Spices and Condiments

Introduction:
Spices and condiments constitute an important group of Horticultural commodities,
which have been considered indispensable in the culinary arts for flavouring foods. They also
possess colourant, preservative, antioxidant, antiseptic and antibiotic properties. They are
also used in pharmaceutical, perfumery, cosmetics and several other industries. Spices have
less nutritive value, and they can not be grouped as food.
Sometimes the terms spices and condiments are used together. Infact it is very difficult
to draw a distinction between the two. Spices are those plants, the products of which are made
use of as food adjuncts to add aroma and flavour (ex. Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Nutmeg etc),
while condiments are those plants, the products of which are used as food adjuncts to add taste
only. However, when the aromatic vegetables products comes from a temperate plant, it is
considered as a culinary herb as in the case of bay leaves, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel,
fenugreek, mustard seeds, parsley, sage, rosemary and thyme. Besides imparting flavour to
foods and drinks, they also stimulate ‘appetite’. The value of the spices is mainly due the
presence of essential oils and occasionally other aromatic principles.

Definition of Spices and Condiments:

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines spices and
condiments as “vegetable products or mixtures thereof free from extraneous matter, used for
flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods either in the whole form or in the ground
form”. The ISO list includes 109 spices. According to American Spices Trade Association
(ASTA) list, there are 41 items. Spices Board of India has 52 spices under it’s list. According
to Bureau of Indian Standards, there are 63 items under spices / condiments and are grown in
India.

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Brief history of Spices:
The utilization of spices known since the beginning of human civilization. In medieval
times, the word India was known as a land spices. They determined the wealth and policies
of nations and also played an important role in ancient medicines.
Spices played a major role in the history of India, China, Babylon, Egypt, Greece and
Rome. Majority of spices originated in the Asiatic tropics and were among the first objects of
commerce between the East and the West.
Indian spices are almost as ancient as history itself. Rigveda is the oldest literary record
about spices dating back to 6000 BC. Yajurveda mentions about the use of black pepper, while
that of turmeric in Atharva Veda. Around 4000 BC, the Manu Rishi was aware of origin,
growth and uses of onion and garlic. Valmiki mentioned uses of spice in his Ramayana. King
Dasharata’s body was preserved in spice oils and balms. Excavations in the Indus valley
revealed that spices and herbs had been used even before 1000 BC. Spices like cardamom,
pepper, have been prescribed by Sushruta (500 BC) to cure urinary complaints, piles and
jaundice. There are innumerable citations about wealth of spices in India from the pilgrim
traveller. Marco Polo (1298 AD) observed that ginger grew in Malabar. Abber Razad (1442
AD) wrote about the vessels of pepper sailing from Calicut port.
Spices were used in early times in China. Ginger is mentioned by Confucious (551-
479 BC).
Use of spices were known to Babylonians and Assyrians around 3000 BC, The ancient
Egyptians used spices for making perfumes, balms and holy oils. During 2600 – 1000 BC
spices were used during the construction of great pyramids in Egypt. The queen Sheba visited
king Solomon of Isreal (1015-977 BC) with camels carrying spices for trade. George Embers
has described herbs and spices in 1660 BC.
The people of olden times also used spices as flavour disguisers, masking the taste of
the tainted food that was still nutritious. Some spices like clove were also used for preserving
foods like meat for a year or more without refrigeration! Cloves contain a chemical called
eugenol that inhibits the growth of bacteria. It is still used to preserve some modern foods
like Virginia ham. Likewise, later mustard and ground mustard were also found to have
preservative qualities.
The first traders were the Persians who transported the products of India and the
neighbouring Molucca islands by camel caravans and sold them to the Phoenicians who traded
them all along the Mediterranean coast from Alexandria to Rome. Indian and Greek traders
held the monopoly from the first to the eighth century A.D. Theophrastus (372-287 BC) in

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his “Enquiring into Plants” discussed about cassia and cinnamon found in Arabia. An authority
on Arabian spice trade, Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD), a Latin author, says cinnamon is gathered
from Ethiopia with the consent of god Assabinus. The say of Pliny that Ethiopia grows
cinnamon was wrong. The Hippocrates (460-357 BC) and Dioscorides (40-90 AD) also
mentioned about spices in their writings.
The Arabs controlled the traffic in these spices up to the 14th century, selling them to
Egyptian, Greek and Venetian traders.
Spices were once a royal luxury and that men were willing to risk their lives in
quest of them. The spices of the East were valuable in Vasco da Gama’s time, as they had
been for centuries, because they could be used to stretch Europe‘s inadequate supply of food.
During the Middle Ages, a pound of ginger was worth a sheep, and a pound of mace worth
3 sheep or half a cow! Pepper, the most valuable of all spices, was counted out in individual
pepper- corns and a sack of pepper was said to be worth a man‘s life!
In 1487 Pero-da-Covilha set out of Portugal and reached Calicut via Arabia and found
it the good source of Black pepper and ginger. It was in 1492 that Christopher Columbus
discovered the New World while trying to find a short route to India to trade in spices, which
was monopolized by Arabs. In 1490 Covilha returned to Cairo and sent a report to King John.
As a consequence, five years later, 4 tiny ships sailed southward from the port of Lisbon,
Portugal, under the guidance of Captain Vasco da Gama. Like Columbus, Vasco da Gama too
was searching for a new route to the spice lands of Asia. While Columbus failed to achieve
that goal, Vasco da Gama succeeded and reached Calicut at the Malabar Coast of India. In
a 2-year 38,623-km trip, he took his ships around the continent of Africa to India and back
to Lisbon. Only 2 of the 4 ships could reach their home-port, bringing back a cargo of
spices and other products worth 60 times the cost of the said voyage!
Vasco da Gama‘s successful voyage intensified on international power struggle for
control over the spice trade. Portugal established 2 trading posts at Calicut and Cochin in
1500 AD and supplies of pepper, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace and cloves reached Lisbon
in 1501 AD. By 1511 AD the Portuguese had gained the control of Malabar coast of India,
Celon, Malaysia, Java and Sumatra. British East India Company was founded in 1600 AD and
Dutch in 1602 Ad. Britain captured Dutch posts on the Malabar coasts and Ceylon in 1796
and completely taken over possessions in east India and monopolized till first half of the 20 th
century. For 3 centuries, the nations of Western Europe, i.e., Portugal, Spain, France, Holland
and Great Britain fought bloody sea-wars over the spice-producing colonies.
Only in early part of the 18 century, spices were smuggled and planted around the

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world especially in the West-Indies, Madagascar, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. The best quality
cardamoms come from Guatemala, the finest nutmeg and mace from Grenada, black pepper
from Brazil. However, the vast majority of spices are still obtained from the tropics chiefly
from the smaller islands rather than from the greater land masses. India still proudly maintains
its reputation as the spice source of world and Cochin the trading city of Kerala is still the
main trading port of spices.
In a nutshell, the fascinating history of spices is a story of adventure, exploration,
conquest and fierce naval rivalry.
Scope and Importance:
• India, considered as the Land of Spices is one of the major spice producing and
exporting country of the world, contributing about 20-25% of the world trade in spices.
• Besides, large quantities domestic utilization. India blessed with varied agro-climatic
conditions having good scope for cultivation of majority of the spices.
• There is a good export demand for Indian spices because of high quality with the
maximum content of essential oil, oleoresin and active principles.
• Presently people are moving for spicy foods because of good taste and aroma and love
for fast food.
• Spices and condiments are high value and low volume crops, getting high income per unit
area (pepper, cardamom, saffron, vanilla etc).
• They can be cultivated as sole crop, inter crop, mixed crop and multi- storeyed cropping
systems.
• These crops are both annual and perennial in nature; the products of these crops are the
good source of raw material for ancillary industries.
• Among the spices, tree spices (cinnamon, clove, nutmeg and allspice) production is very
limited (5000 mt) compared to the requirement of domestic demand (7000-8000 mt).
• There is a wide scope for enhancing area and production of spices. Similarly the
consumption and export of demand of seed spices are also increasing day by day
both internal and outside the country.
Karnataka is also endowed with favourable agro climatic conditions having costal,
hilly, transitional and maidan regions, cultivating more than 17 spices and also having wider
scope for cultivation of variety of spices.
Utilization of Spices
Spices and it‘s products are used as whole and powder form. Essential oils and

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oleoresins are widely used in seasoning of foods and imparting aroma, flavour and taste to the
food products. These products are also finds unique place in cosmetic and pharmaceutical
industries. Besides using spices, it is also used as colourant or die in cotton textiles, tobacco
industries, bakery products, condiments, meat and fish products. Even now, it‘s usages in the
preparation of Ayurvedic medicines is unbelievable. Value added products are great demand
in food industries.
Forms of uses of Spice
Chutneys: garlic and chillies
Pickles: Pepper, ginger and chillies
As preservative: Clove, Black pepper and Mustard seeds
Colouring matter for curry powder: Turmeric, Chillies and Coriander
Spice oils for uses in soft drinks, perfumes, soaps: ginger, black pepper, celery, cardamom
Spice oleoresin: ginger, capsicums, turmeric, celery, methi, cardamom
Meat processing, food industry and cosmetics: turmeric, methi, nutmeg
Constraints faced in production:
1. Lack of availability of quality planting materials of the released varieties.
2. Low productivity due to existence of varieties of poor genetic potential with
regard to yield and quality parameters.
3. Non-adoption of manuring and balanced fertilizers.
4. Non adoption of recommended cultural practices, as well as soil and water
conservation measures.
5. Non adoption of integrated pest and disease management practices.
6. Inadequate extension network for effective transfer of technology.
7. High fluctuations in prices of the commodities and the absence of a support price.
Research institutions on Spices
• Indian Institute of Spices Research(ICAR), Calicut, Kerala
• National Research Center for Seed Spices(ICAR), Ajmer, Rajasthan
• National Research Center for Onion and Garlic(ICAR), Pune, Maharashtra
• Indian Institute of Horticultural Research(ICAR), Bangalore, Karnataka
• National Research Center for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants(ICAR), Anand, Gujarat
• Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants(CSIR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
• Central Food Technological Research Institute(CSIR), Mysore, Karnataka
• All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices(ICAR), Calicut, Kerala
• Indian Cardamom Research Institute (Spices Board), Myladumpara, Kerala

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 • Cardamom Research Center (IISR) (ICAR), Appangala, Karnataka
• State Agricultural Universities
• CSIR Labs
CPCRI (RS) was started on 10th November, 1975 at Calicut, Kerala, to carry out
research exclusively on spices like black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric and tree spices.
The Cardamom Research Centre at Appangala, Coorg, Karnataka, originally
established by the Mysore Government to initiate research on cardamom, was taken over by
CPCRI in 1974 from the Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bangalore. This was
followed by the setting up of the Indian Cardamom Research Institute in 1976 by the Spices
Board to work exclusively on cardamom, with four regional stations.
The CPCRI (RS), Calicut, was upgraded and designated as National Research Centre
for Spices (NRCS) in April 1, 1986, by merging the CRS, Appangala, Karnataka.
The AICRPS, functioning from 1971, was bifurcated into two independent projects,
one on spices and other on cashewnut, in September 1986.
Based on the recommendations of the QRT and the parliamentary committee (Rajya
Sabha), the NRCS was upgraded to a full-fledged institute and called the Indian Institute of
Spices Research from July 1, 1995.
The AICRPS is the largest spices research network in the country, providing the much
needed R & D base. Research on 12 mandate crops is carried out under the AICRPS in 20
coordinating centres, located in 15 states with the respective Agricultural Universities,
representing the major agro-climatic regions.

