suspect E.g. Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish.
(Step-2) A probe (ssDNA or ssRNA tagged with a radioactive
Reasons for developing transgenic animals:-
molecule) is allowed to hybridise to its complementary DNA
(a) To study normal physiology & development:
in the cells
Transgenic animals are used to study how genes are regulated, and
(Step-3) Cells are detected using autoradiography
how they affect the normal body functions and its development.
Case-I If normal DNA- Probe will hybridise with DNA and
radiation will appear on photographic film. (b) To study the contribution of genes in the development of a
Case-II If mutated DNA- Probe will not hybridise with DNA since it disease and search for its treatment.
have no complimentarity with the mutated gene and hence (c) To obtain biological products:
the cells will not appear on the photographic film. E.g. 1. human protein (-1-antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema.
2. products for treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU) and
cystic fibrosis etc.
3. human protein-enriched milk
Rosie (first transgenic cow) produced milk containing the human
 -lactalbumin and is nutritionally more balanced product for
human babies than natural cow-milk.

DNA

Rosie
(d) To test vaccine safety:
Transgenic mice are used to test the safety of the polio vaccine.
If it is found to be reliable, they can replace the use of monkeys to
test the safety of the vaccine.
(e) To test chemical safety:
Transgenic animals are made more sensitive to toxic substances.
It gives immediate results.
3. ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay)
➢ Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens
or by detecting the antibodies synthesized against the pathogen in a GEAC & Biopiracy
sample. The current interest in the manipulation of microbes, plants, and
animals has raised serious ethical questions.
 GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee) is an
organisation formed by Indian Government, to make decisions
about the validity and safety GM products.
 Biopiracy: It is the use of bio-resources of developing countries
by multinational companies without proper authorization from the
countries and people concerned without compensatory payment.
E.g. American company patented Basmati rice which is actually
been derived from Indian variety, herbal medicines like turmeric
neem etc.
 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
➢ Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the interactions among organisms and between
the organism and its physical (abiotic) environment .
POPULATIONS
➢ A group of individuals of a species living in a geographical area ,who can interbreed and share
similar resources is called a population .
Population Attributes:
➢ A population has certain attributes whereas an individual organism does not.
➢ An individual may have births and deaths, but a population has birth rates and death rates
a).Birth rate
➢ Average no. of young ones born in a period of time with respect to members of the
population.(No of individuals born per individual per unit time)
b).Death rate.
➢ Average no. of deaths in a period of time with respect to members of the population.
c) ,Sex Ratio.
➢ Sex ratio is another attributes of population. An individual may be male or female but
population has sex ratio.
➢ It is the ratio between male and female in a population.
d).Age distribution
➢ Age distribution is also an important attribute of population.
➢ A population comprises different age groups such as pre-reproductive, reproductive and
postreproductive age groups.
➢ This age distribution is graphically represented as

e).Population size
➢ It is determined by counting the [Link] individuals,or by biomass.
➢ The population size is more technically called as population density (N).
➢ Population density can be measured by Counting the number,by measuring percent cover or
biomass.
➢ Some times,there is no need to know the absolute population densities,such cases relative
densities used for measuring population size.
➢ Indirect estimation of population size using Pug marks and fecal pellets is also possible for some
animals.
Population Growth :

Botany Notes By ANURAG P S;9645242397

➢ The size of population is not static.
➢ It keeps changing with time, depending upon food availability, predation pressure and reduce
weather.
➢ The density of a population in a given habitat during a given period, fluctuates due to changes in
four basic processes which are
1. Natality (B) : Number of births during given period in the population that are added to
the initial density.
2. Mortality (D):Number of deaths in the population during a given period.
3. Immigration (I) :It is the number of individuals of the same species that have come into
the habitat from elsewhere during the time period under consideration
4. Emigration (E) : Emigration is the number of individuals of the population who left the
habitat and gone elsewhere during the time period under consideration
➢ If N is the population density at time t, then its density at time t +1 is
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
➢ Where N = Population Density B = the number of births
I = the number of immigrants D = the number of deaths E = the number of Emigrants.

➢ Population density will increase if the

number of births plus the number of
immigrants (B + I) is more than the number
of deaths plus the number of emigrants (D +
E). otherwise it will decrease.