Development
• Directorate of Arecanut, Spices and Medicinal Plants Development, Calicut
Export
• Spices Board, Cochin, Kerala
• Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority, New Delhi
• National Agricultural Cooperative Federation of India Ltd., New Delhi
• India Pepper and Spice Trade association (IPSTA), Cochin, Kerala
• All India Spices Exporters Forum (AISEF), Cochin, Kerala
• Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Faridabad, Haryana
Role in National Economy
Some of the important spices of India are pepper, cardamom, chilli, ginger, turmeric,

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coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, celery, saffron, tamarind and garlic. Other spices
produced and exported in small quantities are aniseed, bishop's weed (ajawan), dill seed,
poppy seed, tejpat, curry leaves, cinnamon, kokam and a few other culinary herbs. The tree
spices like clove, nutmeg, mace, star-anise, allspice and some of the herbal spices like
rosemary, thyme, marjoram, oregano, chive, parsley, sage, savory, tarragon and basil are
produced in small quantities, which are mainly utilized in domestic purpose. Commercial
cultivation has still not commenced in vanilla and paprika, but there is immense potential for
their production and export.
Classification of Spices
Indian spices can be classified in different ways depending on the plant parts used, the
economic importance, climatic requirements, origin and flavour, requirement of season and
botanical description. But none of the classification is complete as each classification has got
some lacuna or over lappings.
1. Based on plant parts used
Spices can be classified depending on the parts of the plant that are to be used. Different
plant parts like leaf, root, bulb, fruit, seed, etc. are used as spice.
a) Seed: Cumin, black cumin, fenugreek, coriander, fennel, ajowan, poppy, aniseed and
mustard.
b) Bulb: Onion, garlic, leek and shallot.
c) Bark: Cinnamon and cassia
d) Fruit: Chilli, cardamom, allspice and kokam
e) Leaf: Mint, curryleaf, bayleaf, chive, rosemary and savory
f) Rhizome: Turmeric, ginger, and galangal
g) Pod: Vanilla and tamarind
h) Kernel: Nutmeg
i) Floral part: Saffron, savory, caper and marjoram
j) Bud: Clove and caper
k) Latex: Asafoetida
l) Aril: Mace and anardana
m) Berry: Black pepper, juniper and allspice

2. Based on economic importance

On the basis of economic importance of the spices grown in India they can be
grouped into two viz, major and minor spices.

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1. Major spices
The spices which contribute major share in the spice trade industry of the world are called
major spices. The spices come under this group are small cardamom, black pepper, chilli,
turmeric and ginger. These spices contribute about 75-90% of the total foreign exchange
earned through spices.
2. Minor spices
Excluding all these five major spices, all other are called minor spices. Minor spices are
further divided into five sub groups. They are mentioned hereunder:
i. Seed spices: Coriander, cumin, black cumin, fennel, aniseed, celery, mustard, poppy
and caraway.
ii. Bulbous spices: Garlic, onion, leek and shallot
iii. Aromatic spices: Clove, cinnamon, allspice, aniseed and nutmeg
iv. Leafy spices: curryleaf, mint, rosemary, bayleaf, and parsley.
v. Acidulant tree spices: Tamarind, kokam and anardana

3. Based on climate requirement of the crop

Depending on suitable climatic conditions like temperature, sunlight, humidity and air of
a particular climatic zone, spices are grouped into three categories.
i) Tropical spices: Spices of this category need high temperature, and abundant humidity.
They are easily damaged by low temperature. Tropical spices are ginger, turmeric, black
pepper, cinnamon, kokam, galangal, small cardamom and clove.
ii) Subtropical spices: Low temperature occurs in winter and high temperature during
summer. Most of the spices require relatively low temperature during their vegetative or
early growth stage and high temperature in reproductive stage. The examples of sub-tropical
spices grown in winter are cumin, fennel, coriander, fenugreek, onion and garlic.
Subtropical spices grown during summer are turmeric and ginger.
iii) Temperate spices: Spices of this type can withstand low temperature and frosty
weather but are damaged easily in hot weather. Examples of temperate spices are thymes,
saffron, savoy, caraway seed and asfoetida.

4. Based on Flavour
Depending on the origin and flavour content of the spices, they can be classified
as follows:
i)Aromatic spices: Cardamon, aniseed, clery, cumin, coriander, fenugreek and cinnamon.

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ii) Pungent spices: Ginger, chilli, black pepper and mustard
iii) Phenolic spices: Clove and allspice
iv) Coloured spices: Turmeric, saffron and paprika

5. Based on season of growth

According to the requirement of season of growth, spices are grouped into following
three classes:
i) Annual spices: Spices which complete their life cycle in one growing season are
called annuals. Example of this type of spices are coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek,
ajowan and black cumin.
ii)Biennial spices: It needs two growing seasons to complete the life cycle. Examples of
biennial spices are onion and parsley.
iii)Perennial spices: Perennial spices are those which live for more than two years. Black
pepper, saffron, -clove, nutmeg and cinnamon are example of perennial spices
Spice based on morphology of aerial parts.
Herbs Ajowan, coriander. Cumin, tenet, fenugreek, chillies, parsley
Shrubs Rosemary, Chillies (perennial chillies), Pomegranate
Trees Nutmeg, clove, cinnamon, tamarind, Garcinia, Japanese pepper
Climbers Black peopper, tailed pepper, vanilla
Perennial herbs Ginger, turmeric, mango ginger, Japanese ginger, galanga, asafoetida.
(rhizomatous herbs)

Major spice yielding families are: Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Capparidaceae,

Ericaceae, Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Liliaceae, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Piperaceae,
Rutaceae, Myristicaceae, Solanaceae, Zingiberaceae.

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Mr. Srikantaprasad D
Assistant Professor
Dept of PMA
KRCCH Arabhavi
 Black Pepper
• Piper nigrum L.
• Piperaceae, 2n= 52
• English: Black pepper
• Kannada: Kari menasu
• Hindi: Kali Mirch
• Malayalam:
• Sanskrit: Maricha Ushana
• Tamil: Milagu
• Telgu: Miriyalu
 Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.)

 ‘King of spices’ & ‘Black gold’

 Oldest spice
 Highest contribution to foreign exchange and Hans Christen Oersted
trade turn over
 BP of Commerce – dried, matured and unripe
fruit
 Piperine (Hans Christen Oersted ) – Biting taste
 Chavicine, piperidine and piperetine
(pungency)
 Volatile oil (cells of pericarp) – aromatic odour
 Crushed BP – 1.0 to 2.6 % (upto 4.8%) oil
 Uses
• As spice and condiment
• Frequently and regularly used
• Stimulates digestion (saliva and gastric juices)
• Seasoning of dishes, imparts characteristic blend
of flavour and pungency
• Aryans: malaria, haemorrhoides, dyspepsia
• Egyptians: embalming
• Europeans: Meat and perishable food
preservation
• Meat packing, canning, pickling, baking,
confectionary and beverages
• A sack of pepper corns = human life
 History

History of black pepper is history of India

 Origin and Distribution
Tropical evergreen forests of Western Ghats of
India
Wild in hills of Assom and North Burma
Malabar coast – centre of pepper trade
26 countries in the world
Indonesia, Malaysia, Brazil, India, Madagascar,
Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Thailand, China
Kerala(95% area), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa,
Odisha, Assom, Andaman Islands
World Black pepper production (2010-11)

Ran Production Production

Country
k ($1000) (MT)
1 Viet Nam 304308 146000
2 Indonesia 162158 77800
3 India 108383 52000
4 Brazil 92980 44610
China,
5 66620 31963
mainland
6 Sri Lanka 53712 25770
7 Malaysia 40552 19456
8 Thailand 9160 4395
9 Madagascar 8528 4092
10 Mexico 7197 3453
FAO Stat
World Black pepper production (2012-13)

Country Production (tonnes)

Viet Nam 163,000.00
Indonesia 88,700.00
India 53,000.00
Brazil 42,312.00
China, mainland 31,200.00
Sri Lanka 26,730.00
Malaysia 26,500.00
Madagascar 5,000.00
Ethiopia 3,800.00
Ghana 3,535.00
World Importers of BP (2010-11)
Quantity Value (1000 Unit value
Rank Area
(tonnes) $) ($/tonne)

United States of
1 68489 402218 5873
America

2 Germany 25480 164677 6463

3 The Netherlands 18331 95445 5207
4 India 13548 74269 5482
5 Japan 8855 68948 7786
6 United Kingdom 10799 66395 6148

7 Singapore 11923 66138 5547

8 France 8827 60455 6849
9 Canada 5553 36527 6578
10 Egypt 7955 36281 4561

FAO Stat
 Black pepper exporters (2010-11)
Unit value
Rank Area Quantity (tonnes) Value (1000 $)
($/tonne)

1 Viet Nam 123800 732213 5914

2 Indonesia 36487 214681 5884
3 Brazil 32696 197976 6055
4 India 37419 181169 4842
5 Malaysia 14237 93482 6566
6 Germany 11031 77184 6997
7 Netherlands 10848 74822 6897
8 Singapore 9119 57195 6272
United States of
9 7110 36123 5081
America

10 China, mainland 4447 35101 7893

FAO Stat
 Indian Black pepper production

2010-11 2011-12(Pr)
STATE
A P A P Pty (kg/ha)
KARNATAKA 21.1 18.2 21.1 16.0 758
KERALA 172.2 20.6 172.2 16.5 95.8
TAMIL NADU 3.0 9.1 3.0 10.5 3500
Total including
201.4 48.0 201.4 43.0 213.5
others

Area: ‘000 ha, Production: ‘000 MT

Spice Board
Black pepper importers from India
COUNTRY QTY VALUE
(MT) ([Link])
U.S.A 9383.35 30979.23
VIETNAM 2216.31 6943.71
U.K 1443.90 4972.93
GERMANY 1181.30 3842.25
ITALY 1021.20 3543.95
AUSTRALIA 991.60 3464.30
U.A.E 927.19 2810.55

TOTAL([Link]) 26699.73 87813.42

India imported 15,600 MTs of BP (white pepper, green pepper and

black pepper) worth Rs. 56944.18 lakhs in 2012-13 mainly from
Sri Lanka
Spice board
 Scope and Importance
• Indigenous crop
• Shade loving crop
• Good remuneration
• Maximum contribution to Indian
foreign exchange among spice
• Demand for brand India
• Different forms of use
• Pepper oleoresin and EO in cosmetic
and pharmaceutical industry
• Food processing industry
Indian Pepper
Production
mixed or intercrop
trailed on various
trees (arecanut and
coconut)
pure crop on slopes and
in valleys of low hills
mixed crop on shade
trees in tea and
coffee plantations
• Piper - over 1,000 species.
• Mostly herbaceous / woody climbers / shrubs
distributed in the tropics of both hemispheres.
Other economic species
P. betle (Betel vine)
P. methysticum (Kava).
Pepper substitutes
P. cubeba (Cubeba or tailed pepper)
P. longum (Indian long pepper)
P. retrofractum (Java long pepper)
 P. methysticum
P. betle

P. cubeba
P. Longum P. retrofractum
 Ever green climber grows to a height or
length of 10 m or more.

Dimorphic branching –erect

growing main stem
1. Main stem: from seed or stem cutting,
climbs support with adventitious roots
Adventitious roots
2. Runner shoots: produced from the
basal portion of the main stem,
Main stem
growing at right angle to the main
stem, usually restricted upto 50 cm
from the ground.