GROWTH MODEL
➢ Growth of population takes place according to availability of food, habit condition and presence
of other biotic and abiotic factors.
➢ There are two main types of growth models
Exponential Growth
➢ Any species grow exponentially under unlimited resources conditions and can reach enormous
population densities in a short time.
➢ Population grows exponentially and after attaining the peak value ,the population shows sudden
decrease.
➢ For example many insect populations show rapid increase during rainy season followed by their
disappearance at the end of season .
➢ This type of growth is not so realistic.
➢ If in a population of size N, the birth rates as represented as ‘b’ and death rate as ‘d’. Then
increase and decrease in N during unit period time ‘t’ will be , dN / dt = (b – d) × N

Botany Notes By ANURAG P S;9645242397

 Let (b – d) = r, then dN / dt = rN
Then, the ‘r’ in this equation is called ‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’
LOGISTIC GROWTH
➢ In nature, a given habitat has enough
resources to support a maximum possible
number, beyond which no further growth is
possible. This is called carrying capacity (K)
of a habitat.
➢ Due to competition between individuals for
limited resources, the fittest individual will
survive and reproduce.

➢ A population growing in a habitat with limited resources show initially a lag phase, followed by
phases of acceleration and stationary phase, when the population density reaches the carrying
capacity.
➢ The logistic growth shows sigmoid curve and this is also called Verhulst-Pearl logistic growth.
➢ It can be shown by the following equation.
➢ Where N = Population density at time ‘t’
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity
➢ Since resources for growth for populations are finite and become limiting , the logistic
growth model is considered a more realistic one.
POPULATION INTERACTION
➢ All animals, plants and microbes in a biological community interact with each other
➢ These interactions may be beneficial, detrimental or neutral to one of species or both.
➢ Following types of population interactions are seen
• Predation • Competition • Parasitism • Commensalism • Mutualism • Amensalism
1. PREDATION
➢ It is an Interspecific Interaction where one animal kills and consumes the other weaker
animal.
➢ Its is nature’s way to transfer energy from plants to higher trophic levels (position of
organism in food chain)
➢ Roles of Predators
▪ Predation keeps prey population under control (Prickly pear cactus- moth)
▪ Biological control of Agricultural pest
▪ Maintain species diversity by reducing intensity of competition among competing prey
species
▪ Over exploitation of prey by the predators results in extinction of prey and predator.

Botany Notes By ANURAG P S;9645242397

 Defence mechanisms developed by prey against predators:
In Animals:
▪ Insects and frogs are cryptically coloured (camouflage) to avoid being detected by the
predator.
▪ Some are poisonous and therefore avoided by the predators.
▪ Phytophagous (feeding on plant sap and other parts of plants) insects like Monarch
butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (bird) due to presence of special chemical in
its body.
In Plants:
▪ Thorns in Acacia and Cactus are morphological means of defence.
▪ Many plants produce and store some chemical which make the herbivore sick if eaten.
(inhibit feeding, digestion disrupt reproduction, and even kill the predators).
▪ Calotropis produces poisonous cardiac glycosides against herbivores.
▪ Nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium etc. are produced by plants as defenses
against the grazers and browsers
2. COMPETITION
➢ Competition generally occurs when closely related species compete for the same resources
that are limiting.
➢ Interaction either among individuals of same species or between individuals of different
species.
➢ In American lakes visiting flamingoes and resident fishes compete for their common
food,zooplanktons.
➢ Resources need not be limiting for competition to occur.
➢ For example,Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade after
goats were introduced on the island, apparently due to the greater browsing efficiency of
the goats.
➢ Competitive release: A species, whose distribution is restricted to a small geographical area
because of the presence of a competitively superior species, is found to expand its
distributional range dramatically when the competing species is experimentally removed.
➢ Connell’s elegant field experiment showed that superior barnacle Balanus dominates the
intertidal area and excludes the smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone.
➢ Gause’s ‘competitive Exclusion Principle’: Two closely related species competing for the
same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior will be eliminated
eventually.
➢ Resource partitioning– Two competing species avoid competition by different feeding and
foraging patterns .