Runner shoot
3. Top shoots (Orthotropes): are
produced from main stem. After a Orthotrope
period of growth, top portion of the
main stem attain busty appearance
with short thicker inter nodes and
profuse branching with large number
of adventitious roots at the nodes.
They are climbing branches (5-12 cm
long internodes), they give frame
work to the plant, stems are swollen
at the nodes when young but become
woody on ageing. The short
adventitious root produced at the
nodes enable the plant to cling itself
to the standard (climbing support).
4. Fruiting branches
(Plagiotropes):
produced from the
auxillary bud present Plagiotrope
at each swollen node
beside a leaf on main
Spike
stem/orthotropes and
they grow laterally
(right angle to main
stem),bear
berries/spikes.
 5. Hanging shoots
(Geotropes): In a
fully grown vine at
the top portion,
Geotrope
some plagiotropes
are give rise to a
special type of
shoots which hang
down and grow
geotropically.
 Standard

Orthotrope

Geotrope

Spike

Plagiotrope

Adventurous roots
Main stem
Runner shoot

Root system
Leaves
• Alternate, simple, dark green and shiny above and
pale green underneath.
• Smooth and entire, broadly lanceolate (variation in
leaf shape).
• Petioles 2-5 cm long, grooved above
• Spike: catkin type of inflorescence,
• Emerge opposite to the upper leaves on the plagiotropic
branches.
• 3-15 cm long with 50-150 minute white to pale yellow
flowers.
• flowers monoecious/dioecious/bisexual
• Under intense shade conditions, the hermaphrodite type
produces more female flowers and less bisexual flowers.
• Cross-pollinated
• hermaphrodite flowers are protogynous
• results in uneven fertilization of flowers and non
uniform, incomplete filling of the spikes.
• Flowering begins at the base of the spike and
continues to the tip over a week.
• Hermaphrodite cultivars (Eg: Balankotta,
Kalluvalli) are self-fertile.
• Pollination due to rain splash- Geitenogamy
(is a self pollination mechanism which involves
gravitational descending of pollen grains
combined with acion of rain water or dew
drops)
• Fruit- single seeded berry, sessile, globose
/elongated /oval.
• The seed is surrounded by a thin, soft
pericap.
• During ripening, it becomes yellow and turns
light red afterwards.
• Flowering to maturity - 6 months.
 Soil and Climate
Heavy clay - light sandy clays rich in humus with
friable nature, well drained, but still with ample water
holding capacity.
pH - 4.5-6.5, high organic matter
Water logged soils and diseased soils are not suitable.
In Kerala, grown on raised bunds of water logged paddy
fields
Well drained loamy soils rich in humus nourish the crop
well and the best crop could be obtained in virgin
forest soil.
• Essentially a crop of humid tropics
• Requires adequate rainfall and humidity.
• Thrives well even in the hot and humid climate of
the foothills of the Western Ghats.
• Grows well at 500-1500 m above MSL.
• 10-40°C, (below- pollination and fruit set will be
adversely affected). Ideal temperature (23-32°C)
avg 28°C .
• Optimum soil temperature for root growth is 26-
28°C
• Optimum rainfall 1250-2000 mm distributed
throughout the year.
• Rainfall of 70 mm received in 20 days during May-June is
sufficient to trigger flushing and flowering.
• Once the process is set there should be continuous
shower until fruit ripening.
• Short dry spell within this critical period of 16 weeks (flowering
to fruit ripening) will result in low yield.
• Rainfall after stress induces profuse flowering.
• Growth of plagiotropes and photosynthetic rate are maximum
during peak monsoon in India (June - July).
• A relative humidity of 60-95% is optimum at various stages of
growth.
• Though it is a shade-loving vine, too much of shade will affect
flowering and fruiting.
• To avoid sun-scorching, it should be planted towards the
eastern slopes avoiding the southwest sunlight.
 Cultivars and Varieties

• Black pepper germplasm collections at IISR (2492 indigenous,

5 exotic and 279 wild – total 2776)
• >100 cultivars cultivated in India.
• Karimunda - most popular.
• Kerala: Kottanadan, Narayakkodi, Aimpiriyan, Neelamundi,
Kuthiravally, Balancotta and Kalluvally.
• Karnataka: Bilimalligesara, Karimalligesara, Doddiga, Mottakare
and Uddagare.
• Among cultivars, in terms of quality, Kottanadan has the highest
oleoresin (17.8%) followed by Aimpiriyan (15.7%).
• Pepper cvs are evolved directly from wild P. nigrum.
 Cultivars of central and south Kerala
• Ampirian- high yielding, suited for high elevations, good quality, late
• Arakulam munda- regualar bearer, medium quality
• Balankotta- droopy leaves, moderate and irregular bearer
• Chengannurkodi- moderate yielder from South Kerala, medium quality
• Cheppakulamundi- moderate yeilder from central Kerala, med. Quality
• Jeerakamundi- Cv with small leaves, and short spikes, alternate bearer
• Karimunda- most popular cv. Suitable for most pepper area, high yielder
• Kottanadan- high yielding cv. Drought tolerant
• Kuthiravally- long spikes, high yielder, good quality
• Kuttianikodi- moderate yielder, long spikes
• Malamundi- moderate yielder, medium quality
• Narayakodi- moderate yielder, medium quality
• Neelamundi- a good yielder, medium in quality, tolerant to phytopthora
• Nedumchola-small leaves, short spikes, moderate yielder
• Neyyattinkaramundi-medium in quality and yield, cv of central Kerala
• Perumkodi-medium in quality and yield, cv of central Kerala
• Poonjaranmunda- cv of central Kerala, medium in quality and yield
• Thommankodi- cv of central Kerala, moderate in
yield and quality
• Thulamundi- medium in quality and yield, cv of central
Kerala
• Vattamundi- moderate yielder from central Kerala
• Vellanamban- moderate yeilder, medium in quality.
Black pepper cvs of North Kerala
• Cheriyakaniakadan- moderate and early bearing cultivar
• Kalluvally- good yielder, medium quality with high dry
recovery, drought tolerant.
• Kottan- moderate yielder, medium quality
• Manjamundi- moderate yielder, medium quality
• Perambramunda- medium quality, moderate yielder
• Vadakkan- medium quality, yield with large berries
• Valliyakaniyakadan- large leaves, medium in yield and quality
 Black pepper cvs of karanataka
Bilimalligesara- moderate yielder with light green spikes
Kurimalai- moderate yielder with moderate quality
Karimaratta- moderate yielder with uniform bearing
Karimalligesara- moderate yielder with dark green spikes
Malligesara- common cultivar with good yield
Uddagara- good yielder, medium quality
Pepper Research Station, Panniyur (KAU)
Variety/hy Pedigree/parentage Av. Yield Salient features
(kg/ha)
Panniyur-1 Uthiranakotta x 1242 Vigourous growing vine, long spikes, close setting of berries,
1971 cheriyakaniyakadan piperine 5.3%,oleoresin11.8%, eo-3.5%, dry recovery
35.3%,doesnot tolerate shade
Panniyur-2 Clonal selection from 2570 Shade tolerant, suitable for intercropping, medium maturity
1991 the open pollinated group, medium quality, oleoresin 10.9%, piperine 6.6%, eo-
3.4%, dry recovery- 35.7%.
progeny of Balankotta
Panniyur-3 Uthiranakotta x 1953 Suited for all pepper growing areas, performs well in oper
1991 cheriyakaniyakadan conditions, late maturing, long spikes, and bold berries,
piperine-5.2%, oleoresin-12.7%, eo-3.1%, dry recovery-27.8%
Panniyur-4 Clonal selection from 1277 Stable yielder, performs well under adverse conditions,
1991 Kuthirvally type II tolerant to shade, late maturity, piperine 4.4%, oleoresin 9.2%,
eo 2.1%, dry recovery 34.7%
Panniyur-5 Clonal selection from 1110 Suitable for both mono and mixed cropping in
1996 open pollinated projeny coconut/arecanut gardens, shade tolerant, medium maturity,
tolerant to nursery disease, long spikes, piperine, 5.3%,
of Perumkodi
oleoresin 12.33%, eo-3.8%, dry recovery 35.7%
Panniyur 6 Clonal selection from 2127 Vigorous, drought tolerant, stable and regular bearer, medium
maturity, suited for open condition and partial shade, spike 6-8
2000 Karimunda type III cm, more number of spikes/unit area, close and attractive set
berries, piperine-4.9%, oleoresin 8.27% and essential oil 1.33%
and dry recovery 33%
Panniyur 7 Open pollinated progeny 1410 Vigorous vine, regular bearer, long spike, hardy tupe, tolerates adverse
climatic conditions, suitable for open and shaded conditions, very long
2000 of Kalluvally spike(16-24 cm)high piperine 5.6%, oleoresin 10.6%, essential oil 1.5%,
dry recovery 34%
Panniyur 8 Panniyur 6 x
Panniyur 5
Indian Institute of Spices Research (ICAR), Kozhikod Variety/ Av. Yield
Hybrid Pedigree/parentage (kg/ha) Salient features
Sreekara Clonal selection from 2677 Suited for all pepper growing areas, high elevation, intercropping,
1990 Karimunda medium maturity, high quality pepper berries, piperine 5.1%,
oleoresin 13.0%, ess oil 7.0%, dry recovery 35%.
Kerala, south Karnataka, TN
Subhakara 1990 Clonal selection from 2352 Suited for all pepper growing regions, suitable for intercropping as
Karimunda well as high elevations, high quality, medium maturity, piperine 3.4%,
oleoresin 12.4%, essential oil 6%, recovery 35% Kerala, south
Karnataka, TN
Panchami Clonal selection from 2828 High yielding, spikes twisting, late maturing, suitable for high
2001 Aimpiriyan elevations, excellent fruit set, piperine 4.7%, oleoresin 12.5%, ess oil
3.4%, dry recovery 34% Kerala, Karnataka
Pournami Clonal selection from 2333 Tolerant to root knot nematodes, and shade. Medium maturity,
2001 Ottaplackal suitable for intercropping, with arecanut and banana, piperine4.1%,
oleoresin13.8%, ess oil3.4% and dry recovery 31%Kerala, Karnataka
IISR Thevam Clonal selection from 2437 Stable yielder, vigorous, field tolerance to Phytophthora, medium
2006 germplasm of maturity, suitable for high altitude areas of south India upto 3000 ft
Thevamundi MSL in coffee and tea estates. Piperine- 1.6%, oleoresin- 8.15%, ess
oil- 3.1%, dry recovery 32.5% Kerala and high altitudes of South
India upto 3000 ft MSL
IISR Malabar Cholamundi x 1453 Recommended for rainfed condition including coffee and tea
Excel Panniyur-1 plantations. Oleoresin 11.7%, piperine 2.4%, ess oil 2.8%, dry
2006 recovery 32.3%, suitable for high elevations and plains. Kerala and
high altitude of south India
IISR Girimunda Cholamundi x 2880 Rainfed conditions in tea and coffee estates, medium maturity group,
2006 Panniyur-1 piperine 2.2%, oleoresin 9.65%, ess oil 3.4%, dry recovery 32
Kerala & high altit of south India
IISR Sakthi OP seedling progeny 5.2 kg/vine Tolerant to [Link], piperine 3.3%,oleoresin 10.2%, ess oil 3.7%, and
2006 of Perambramundi recovery 43%
PLD-2 Clonal selection from 2475 Late maturity, high quality, piperine 3%, oleoresin 15.45%, ess

1996 Kottanadan oil 4.8%, suited for plains and high elevations.
Arka coorg excel
 Neelamundi- IISR Shakti
Kalluvally- Mod. resistant to Phytophthora
Common cultivar of Idukki
Drought tolerant
IISR Thevam
Field tolerance to Phytophthora

‘Pournami’
Tolerant to root knot nematode

Kottanadan-
High quality berries

Balankotta-
Long and broad leaves
Karimunda- Short spike, bold berries Narayakodi- Persistent stigma

Karyilanchi- Oblong berries

Aimpiriyan- Twisted spike
Panniyur-5
Panchamy
Pld 2
T.T. Thomas (VIII dropout) President's award for
the best innovative farmer (2013)
the result of nearly 25 years of work after
discovering a forest variety of pepper from the
Anjuruly area.
gives a yield of more than a 1000 pepper balls in
a single bunch. The specialty of this variety is
that there are a number of branches in a single
spike where as the other varieties are spiked
without branches.
Ademane – A phytopthora field tolerant variety releaased by HRS, Sirsi
 Micropropagation
Explants used- shoot tips, nodes and lateral buds
Media- MS medium, GR- BA, GA3, IBA
Phenolic oxidation is a major problem. The best establishment and proliferation
of shoot tip explants was obtained on MS medium containing 1.5mgBA/lit alone.
Subsequent growth and development of lateral branches was best with 1.5mg
BA/litre+3.0 mg/lit IBA.
Shoots root well on ½ strength medium containing 1mg NAA/lit.
Shoot elongation and rooting took place on B5 medium containing 0.5µM BA
and 1µM IAA.
Regerated plantlets were established in the field.
When mature explants are used from field grown vines, induction of shoot
proliferation on Whites medium with 1.5mg BA and 0.01mg NAA /lit.
Each explant produced 6-8% shoots with 4 successive transfers.
Rooting was 100% on white’s medium with or without activated charcoal.
Rooted shoots established in the soil with 85-90% success and good field
survival >95%.
For rapid multiplication explant is nodal segments. Time required is 24 months
and healthy plants recovered is 4000/explant approx cost is Rs 8/-
Field establishment >80% and bearing habit was regular and stable yields. Oil
and oleoresin contents were high in TC plants compared to conventional.
 Seeds PROPAGATION
 vegetative means.
Propagation by seeds:
• fully ripe berries are collected, soaked in water overnight and later rubbed
with a paste of cow dung.
• sown in the nursery.
• seeds are viable upto 20 days after the harvest.
• germinate -1 month
• transplanting - 45 days. July- August.
• seedling progenies - lot of variation, since pepper is a cross-pollinated
crop. They take 7-8 years to come to the first bearing.
Vegetative method: Orthotropic climbing shoots

Use of pre-rooted pepper cuttings is highly desirable.

a) Primary stem or climbing stem

b) Runner shoots which originate from the base of the vines
c) Fruit-bearing lateral branches
 Runner shoot – Traditional method

• Identify the mother vine

• Runner shoots are kept coiled on wooden pegs fixed at the base of the
vine to prevent the shoots from coming in contact with soil.
• Separate in February-March and trim the leaves.
• Cuttings of 2-3 nodes each are planted either in nursery beds or
polythene bags filled with fertile potting mixture.
• Keep shade and irrigated frequently.
• 4-5 leaves  main field in May-June.
• Does not provide enough planting materials
 Traditional method…

2-3 nodes of runner shoots planted in Feb-March Hardening for a month

Success rate:

70 - 90%

Ready for planting in May- June with 3-4 leaves stage

Single nodes…

• Single nodes with a leaf intact

• Similar beds or in trenches with poly

covers

• Hardening after 2 months

Success rate:

80 - 95%

Ready for planting in May- June with 3-4 leaves stage

Terminal shoots - Propagation

About 50cm long shoots are cut and planted straight-

away during the monsoon or they can be got rooted
before planting in the field.

• Give better growth and high number of fruit bearing

lateral branches.

• Early flowering.

• Getting enough terminal shoots from yielding garden

is difficult.
 Rapid multiplication - (Bamboo Method)

• A technique developed in Sri Lanka and

refined at IISR
• Popular in India
• Trenchs 0.75 m deep X 0.3m X convenient
length
• Fill with rooting medium (forest soil, sand, fym
1:1:1).
• Add 1.5 kg lime m-1
• Split halves of bamboo with septa intact

• 1.25-1.5m length and 8-10 cm diameter

• fixe alternatively at 45 degree angle on a strong support at 30 cm intervals

• The bamboos on opposite sides can be tied

• Plant rooted cuttings in the trench 1 bamboo-1

• Fill lower portions of the bamboo splits with (coir pith-farmyard manure
1:1)
• Tie the growing vine to the bamboo split
to keep the nodes pressed to the rooting
medium.
• Irrigate regularly.
• Biocontrol agents
• Repeate tille vine reaches top
• Apply nutrient solution Urea (1 Kg), SSP
(0.75 Kg), MOP (0.5Kg), MgSO4 (0.25 Kg) in
250 litre water at 0.25 litre per vine
When the vine reaches the top (3-4 months initially),
nip the terminal bud
crush the vine at about three nodes above the base
After 10 days, cut at the crushed point and remove from the rooting
medium and separate
Plant in polybags filled with pot mixture. keep the axil above the soil.
Keep the polybags in a cool humid place, or cover with thin polythene
(200 guage)
The buds start developing in about 3 weeks when the polybags can be
removed and kept in shade.
 Advantages
• Multiplication is rapid (1:40)
• The root system is well developed
• Better field establishment and more vigorous growth
as a result of better root system
• Cost effective (Rs.5/-rooted cutting)
• Ensures a perennial supply of high quality planting
material. Such planting materials give 80-90%
establishment in the field.
• A nursery shed of 24 × 6 m size would provide up to
20,000 rooted plants annually.
 Serpentine method
 3 node cuttings planted in PE bags
 The developing plant is trailed horizontally in PE bags containing potting
mixture kept below each tender node.
 Each node is well pressed into the rooting medium.
 As new shoots arise they will be trailed horizontally in PE bags containing
the potting mixture.
 After 20 nodes get rooted the rooted nodes are seperated and they are
ready for planting in the main field after 3 months.
 On an average 60 cuttings are obtained in a year from each mother
cutting.
 Advantages:
 It is simple, cheap and quick and suited to small and marginal farmers.
 Recovery percentage is higher compared to rapid multiplication
technique.
Serpentine Method

10 - 15 nodes in 3 months
Multiplication ratio of 1: 60
Success rate – 90 - 100%
 Pit Method of Black pepper propagation

• A new technique for propagating black pepper from single nodes of

field grown vines has been developed at IISR.

• Simple and specially suits small and marginal farmers.

• A pit (2m × 1m × 0.5 m) is dug under a cool shaded area in the farm.

• Single nodes with approximately 8-10 cm length with their leaf intact,
taken from runner shoots of field grown vines are to be planted in
polythene bags (25 ×15 cm, 200 gauge) filled with rooting medium.

• The single nodes are to be planted in such a way so as their leaf axil
will rest above the potting mixture.
• The poly bags with the planted single nodes should be arranged in
the pit.

• In a pit of the above size approximately 150 bags can be kept.

• After keeping the bags in the pit, the pit should be covered with a
polythene sheet.

• This sheet may be secured in position by placing stones, weights etc

on the corners.

• Water at least five times a day with a rose can, close immediately

• Drench the cuttings two -three times with COC (2g/litre).

• After 2-3 weeks of planting the cuttings will start
producing roots (visible through the polythene bags).
• After the initiation of rooting, irrigate 3-4 times a day.

• After about one month, keep the cuttings inside the pit. So they
will not suffer from any ‘shock’ when they are taken out the pit.

• The cuttings can be taken out of the pit after two months of
planting, keep under shad and watered twice a day.

• ready after about another 2.5 months.

• 80-85 per cent success can be obtained.

• Advantages of this method
• Simple, cheap and quick.
• Cuttings are ready to plant in the field after about 4-4.5 months, as
compared to six months in bamboo method.
• Specially suited to small and marginal [Link] cutting cost
works out to less than Rs.3.
• Effective utilization of runner shoots as single nodes are used for
planting in this method instead of three to four nodes in the
conventional method.
 Micropropagation
Explants used- shoot tips, nodes and lateral buds
Media- MS medium, GR- BA, GA3, IBA
Phenolic oxidation is a major problem.
The best establishment and proliferation of shoot tip
Subsequent growth and development of lateral branches
Shoots root
Hardening (Shoot elongation and rooting)
Field planting
Rooted shoots established in the soil with 85-90% success and good
field survival >95%.
approx cost is Rs 8/-
Field establishment >80% and bearing habit was regular and stable yields.
Oil and oleoresin contents were high in TC plants compared to
conventional.
 Grown as a bush in Bush pepper
earthen/cement pots of 12” dia
filled with potting mixture.
 One yr old lateral branches
 3-5 nodes from high yielding
vines (with a bit of orthotropic
portion intact)
 Remove the leaves except the
flag leaf
 Dip in 0.2% COC for 1-2 min
 A sharp slanting cut is given at the basal portion
and treated with IBA 1000ppm for 45 seconds and
planted in a PE bag containing moist well
decomposed coir dust.
 4-5 cuttings are planted in PE bags of 30x 45cm
size.
 Mouth of PE bag is tied and hung in shade for
rooting in 45 days.
 Replanted in PE bags with soil, sand,FYM 1:1:1.
 After 3months replanted in pots or directly in field.
 Fertilizers @ 1, 0.5 and 2 g/pot of N, P2O5 and K2O
once in 2 months.
 Pruning of hanging shoots and pots are kept in partial
shade.
 Repotting is necessary once in 2 yrs.
 Plants produced by this technique retain its bushy nature
and produce spikes continuously.
 Periodic harvest of green pepper from mature spikes is
possible
 Ideal time for raising bush pepper is from Sept-Dec.
 Standards
• Required for support and partial fulfillment of
shade.
• Pure crop: straight quick growing standards in the
main field before planting of pepper.
• Erythrina indica, E. lithosperma, Gliricidia sepium,
G. maculata, Ailanthus malabarica, Garuga
pinnata, Mangifera indica, Anacardium
occidentale, Grevillea robusta, terminalia sp.
• Mixed crop in coconut/arecanut/coffee – no
standard
• Non living standards like concrete poles,
granite pillers and teak poles are also used in
countries like Brazil, Indonesia
• Live standard used should be- straight
growing, taprooted, slender strong stem,
economic value
Erythrina indica
Common Standards
Jack
Coconut
Arecanut
Any shade tree
• Spacing-
monocrop of black pepper - 2.5m x 2.5m
In coconut plantations - 8m x 8 m or 7m x 7m
In arecanut plantations - 2.7m x 2.7m
 Land preparation
• Pits dug on north side of the standard 60 cm
away from it
• Pits well in advance of planting
• At the base of the standards
• 45x45x45 cm.
• Fill with mixture of top soil, well rotten fym
/compost 5 kg, neem cake 2 kg, 150 g of rock
phosphate.
• 50g of Trichoderma inoculum
 Planting and aftercare

• 3-4 rooted cuttings per standard.