Botany Notes By ANURAG P S;9645242397

 ➢ MacArthur showed that five closely related species of warblers living on the same tree were
able to avoid competition and co-exist due to behavioural differences in their foraging
activities.
3. PARASITISM
➢ Parasitism is generally defined as a relationship between the two living species in which one
organism is benefitted at the expense of the other.
➢ The organism that is benefitted is called the parasite, while the one that is harmed is called
the host.
➢ Some parasites are host-specific (one parasite has a single host) in such a way that both host
and parasite tend to co-evolve.
➢ Some of the adaptations of parasites are
▪ Loss of unnecessary sense organs
▪ Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the host.
▪ Loss of digestive system.
▪ High reproductive capacity.
➢ The life cycles of parasites are often complex, involving one or two intermediate hosts or
vectors to facilitate parasitism on its primary host.
➢ The human liver fluke depends on two intermediate hosts, a snail and a fish to complete its
life cycle
Effects of parasites on the host.
➢ Majority of the parasites harm the host.
➢ They may reduce the survival, growth and reproduction of the host and reduce its population
density.
➢ They make the host more vulnerable to the predators, by making it physically weak.
➢ Types of parasite
➢ ECTOPARASITE: Feeds on the external surface of the host. [Link] on human ,Ticks on dog,
Cuscuta ,a parasitic plant grow on hedge plants.
➢ ENDOPARASITES: Parasites that live inside the host body at different [Link]. Tape worm,
liver fluke.
➢ Brood parasitism: Special type of parasitism found in birds.
▪ The parasitic birds lay its eggs in the nest of its host and let the host incubate them.
▪ The egg of the host is very similar with the egg of the host. [Link] lays eggs in the
nest of the crow.
4. COMMENSALISM:
➢ This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited nor
harmed.

Botany Notes By ANURAG P S;9645242397

 ➢ Orchids growing as an epiphyte on a ➢ Clown fish living among tentacles of sea
mango branch. anemone.
➢ Cattle Egret and grazing cattle. ➢ Barnacles on back of whales.
5. MUTUALISM
➢ Mutualism is the interaction between two living organisms where both the organisms are
equally benefitted and no one is harmed.
➢ Lichens represent an intimate mutual relationship between a fungus and photosynthetic
algae.
➢ Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants .
➢ Plants provide nectar and pollen for pollinating agents and the pollinating agents in turn
pollinate the flowers of plants.
➢ Animals disperse the seeds of plants and plants provide juicy fruits for seed dispersers.
➢ Female wasp uses the fruit as an egg-laying place and also uses the developing seeds within
the fruits for nourishing its larvae.
➢ Wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching for egg laying site, in return fig
offers developing seeds as food for developing larvae.
Sexual deceit
➢ Mediterranean orchid Ophrys employs ‘sexual deceit’.
➢ Petal of the flower resembles the female bee.
➢ The male bee attracted to what it perceives as a female, ‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower
but does not get any benefits.

###########

Botany Notes By ANURAG P S;9645242397

 [Link]
▪ An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living DECOMPOSITION
organisms interact among themselves and also with the ▪ Decomposition: It is the breakdown of complex organic
surrounding environment. matter by decomposers into inorganic substances like CO2,
CLASSIFICATION: water and nutrients.
ECOSYSTEM Steps of decomposition
(Step-1) Fragmentation: It is the breakdown of detritus (dead
Natural Man-made remnants of plants and animals) into smaller particles by
Eg: Crop fields detritivores (e.g. earthworm).
Terrestrial Aquatic and aquarium. (Step-2) Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the
Eg: Forest, Eg: Pond, lake, soil horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts.
grassland, desert wetland, river (Step-3) Catabolism: Degradation of detritus into simple inorganic
& estuary substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes.
(Step-4) Humification: Conversion of detritus to dark amorphous
ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE AND substance called humus.
FUNCTION Properties of Humus:-
- It is resistant to microbial action and so decomposes slowly.
➔ An ecosystem has 2 structural features:- - Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
1. Species composition: Identification and enumeration of plant
(Step-5) Mineralization: The degradation of humus to release inorganic
and animal species of an ecosystem.
substances by the action of some microbes.
2. Stratification-Vertical distribution of different species
occupying different levels.
For ex.:- Layers of a forest