• in June-July.
• planted with 2 nodes below the ground
level.
• Rapid growth - after one year reaches a
height of 2m.
• vines have to be tied to the standards at
an interval of 30 cm
• Also the vines are brought down to ground
level after a year and half.
• This helps in putting forth more shoots and
good root system.
 Manures and fertilisers
Manuring in basins in a semicircular band on the northern
side of the standard around the plants,
10-15 cm deep and 50-75 cm radius depending upon the
growth of the plants.
FYM/green manure/compost at the onset of monsoon.
Lime can be applied at the rate of 500 g per vine in April-May
in alternate years.
Nutrient dose for pepper vine of >3 years old:
FYM/compost/green manure 10 kg
castor cake 500 g
N 100 g
P2O5 40 g
K2O 140 g
1/3rd of dose should be applied for one year old plants and
½ should be applied to 2 year old plants.
 Training and pruning
• Pruning except India.
• Pruning: young vines about 6months old,
• terminal shoot is pruned back to 3-4 nodes from ground.
• in certain pockets In India, Indonesia and SriLanka the
coiling the one yr old around the standard under moist
soil and buried in soil with onset of monsoon after
removing the leaves and it helps in sprouting of axillary
buds and many shoots produced will cover the standard.
• Training: initial step in black pepper establishment.
• The vines have to be tied to standards at the nodes by
suitable materials to get anchorage.
• Pruning of unwanted terminal growth encouraged the
development of lateral shoots and production of spikes.
 Intercultivation and cover crops
• first year a thorough digging in August-September
and again in Oct-Nov around the standard and
vines to remove the weeds.
• Mulching is very essential where the pepper is
grown with minimum shade, to conserve
moisture using banana trash, dried grass and
other substances.
• Cover crops like Calapagonium mucanoides can
be sown during April-May and during Oct-Nov
and they are cut and ploughed into the soil when
they flower.
• Sawdust, areca husk and straw
 Irrigation
 Black pepper is very sensitive to moisture stress
 Feeder roots of pepper are distributed in top 50-60cm
depth of the soil, sensitive to moisture stress.
 Irrigation is required during dry period.
 Basin irrigation of vines with 100 lit/vine at IW/CPE ratio
of 0.25 from Dec-March increases the yield.
 Drip irrigation of 7lit/vine/day from Oct-March increases
the yield of vines also.
 In bush pepper irrigation at 50% soil moisture depletion
recorded higher yield and oleoresin content.
 Mulching and weeding
• Mulching helps to conserve soil moisture and loss due
to runoff.
• Providing soil mulch and digging twice a year is
optimum to maintain health and yield of pepper.
• Growing of cover crops like Calapagonium mucanoides
and Desmodium trifolium will act as a mulch.
• Weeds compete with pepper and use of coconut fibre
as mulch and weedicides.
• Growing of cover crops like Desmodium ovalifolium,
[Link], Centrosema pubescens smother the weeds.
• Handweeding in the basin+ digging the interspace or
clean cultivation recorded higher yield.
 Spike shedding

 Spike shedding is common in black pepper.

 Spike shedding occurs at different stages of
development of berries.
 Due to genetics, nutritional imbalance, climatic,
pests and disease problems, inadequate
pollination, low soil moisture, low N and K in
shoots
 Variations exist among cultivars
 Application of IAA 50ppm, Planofix 50ppm, Zinc
0.5%, 2,4-D 5ppm reduce spike shedding.
 Shade Management:

• Pepper is a shade loving plant, excess shade is detrimental since it

affects the physiological activities of the plant. It requires 50 %
shade or lesser than this for better growth and production.
• Pepper is usually tried on living standards, which also served as
shade trees. In coffee plantation shade tree are used as standards
for pepper. In order to maintain 50 % of shade excess and
unwanted branches are to be removed every year prior to
commencement of monsoon April-May.
• Shade regulation helps for better penetration of lights during
monsoon. The lopped branches put fourth new growth and
providing shade during the commencement of summer period.
Thus, lopping of branches of shade trees is essential to regulate
shade or sun light suit to the crop.
 Liming

• Pepper is cultivated in heavy rain fall areas of hilly

region, top soil along with nutrients or eroded as
a result soils are acidic. Before application of
fertilizers soil ph as to be corrected by adding line
based on the soil test results. However, every
two years once 2 to 3 tonnes of lime per hecters
or 500 g per vine is recommended and this as to
be applied during April-May. Agricultural line and
dolomite line are commonly used liming
materials to correct the soil acidity.
 Cropping systems with black pepper
 It is a climbing vine and adapted to grow as under crop/mixed crop with plantation crops.

 Annual, biennial and perennial crops can be grown as inter and mixed crops in high density
multicropping systems.

 Ginger, turmeric, coffee, banana, cocoa, yam, cereals like upland paddy, pulses like redgram,
vegetables, flowers and other annuals are intercropped with black pepper.

 Pepper is intercropped with coffee, arecanut and coconut.

 Panniyur-1 and Karimunda varieties ideal in coconut and arecanut plantations.

 Max. returns with coconut + pepper + pineapple + cocoa and coconut + cocoa + cinnamon + pepper
+ pineapple.

 Black pepper in cardamom plantations is profitable.

 In Terai region of WB black pepper is profitable intercrop with arecanut.

 Coconut + black pepper + banana + Assam lemon + pineapple + ginger is profitable cropping system
in Assam.
Diseases
 Phytophthora foot rot and slow decline diseases continue to
remain the most serious due to their severity and extent of crop
loss.
1. Phytophthora foot rot (Quick wilt) is the most common and
serious disease that affects black pepper in all black pepper
growing countries and is known to occur in India as early as
1902. In India loss upto 30% has been reported.
• Causal organism : Phytophthora capsici
• Plant part affected : Root, stem, leaves, branches and berries
Symptoms:
The fungus produces three types of infections viz.
foliar infection, collar infection and root
infection
• One or more black spots appear on the leaves
• The stalk region of infected berries gets
blackened
• The tender leaves and succulent shoot tips of
freshly emerging runner shoots turn black when
infected
• If the collar is damaged,
the entire vine wilts.
• The branches break up at
nodes and the entire vine
collapses within a month.
• Rotting and blackening
can be observed on roots.
• There will be a slimy, foul
odour from the infected
collar region.
• Stem infection -
yellowing and blighting
of stem and death of
affected plants.

• Infection of feeder roots cause rotting and degeneration - yellowing,

defoliation and drying up of plants
 Mode of spread
This fungus – dormant - dry season.
activated - rainy season.
The disease spreads - infected planting materials, zoospores
in soil water; rain splashes; contaminated farm implements,
movement of personnel, animals etc.
Season
It is prevalent during wet period of the year (south west
monsoon period) in India.
Management

Phytosanitation: Removal and destruction of dead vines along with root

system from the garden

Planting material must be collected from disease free gardens

Cultural practices :
 Raising disease free nursery using fumigated or solarized soil
 Collection of runner shoots from disease free gardens.
 Regular monitoring and rouging of infected vines in the plantations.
 Proper drainage, shade regulation, avoiding root damage, clean cultivation.

.
Chemical control
• Drenching with Copper oxy chloride 0.2 % @ 5-10 litres/vine
• Foliar spray with Bordeaux mixture 1 % (or)
• Drenching with potassium phosphonate 0.3 % @ 5-10 litres/vine
• Foliar spray with potassium phosphonate 0.3 % (or)
• Drenching with Ridomil /mancozeb 0.125 % @ 5-10 litres/vine
• Foliar spray with Ridomil/ mancozeb 0.125 % (or)
• Foliar spray with Bordeaux mixture 1 % / potassium phosphonate 0.3 %

• Time of application : 1 st round during May-June

2 nd round during August –September
3 rd October (monsoon prolonges)

Biological control: Trichoderma spp., Pseudomonas fluorescens, Vesicular Arbuscular

Mycorrhizae (VAM), may be used to raise rooted cuttings in nurseries.

 In the field, apply (once or twice a year) at the base of the vine after receipt of rains
along with organics

Host resistance: IISR-Sakthi, IISR-Thevam

 Slow Decline (Yellows)
Nematodes : Radopholus similis Fungi
: Rhizoctonia sp.,
Meloidogyne incognita Fusarium sp.,
Pythium sp.,

Plant part affected: Roots.

Vine decline gradually and die in 3-4 yrs.
Loss up to 32%.

Mode of spread - infected planting materials. Soil water, root contact,

contaminated farm implements etc.,
Symptoms
lesions on the feeder roots causing root
necrosis.
M. incognita causes root knots or galls
on the root system. The galls are seen
both in the tender fibrous root system and
also on mature roots. The root damage
caused by these two nematodes impairs
the translocation of water and mineral
salts in the vine.
The loss of feeder root system leads to
nutrient deficiency symptoms. The root
damage causes yellowing of leaves, inter
venial chlorosis, dieback of aerial stems.
ultimately leads to reduced canopy size
of the vine compared to a healthy vines,
leads to slow decline and ultimately death
of the vine.
Management
Phytosanitation:
 Severely affected vines are removed and destroyed.
 Pits - Phorate 10 G @ 15 g or carbofuran 3 G @ 50 g at the time of
planting.
Cultural practices:
 planting materials - nematode-free plantations.
 Addition of organic manures, crop residues, green manures, oil seed cakes,
plant extracts etc.
 Application of neem oil cake @ 2 kg/vine twice a year along with the
fertilizers is highly effective in suppressing the population of M. incognita.
Chemical control : Phorate 10 G @ 30g or carbofuran 3 G @ 100 g/vine
should be applied during May/June and September/October. Along with
phorate the basins should be drenched with either copper oxychloride 0.2%
Biological control: In the nursery solarised / non-solarised mixture fortified
with Trichoderma spp., Pseudomonas fluorescens, VAM - raise cuttings.
In the field - Trichoderma spp., Pseudomonas fluorescens after receipt of rains
(once or twice a year) along with organics.
Host resistance: 'Pournami, Cultivars like Balankotta
 Black berry / Pollu disease/ Anthracnose
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides ,
C. piperis , C. capsici
Plant part affected : Leaf, shoot, spike & berry.
Symptoms
• Chlorotic angular leaf spots surrounded by yellowish
halo are a typical symptom. later circular spots are
noticed and the necrotic portion drops off leaving
holes.
• Infected spikes turn black, shrivel and shed off
• Berries close to the diseased portion are smaller in
size. It also causes a mild crack on some berries
• The affected berries dry up gradually
• The fungus causes necrosis on the stalk of the spike
resulting in spike shedding.
Management
Cultural practices: Irrigating - summer,
Adequate shade regulation
Chemical control: pre-monsoon and post-monsoon
spray with Bordeaux mixture
Alternatively Carbendazim (WP 50%) - @ 0.65gm /
litre - pre-harvest interval of 14 days.
Stunted disease : Cucumber Mosaic
Virus (CMV)
Plant part affected : Entire vine.
Symptoms
• Leaves vine show mosaic pattern, subsequently
produced leaves are small, crinkled, brittle,
leathery with chlorotic patches / streaks.
• Intense interveinal chlorosis of the leaves, In
severe cases, the young and mature leaves show
extensive chlorosis, narrowing, distortion and
size reduction which give a sickle shaped or
wrinkled appearance.
• The affected vines show the stunted growth.
• The affected branches exhibit a typical witch's
broom appearance in advanced stages.
• Vines shed leaves and berries, Though the death
of affected vine is rare, their productivity is
gradually reduced
Mode of spread
• The disease spreads through infected cuttings, grafts, sap,
cutting knives and implements.
• Toxoptera aurauntii and Aphis gossypii are the two aphids
that have been reported to transmit the disease.
Management
Phytosanitation methods
Chemical control methods to control the vector
 Minor Diseases
Phyllody : Phytoplasma sps.
• Plant part affected : Leaves, spikes
• Control measure : Healthy planting material, remove and burnt the affected
plants, control the jassids
Root rot : Fusarium solani
• Plant part affected : Root & stem
• Control measure : Biological and chemical methods are fallowed
Leaf rot : Phytophthora palmivora, & Colletotrichum sp.
• Plant part affected : leaves
• Control measure : Avoid excessive shade and irrigation
Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture
Bacterial leaf spot : Xanthomonas campestris pv. Betlicola
• Plant part affected : Leaves
• Control measure : Use of Bacteriside
Stump rot : Rosellina bunodes
• Plant part affected : Roots
• Control measure : Make trenches around the affected plant to prevent the
disease spread
 Pollu beetle (Longitarsus nigripennis)
 Infestation is more in shaded areas, in plains and
ranges between 13-40%.
 Tender shoots, leaves and spikes are infested by
adult beetle resulting in black patches on
shoots, spikes and holes on tender leaves which
rot and drop off.
 Larvae cause more damage, bore into berries
and feed on content turning them black and
hollow. Tender spikes infested by pollu beetle
show necrotic patches.
Management –
 1.7ml dimethoate or 2ml Quinolphos/litre
monocrtophos (0.05 %)
Twice at June – July and Sept – October
 Important pests and their management