Factors that favour decomposition Factors that inhibit decomposition

➔ An ecosystem has 4 functional features:- ➢ Detritus which is rich in ➢ Detritus which is rich in
1. Productivity 2. Decomposition 3. Energy flow & 4. nitrogen and sugars lignin & chitin
Nutrient cycling ➢ Warm and moist environment ➢ Low temperature and dry
environment
PRODUCTIVITY ➢ Oxygen abundant condition ➢ Anaerobic condition
▪ Productivity: The rate of biomass production over a time
period. ENERGY FLOW
Productivity is of 2 types:- ▪ Energy Flow: It is the unidirectional flow of solar energy
A. Primary productivity: Productivity at the producer level. It through different trophic levels of ecosytem.
is expressed in terms of weight (g–2) or energy (kcal m–2). ▪ Of the incident solar radiation less than 50% of it is
Primary productivity depends on- Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR).
o Topography- Altitude, latitude etc. Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR and this energy is
o Environmental factors (temp., sunlight intensity, transferred in an ecosystem in the form of food.
rainfall, wind, humidity, nature of soil etc.) ▪ Producers: These are the green plants which convert solar
o Availability of nutrients (water, minerals, O2 etc.) energy into food.
o Photosynthetic capacity of plants Terrestrial - herbaceous and woody plant.
➢ It can be divided into gross primary productivity and net ecosystem
primary productivity. Producers in
(i) Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): It is the rate of total Aquatic - phytoplankton, algae and higher plants
production of organic matter during photosynthesis. ecosystem
(ii) Net Primary Productivity (NPP): It is the balance biomass
remaining after meeting the cost of respiration (R) of the ➢ The energy trapped by the producer is either passed on to a
producers. consumer or the organism dies.
i.e., NPP = GPP – R Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain.
B. Secondary productivity: Productivity at the consumer level. ▪ Consumers (heterotrophs): These are all animals that depend
on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food.
 They include:-
(a) Primary consumers / herbivores- Animals which feed directly
on producers.
(b) Secondary consumers / primary carnivores- Consumers that
feed on herbivores.
(c) Tertiary consumers / secondary carnivores- Consumers that
feed on primary carnivores.
FOOD CHAIN & FOOD WEB
Food chain: The transfer of food from the producers through a b) Pyramid of biomass: Ecological pyramid showing biomass of
series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten. organisms
2 types of food chains can be recognised in an ecosystem, ➢ Usually upright- Biomass of producers > herbivores > carnivores
I. Grazing Food Chain (GFC): It begins with a producer which ➢ It is inverted in sea ecosystem.
is eaten by grazing herbivores which are then eaten by
carnivores.
Producers Herbivores Carnivores
(e.g. Green plants) (e.g. Deer) (e.g. Tiger)
II. Detritus food chain (DFC): It begins with detritus (dead
organic matter) which is taken by decomposers (saprotrophs).
Detritus Decomposers
(E.g. fungi, bacteria)
DFC may be connected with the GFC at some levels: some of c) Pyramid of energy: Ecological pyramid showing energy used by
the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals organisms
GFC Producers Herbivores Carnivores Decomposers ➢ Always upright because energy is lost as heat at successive
trophic level.

DFC Detritus Detritivores

Food Web: Interconnections of food chains.

TROPHIC LEVEL
▪ Trophic level: The place of organisms in the food chain.
Producer 10 consumer 20 consumer 30 consumer
1st trophic level 2nd 3rd 4th
Limitations of ecological pyramids:
o It does not take into account the same species belonging to two
➢ Standing crop: The total amount of living material present in or more trophic levels.
different trophic at a particular time. o It assumes a simple food chain that never exists in nature; it
- It is measured as the fresh or dry weight of living organisms does not accommodate a food web.
(biomass) or the number in a unit area. o Saprophytes are not included in ecological pyramids.

➢ Law of 10%: It states that ‘Only 10% of the energy is

transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level’.
Proposed by Lindeman (1942)
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
▪ Ecological pyramid: The graphical representation of the
successive tropic levels of an ecosystem in the form of a
pyramid.
The base of pyramid represents the producers (first trophic level)
while the apex represents top level consumer.
Shape of pyramid
❖ Upright: The base of the pyramid is broad as compared to apex.
❖ Inverted: The base of the pyramid is narrow as compared to
apex.
➔ Ecological pyramids are 3 types:
(a) Pyramid of number
(b) Pyramid of biomass
(c) Pyramid of energy
a) Pyramid of number: Ecological pyramid showing number of
organisms.
➢ Usually upright.
No. of producers > No. of 10 consumers > No. of 20consumers > No. of 30 consumers
➢ It is inverted in case of tree dominant ecosystem.