Top shoot borer Monocrotophos (0.05%)

(Cydia hemidoxa) When new shoot emerges

Leaf gall thrips Phosphamidon (0.03%)

(Liothrips karnyi) or dimethoate or monocrotophos (0.05 %)

Scale Insects Monocrotophos (0.1%) /quinalphos (0.05%)

(Lepidosaphes piperis) dimethoate (0.05%) at 15 days interval

Root knot nematode Phorate 10G, carbofuran 3G, Aldicarb @ 3 g a.i/

(Meloidigyne incognita) twice a year
Burrowing nematode May – June & September and October
(Radopholus similis)
 Harvesting
 Bearing - 3rd yr after planting
 Flowering to harvest - 6-8 months
 Harvesting season:
Nov - Jan in plains
Jan – March in hills
 Maturity indices - spikes start
yellowing and in a spike 1 to 2
berries become red.
 single pole ladder kept leaned on
to the support tree.
 Harvested spikes are collected in
clean sacs or bags tied at back of
worker.
 The spikes are kept as such for a
day or so,
 Harvested spikes are spread on a clean
floor and threshed manually by trampling
with legs or by using mechanical
thresher.
Manual threshing - India.
The harvested spikes are piled up in a
heap to initiate browning and then
threshed. It makes threshing' easy
and also gives good colour to finished
product.
Yield :-
Depending upon: elevation, temperature,
distribution of rainfall, soil fertility,
cultural practices, type or variety and,
age of the vine.
In India - 110 to 355 kg/ha.
 Processing
Black pepper
BP of commence - produced from whole, ripe but fully
developed berries.
1. Threshing- Berries are separated from the spikes by
trampling.
Mechanical threshers have been developed with
capacity of 50kg/hr to 1200 kg/hr, quick, clean berries.
2. Washing- Mechanical washing of harvested spikes or
even simple dipping in tank will remove the adhering
particles of dirt and dust.
Grading- Mesh to remove light and pinhead berries.
3 major groups- >4.25mm, 3.25 to 4.25mm and
<3.25mm
Large size berries(>4.25mm)- panniyur-1,
Valiakaniakkadan, Vadakkan, Karuvilanchi
Medium size (3.25-4.25mm)- Karimunda,
Arakulammunda, Kuthirvally, Kaniakkadan,
Neelamundi, Balankotta
Small size(<3.25mm)- Narayakodi.
3. Blanching- berries are taken in a perforated vessel and dipped in boiling
water for one mint.

 It also gives a uniform lustrous black colour to finished product and

prevents mouldiness of berries and enhances the drying process.

After blanching the produce can be dried for 3-5 days to uniform moisture
level (10-12%).
Solar driers and mechanical driers are now available
The dried berries are garbled, graded and packed in double layered lined
gunny bags.

Dry Recovery - 29-38%

4. Grading- size or density. In India, generally garbling and grading are done at
exporters premises.
Malabar Garbled
Malabar Un garbled
Tellicherry Garbled Black pepper special extra bold
Tellicherry Garbled extra bold
Tellicherry Garbled
Garbled Light pepper
Un garbled light pepper
Pin heads
 Value added products

White pepper:

Bright red berries /ripe spikes/ black dried pepper are packed in gunny bags.

Bags are allowed to soak in slow running water for about one week during which
bacterial rotting occurs and pericarp gets loosened

Then the berries are trampled under feet to remove any adhering pericarp

washed in water

sun dried to reduce moisture content (10-12 % ) - achieve a cream /white colour.

White pepper is garbled, sorted and packed in gunny bags.

Approximately 25 kg white pepper is obtained from 100 kg ripe berries.
 CFTRI (Central Food Technology Research Institute), Mysore,

Fully mature but unripe berries are harvested

Boiled in water for 10-15 minutes to soften the pericarp.

After cooling, skin is rubbed off either manually or mechanically

washed and sun dried to obtain white pepper.

Panniyur -1 is ideal to prepare white pepper.

Pepper oil - extracted by the steam distillation of powdered pepper
to obtain 2.5 to 3.5 % colourless to pale green essential oil.
• It is used in Perfumery and in flavouring

Pepper oleoresin - Solvent extraction of ground pepper.

• organic solvents like acetone, ethanol or dichloro ethane
• provides 10-13 % oleoresin possessing the odour, flavour and pungent
principles of spice.
• Piperine content of oleoresin is 35 to 50 %.
• 1 kg of oleoresin when dispersed in an inert base can replace 15 to 20 kg of
spice for flavouring purpose.
Green pepper in brine
• Bottled green pepper has great demand in non-traditional areas.
• The green colour is maintained under the high salinity of the steeping
liquid.
• The minimum salt level should be 12%.
• The addition of a small amount of citric acid prevents the discolouration
due to phenols.
Dehydrated green pepper:
 Keeping freshly harvested (green stage about 2 month before fully
maturity )
 Despiked pepper in boiling water for over 10 min -deactivates the
bleaching enzyme.
 Treatment with SO2 reduces the chances of darkening.
 As sun drying destroys the chlorophyll and green colour to make
dehydrated green pepper drying should be done in hot air or in microwave
oven.
Piperine - The alkaloid piperine (3-6%) is the major
constituent responsible for the biting taste of black
pepper. The other pungent alkaloids are chovicine and
peiperidine.
Frozen green pepper -This is prepared using blast
freezers. Such peppers are almost equivalent to the
fresh material.
 Cardamom ( Queen of Spices/Green Gold. )

Botanical Name : Elettaria cardamomom (Small)

Amomum subulatum (Large)
Family : Zingiberaceae , 2n=48
English name : Small cardamom, Lesser cardamom, Malabar
cardamom. Chhoti Elaichi (Hindi), Yelakki (Kannada), Ela
(Sanskrit)
India : Home of cardamom. evergreen forests of Western
Ghats in South India.
Native: Western Ghats of India

"Queen of Spices", enjoys a unique position in the

international spices market.

Cardamom of commerce : fruit (dried capsule)

Other countries: Guatamala, Tanzania, Srilanka, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Papua New Guinea.
India - Kerala, Karnataka and Tamilnadu.
Kerala - Travancore, in the Idukky district, Wayanad and Kottayam
region.
Karnataka- Coorg, Chikmaglore, Hassan and Uttara Kannada
district,
Tamilnadu- Palany, Nilagiris and Kodai hills
Cardamom, Nutritional value per 100 g.
Electrolytes
(Source: USDA National Nutrient data
base) Sodium 18 mg
Principle Nutrient Value
Potassium 1119 mg
Energy 311 Kcal
Carbohydrates 68.47 g Minerals
Protein 10.76 g
Calcium 383 mg
Total Fat 6.7 g
Cholesterol 0 mg Copper 0.383 mg
Dietary Fiber 28 g
Iron 13.97 mg
Vitamins
Niacin 1.102 mg Magnesium 229 mg
Pyridoxine 0.230 mg
Riboflavin 0.182 mg Manganese 28 mg

Thiamin 0.198 mg Phosphorus 178 mg

Vitamin A 0 IU
Vitamin C 21 mg Zinc 7.47 mg
Essential volatile oils :- pinene,, limonene, 1, 8-cineole, terpinene,
terpinolene, linalool, linalyl acetate, terpinen-4-oil, a-terpineol,
a-terpineol acetate, citronellol, nerol, geraniol, methyl
eugenol, and [Link].,

Uses :
• It is also used for medicinal purpose, both in Allopathy and
Ayurveda systems.
• Anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, digestive,
diuretic, stimulant, stomachic and tonic.
• Cardamom is therapeutic in nature, broadly used to treat infections
in teeth and gums, digestive disorders, throat troubles, skin
conditions etc.
• In South Asia, green cardamom is largely included in traditional
Indian sweets and in the making of tea and flavouring and seasoning
various food stuffs, confectionery, beverages and liquors.
• In arab countries, beverage cardamom flavoured coffee is called
‘Gahwa’
Botany
It is basically a Pseophytic plant growing under
shade in evergreen forests.
A mature cardamom plant may measure about 2 to
4 meters in height.
It is a shallow rooted plant.
Leaves are lanceolate or oblong or ovate in shape
with short petioles.
Pseudostem has light green or reddish purple or
purple colour. Areal pseudostem made with leaf
sheath
Inflorescence:Long panicle with racemose,
Bisexual flowers.
Cross pollinated crop
Honey bees -chief pollinators.
Flowering : Initiation to full bloom –31days
bloom to maturity – 5-6 months

Peak period of panicle emergence : November - March.

Peak flowering period: May-August.

The capsules are trilocular, containing 15-20 seeds.

Capsules are pale green to dark green in colour.

Cardamom plants mature in about 20-22 months after

planting polybag seedlings or rhizomes.
Economic yield - 3rd year - continues up to 8-10 years.
The total life span -15-20 years
Cardamom is often named as the third most expensive spice in
the world.
 Area and production

India has the largest area (90%

of the world area)

In India, cardamom is mainly

grown in the southern states-

Kerala (60%),

Karnataka (30%),

Tamil Nadu (10%).

• The largest cardamom producing country - Guatemala followed by
India and Tanzania.

• The major consuming

Saudi Arabia, India, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark, Finland

The countries in the western Asian region like Saudi Arabia, United
Arab Emirates, India etc have maximum consumption and these
countries share around 60% of the world’s consumption.
• The countries like Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway and Iceland
have around 16% share in the world consumption.
• Rest of the European countries have a 14% share, Japan has a 3% share
and USA has a 2.5% share in the world consumption.
• The average exports of cardamom per year stand at around 23000 tons.
 ESTIMATED EXPORT OF SPICES FROM DURING APRIL-MAY 2012 COMPARED WITH APRIL-MAY 2011

ITEM APRIL-My 2012 APRIL-MAY 2011

QTY. (Tonnes) VALUE ([Link]) QTY. (Tonnes) VALUE ([Link])
PEPPER 2,300 8,798.80 4,160 10,444.66
CARDAMOM(S) 150 1,283.28 256 2,744.18
CARDAMOM(L) 175 1,202.70 89 718.09
CHILLI 51,000 39,828.00 28,047 24,916.56
GINGER 5,000 4,275.00 4,685 4,255.59
TURMERIC 17,300 9,424.50 16,063 18,515.47
CORIANDER 4,400 2,510.00 3,591 2,080.00
CUMIN 5,000 6,637.50 4,869 6,313.39
CELERY 300 211.00 330 262.43
FENNEL 1,675 1,357.00 1,386 1,348.45
FENUGREEK 2,900 1,144.50 3,805 1,225.09
OTHER SEEDS (1) 1,050 630.00 1,002 545.97
GARLIC 3,450 752.50 671 365.79
NUTMEG & MACE 290 2,050.00 213 1,329.23
OTHER SPICES(2) 9,500 6,332.50 8,728 5,048.93
CURRY 2,750 3,988.75 2,357 3,002.24
POWDERS/PASTE
MINT PRODUCTS 1,550 35,993.25 1,438 16,926.42

SPICE OILS 1,100 17,750.00 1,215 19,752.95

&OLEORESINS

TOTAL 109,890 144,169.28 82,905 119,795.44

VALUE IN MILLION $ 263.69 268.31
(1) INCLUDE MUSTARD, ANISEED, AJWANSEED, DILL SEED, POPPY SEED ETC.
(2) INCLUDE TAMARIND, ASAFOETIDA, CASSIA, SAFFRON, ETC.
(3) INCLUDE MINT OILS, MENTHOL & MENTHOL .
SOURCE : ESTIMATE BASED ON DLE FROM CUSTOMS, REPORT FROM RO'S ETC.
Cardamom in
Guatemala
 Climate and soil
Ideal climatic and soil conditions for cardamom:
Natural habitat: Evergreen forests of Western Ghats
Tropical rainforests of Western Ghats.
Warm and humid climate
Altitude: 600 to 1200 m above MSL
Annual rainfall: 1500 to 4000 mm
Temperature: 10 to 35°C.
Shade : (50-60%) (moderate)
In India, cardamom is mostly cultivated under natural forest
canopy, except in certain areas in Karnataka and Wynad in
Kerala, where it is grown in arecanut and coffee plantations.
Sloppy lands facing eastern and northern directions are ideal for
cultivation.
• Cardamom prefers forest soils rich in humus.
• Soils - rich in organic matter and nitrogen and also low to
medium in available phosphorus and potassium.

• Well drained pH 4.5 to 6.5. generally acidic in nature

• Surface feeder with about 70% roots at a depth of 15cm,

availability of moisture at root zone is important for good
growth and yield.
 cv. Malabar cv. Mysore cv. Vazhukka

Cultivated varieties are grouped into three main groups primarily

based on nature of panicles. They are Malabar, Vazhukka and
Mysore. Vazhukka is a natural hybrid between Malabar and
Mysore.
Characters cv. Malabar cv. Mysore cv. Vazhukka
Adaptability Lower altitudes Higher altitudes Wide range
600-900 m MSL 900-1200 m MSL
Areas of cultivation Karnataka Kerala and parts of Kerala
TN
Plant growth Medium Robust Robust
Leaves Dorsal side Pubescent Both side Oblong to
or glabrous Pubescent or Lanceolate
glabrous
Panicles Prostrate Erect Semi erect
Capsules Round or oblong Bold, elongated Round to oblong
Leaf petiole Short Long Long
Capsule colour at Pale/golden/Yellow Green Green
maturity

Less susceptible to
thrips
Productivity Less more Less
 Selection / Special distinguishing Area of
No. Cultivar Source
varieties characteristics adaptability

South Idduki
An early maturing profusely
zone of Kerala,
flowering variety, medium sized ICRI (Spices
1 ICRI 1 Malabar where the
panicle with globose extra bold Board) Idduki
rainfall is well
dark green coloured capsules
distributed

Vandanmedu
Performs well under irrigated
and
conditions. Suitable for higher
Nelliampathy of
altitude. It has medium long
2 ICRI 2 Mysore Kerala and -do-
panicles oblong bold and parrot
Annamalai and
green capsules (Tolerant to
Meghamalai of
Azhukal diseases)
Tamil Nadu

Early maturing type, non- Regional

Cardamom
pubescent leaves, oblong bold, Station, ICRI,
3 ICRI 3 Malabar growing tract of
parrot green capsules. It is tolerant Saklespur,
Karnataka
to rhizome rot disease Karnataka
 Adapted to lower
Any early maturing variety Pulney hills of Tamil
Regional
adaptable to low rainfall area. Nadu. Suitable for
Station, ICRI,
4 TDK-4 Malabar Medium size panicle, globose low rainfall area
Thandiankudis
bold parrot green capsules. Non (1500mm) and having
al, Tamil Nadu
pubescent leaves similar agroecological
conditions

Adapted to less
An early maturing variety.
rainfall conditions of
5 TQK-11 Malabar Long panicle, oblong bold and -do-
lower Pulney hills of
parrot green capsules
Tamil Nadu

Cardamom
An early maturity variety with Research
All cardamom
slightly ribbed light green Station, Kerala
growing tracts of
6 PV-1 Malabar capsules. Short panicle. Close Agricultural
Kerala and parts of
racemes , narrowly ellipsoid to University,
Tamil Nadu
elongate capsules Pampadumpar
a, Kerala
 Indian Institute
All cardamom
An early maturing variety of Spices
growing tracts
suitable for high density Research,
7 CCS-1 Malabar of Karnataka
planting, long panicle, oblong (ICAR)
and Wayanad of
bold, parrot green capsules Appangla,
Kerala
Karnataka
Compact plant, suitable for Regional
high density planting. Research
In the traditional
Tolerant to hairy Station,
cardamom
caterpillars and while grubs. University of
8 Mudigere1 Malabar growing
Short panicle. Bold, pale Agricultural
Malanad areas
green capsules. Tolerant to Sciences,
of Karnataka
thrips and shoot hole borer. Mudigere,
Pubescent leaves Karnataka

NCC-200 Non pubescent, semi erect, Private nurseries

Suitable to
9 Vazhukka globose extra bold and dark in Idduki district
(Njallani) Kerala tracts
green capsules of Kerala

Oblong capsules
Semi erect, globose extra bold
suitable ICRI,
and dark deep green
10 MCC-12 Vazhukka underspase Myladumpara,
capsules suitable under
shade condition Idduki, Kerala
sparse shade conditions
of Kerala
 Profusely branched compound Adaptable to
and semi erect panicle. Globose Kadamkuzhy and
11 MCC-16 Vazhukka -do-
green capsules. Recommended Udumbanchola
for irrigated or swampy area zones of Kerala

Suitable to all IISR Cardamom

An early bearing variety, globose cardamom Research Centre,
12 MCC-40 Malabar
bold and green capsules growing tracts of Appangala,
Kerala Karnataka

Resistant to rhizome rot

disease. Suited for hot spots of
rhizome rot and leaf blight IISR Cardamom
Kodagu, North
disease. High quality elongated Research Centre,
13 RR-1 Malabar Wayanad, Hassan
capsules high quality and is Appangala,
and Chikmagalur
suitable for high density planting. Karnataka
RR-1 is also a high yielding
variety (848 kg (dry capsules)/ha)

Cardamom
Suited for cultivation in valleys Regional Research
14 Mudigere-2 Malabar growing tracts of
in Karnataka Station, Mudigere
Karnataka

Traditional IISR Cardamom

Characterized by high yield cardamom tracts of Research Centre,
15 CCS-1 Malabar
(745 kg (dry capsules)/ha) Kerala and Appangala,
Karnataka Karnataka
 CCS I ( IISR Suvasini)
a high yielding short plant type
IISR Suvasini (CCS-1)
Green Gold the most sought after farmer’s selection of
cardamom,
C. IISR Avinash a rhizome rot resistant variety,
D. IISR Vijetha a katte resistant variety
 High yielding varieties and selections

• The most popular and widely cultivated farmer variety is

Njallani green gold which has very high yield potential and
good quality characters.
• Others prominent selections are
1. Palakkudy,
2. Panikulangara -1,
3. Vally green bold,
4. Elarani –I, II and III,
5. PNS Vaigai,
6. cardamom Vander,
7. Kalarickal white cardamom etc.
 Mc-3, A new small cardamom variety for hill zone of
Karnataka
The Malabar - at Zonal Agricultural Research
Station, Mudigere, Karnataka
suitable promising variety under high elevation
and high rainfall areas.

Essential oil-
Coorg green
Saklespur bleached
Alleppey green – Sweet odour - linalool and linelyl acetate
 Propagation
Sexually - seeds - 'Katte' disease (a disease transmitted through
suckers) and large number of planting material is to be
produced.
Asexually - suckers
Vegetative propagation - rhizomes
• Advantageous in places where 'Katte' disease is not a
menace.
• earlier bearing and true to type plants.
• Disadvantage - limited availability of planting material.
• Micro propagation technique- TC
Seed Propagation:
• Select from healthy, high yielding and well ripened
capsules.
• 2nd and 3rd round of harvest (September-October)
• Remove husk-washed repeatedly in water to remove
mucilaginous coating - mixed with wood ash and sow
immediately.
• If late treat with 25% nitric acid for 10 min to soften seed
coat-wash in running water - 80% germination - then
smeared with wood ash - dried under shade.
 Primary Nursery

 Nursery site - moderately sloppy land, in open and well drained location
near source of water.
 Raised seed beds (20cm) of one meter width and of convenient length are
prepared.
 Spread a layer of forest soil over the bed.
 Soil solarisation of seed beds enhances germination by 25%, reduces weed
growth by 82% and suppress pests and diseases.
 broadcasted or line sown 1-2 cm apart in rows 8-10 cm apart – mulching -
germination commences after 30 days and continue up to one months-after
remove mulch.
 Regular watering, weeding and plant protection
 Thinning of seedlings is done at 6-7 leaf state, followed by earthing up
 Seed rate is 10g/m2
 September sowing - ideal
Secondary nursery - Seedlings are transplanted
when they are 4-6
months old (4 to 5 leaf stage) at a distance of 20 cm
x 20 cm. or
Poly bags (20x20 cm) filled with a mixture of
humus rich top soil, cowdung and sand (3:1:1).
Advantage - uniform growth, more tillering and
good establishment in field.
Rapid clonal multiplication technique- IISR research centre at
Appangala, Karnataka
• Suckers - high yielding plants and planted at a spacing of
1.8m x 0.6m, thus accommodating approximately 6800
plants/ha of clonal nursery area.
• Overhead shade is provided and nursery is irrigated.
• NPK:- 48: 48: 96g / plant - 2 splits
• After 12 months of planting, each planting unit produces on
average 32-42 suckers.
• In an area of 1ha clonal nursery 1 to 1.4 lakhs planting units
can be produced after one year.
• Farmers – harvest - 190 g/plant of dry cardamom (1759
kg/ha) - within just 19 months of planting.
• Advantage - easy and cheap
Secondary nursery Rapid clonal multiplication technique-
 Planting
 land - soil with adequate soil conservation techniques adopted.
• Normally gentle slope lands or valleys -preferred.
• Terraces made across the slope at suitable planting distances.
• high rainfall areas/irrigated condition - Planting distance should more. While,
low rainfall areas- less
• Spacing depends- soil fertility, type of cultivars and terrain.
• Spacing adopted is more in Kerala while in Karnataka, closer spacing is
followed.
• Mysore and Vazhukka cultivars - 3x3 m or 2.4x 2.4 m - high rainfall or irrigated
areas.
• Malabar cultivars - 1.8 m x 1.8 m or 2 m x 2 m
• Karnataka- 1.8 x 1.8 m or 1.2 x 1.8 m
• HDP- Malabar varieties perform well- 1.8 x 1.8 m (3025 plants/ha)
• Variety Mudigere-l (Malabar type) - 1 m x 1 m spacing- best
• Mysore and Vazhukka varieties - not suitable.
 Pits of size - 45 cm x 45 cm x 30 cm (April-May),
 surface soil + compost /FYM + 100 g of rockphosphate.-
2 months in advance
 Best season - commencement of South West monsoon before
heavy rains. Cloudy days with light drizzles would be ideal
 mulching should be done.
 Plants should be supported by stakes.
Karnataka - 10-12 months old seedlings
Kerala -18-24 months old seedlings - used for planting in the
field.
2 year old seedlings are the best for getting more tillers and
higher yields.
 Shade management
Pseophyte, it requires filtered light of 50-60 %.
Ideal shade trees-
1. Wide canopy so that number of shade trees in unit area is minimum
2. No shedding of leaves during flowering phase so that pollination
is not affected
3. Medium size and evergreen in nature retaining their foliage
throughout the year
4. Should have small leaves and well spread branching system,
5. Should have deep root system to avoid competition with cardamom &
6. To resist wind and Should be fast growing to provide necessary
immediate shade.
Shade trees :- Cedrella toona (Red ceder), Erythrina lithosperma
(Dadap), Albizia, Syzygium cumini (Jamun), Terminalia catapa , Artocarpus
integrifoiia and Artocarpus herterophyllus (Jack), Cassia fistula (Kanikonna),
Diospyros malabaricum (Vellakil), Terminalia tomentosa , Lagesroemia
lanceolata (Nandi).
 Shade regulation

• Cardamom does not tolerate direct sun light, also too much shade
affects metabolic activities of plants.

• Light shade : initial stages - 50-60% filtered shade for proper

growth and flowering

• Shade regulation – Lopping of branches done during March-April

in new plantations

• during May-June after the receipt of summer shower in the existing

plantations
 Nutrient Management
• FYM @ 5 kg / plant + neem cake @ 1-2 kg / plant + boron @ 20 kg/ha + molybdenum @
0.25 kg/ha - June-July.
Soil application
Rainfed areas Irrigated areas
Age of Plant
NPK ( kg/ha) NPK ( kg/ha)
1st year of planting 25 : 25 :50 (2 split application) 25 : 25 :50 (2 split application)

2nd year of planting 40 :40:80 (2 split application) 60:60:80 (3 split applications)

3rd year of planting 75:75:150 (2 split application) 125:125:250 (3 split application)

•Surface feeder. 70% Roots are confined to with in 5 cm depth surface soil.
Fertilizers - circular bands of 15 cm width leaving a distance of 30 cm from plant
base.
1st application - May-June helps production of suckers and development of
capsules
2nd application - September- October helps initiation of panicles and suckers
 Foliar application

Age of plants Both rainfed & irrigated areas

DAP 2% (2 kg/100 liters water)

1st year of planting
(2 applications)
DAP 2%+ MOP 1%
2nd year of planting
(2 applications)
DAP 2% + MOP 2%
3rd year of planting
(3 applications)

Zinc deficiency foliar spray Zinc sulphate @ 250 g/100 lit

soil application Zinc sulphate @ 7.5 kg/ha
 Deficiency Symptoms:

Nitrogen: Yellowing of older leaves, reduction in leaf size and sucker

production and drying of new suckers.

Phosporous: Perplish spots, premature falling of older leaves, stungted

plant growth, reduced number of suckers and roots.

Potash: Browning of leaf tips, whole leaf turned dark brown, no new
sucker production, reduction in root and shoot growth.

Calcium: Leaves become brittle, reduction in size, no new growth of

aerial shoots, root and shoot growth restricted, bulky appearance.

Magnesium: Tip drying, twisting of stunts, root and shoot growth

affected, vein clearing and Yellowing of leaves.
Weed control

• 2-3 round hand weeding- May, September and December/January and slash
weeding in other areas are advisable.
• Use of spade for weeding is to be avoided as it will loosen the soil and cause soil
erosion.
Irrigation
 Summer
 WHC of soil and topography of the estates, they may be irrigated at an interval
of 10-15 days till the onset of monsoon.
Regular irrigation (1-1.5 inches per irrigation) will help the initiation of panicles,
flowering and fruit setting.
Mulching
Fallen leaves of the shade trees.
Sufficient mulch should be applied during November-December to reduce the ill
effect of drought which prevails for nearly 4-5 months in summer.
Exposing the panicle over the mulch is beneficial for bee pollination.
 Liming: every two years once 2 to 3 tonnes of lime per hecters
during April- May.
Agricultural line and dolomite
Use of growth regulators
 NAA (40 ppm) or 2,4-D (4 ppm) increased plant height and panicle
production.
 NAA (25 ppm) (June and July) reduced fruit drop and increased fruit set.
 Ethrel (250 ppm) under high light intensity (15 K lux) doubled sucker
production.

Bee-keeping
 Pollination - honey bees viz. Apis cerana and Apis dorsata.
 lack of pollination - fruit drop and fruit set in cardamom.
 4 bee colonies (hives) / ha to are needed to enhance pollination and
fruit set.
Forking the plant base to a distance up to 90 cm and to a depth of 9-12 cm
is found to enhance root proliferation and better growth of plants.

Trashing- Clean the plant by removing old suckers, dry leaves etc., once
in a year in May-June
It helps for better production of suckers and to reduce pests and diseases.
These materials can also be used as mulch.

Earthing up : Dec.- Jan

After the monsoon is over a thin layer of top soil is earthened up to the
base of the clump covering upto the collar region by scrapping between the
rows -new growth and sucker production
Diseases

Katte (Mosaic) Disease (CdMV)-

Pentalonia nigronervosa f. caladii,
Yield reduction - 70 %
Symptoms
Chloratic flecks, pale green discontinuous stripes
Leaves - mosaic pattern, mosaic type of mottling is seen on
the leave sheath and pseudostem also.
reduced leaves size, short slender tillers are produced.
Panicles will be shorter and produce few capsules.
Management
1. Collection and removal of infected clumps along with rhizomes
and burning.
2. Raising of nursery in diseases free areas.
3. Spray with dimethoate (or) Methyl dematan (or) Phosphomidon
to kill the vector.
4. Resistant varirties - IISR Vijetha
 New Disease-Banana bract mosaic virus on cardamom (BBrMV)

(a) Spindle shaped yellow or light green

intravenous streaks along the midrib and
veins.
(b) Spindle-shaped mottling along the
pseudostem .
(d) Reduced tillering in an affected clump.

Nilgiri necrosis disease

Kokke kandu disease

(Cardamom vein clearing)- Karnataka (100%)
Azhukal disease / capsule rot /
fruit rot:–Phytophthora
parasitica car. nicotianae/
Phytophthora palmivora

Management:
1. Removal and burning of infected plants.
2. Avoid moving of rhizomes from diseased
areas to healthy area for planting
3. Provide proper drainage
4. Three sprays with Bordeaux mixture 1%
in May, June, July
5. Soil drench with Bordeaux mixture 1 %
(or) Copper oxychloride 0.25%
 Damping off / rhizome rot / clamp rot – Pythium
vexans, Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Phytophthora
sp.
Management
1. Destruction of diseased clumps.
2. Providing proper drainage
3. Changing the nursery site
4. Drenching the nursery beds with
Copper oxychloride 0.25% or
Bordeaux mixture 0.5%, before 15
days of sowing.
5. Soil drenching with B.M 1%
 Pests
Thrips: Sciothrips cardamom

Adults and young ones feeds on

surface tissue of panicle (Stunted growth)
and capsule (scabby growth)
Management:
Remove alternate host Panicum
longipes, Amomum sp., Colocasia sp.,
Alocasia sp., etc.
Phytosanitation
 Regulate shade in thickly shaded areas.
Spray insecticides like quinalphos 0.025%
or fenthion or phosalone 0.07% during
March, April, May, August and September.
 Shoot/Panicle/Capsule borer (Conogethes punctiferalis )

Management: fenthion 0.075%

Minor pests…………….

1. Beetle borer: Onthophgus spp

2. Hairy caterpillars: Eupterote cardamomi
3. Shoot fly: Formosina flavipes
4. White flies: Dialeurodes cardamom
5. Cardamom aphid: Pentalonia
nigronervosa [Link]
6. Root grubs: Basilepta fulvicorne
 Harvesting

Bear capsules -2 years.

Fruit maturity- 3 months

Harvesting - important operation that

requires special attention of growers.

Proper harvesting will improve the

quality and quantity of the produce.

Harvesting of capsules
 Maturity stage

Distinctly developed shoulders of the capsule.

Clear cut line in between two segment of the
shell.
Triangular deep cut at the point of attachment
Loose attachment of capsule to the panicle.
Change of seed colour to brownish black or
black
 Harvesting - two types of picking
Light picking Hard picking

1. Only the green and mature 1. Done semi-mature capsules are also
capsules. removed.
2. This process will naturally 2. This process reduces curing
give a lower green crop per percentage and gives green coloured
pick. capsules upon curing.
3. The gap between picking 3. Can be maintained between 30 to 45
rounds can be maintained at days.
20 to 30 days.

Yield
1st year- 25 to 50 kg/ha (dry capsule).
2nd year - 50 to 70 kg /ha
3rd year - 100 kg/ha
4th year- 110 to 170 kg/ha.
 Post harvest operations
Washing, Curing (drying), Cleaning, Polishing, Sorting, Grading and
Packing
Washing-
• After harvest - water - remove adhering soil.
• Capsules - 2% washing soda (sodium carbonate) for 10 minutes to
stabilize chlorophyll and this treatment imparts better green colour.

Curing- defined as process in which moisture content of freshly

harvested cardamom capsules is reduced from 80 % to 11-12 % at
an optimum temperature of 45-55°C to retain its green colour and
volatile oil to a maximum extent.

Two types of drying viz.

Natural (sun drying)
Artificial drying by using (firewood, electricity, kerosene or LPG as fuel).
 Artificial drying by using fire wood (traditional flue pipe system)
curing house consists of
wood burning furnace, flue
pipes and drying racks in a
chamber.
The furnace is made up of
fine bricks or ordinary bricks
having about 2.5 M x 0.6 M
grate size to facilitate
charging with big wood logs.
The hot flue gases escapes
through the chimney after
circulating through 25-30 cm
diameter flue pipes, made of
mild steel sheets placed in the
centre of the room.
 The racks containing
harvested cardamom
capsules are kept at 30-50
cm distance from flue
pipe to avoid over
heating.
The roof of the curing
chamber is insulated
from inside with wooden
planks.
The capacity of the
curing house varies from
200 to 500 kg fresh
capsules.
 A few tips to improve the quality of cured cardamom are:

Dry cardamom immediately after harvest to retain the original colour at

which they are harvested.

Maintain temperature inside the room between 40° and 50°C in the first 10
to 12 hours, then increase to 55°C for rest of the curing period.

Provide proper openings for expelling the moisture from the room while
curing, which is essential to retain good green colour during drying.

Avoid raising of temperature above 65°C inside the room in order to reduce
splitting of capsules and loss of vital volatile cardamom oil.

Polish the cured capsules when they are hot.

 After drying the cardamom, polishing is done by rubbing against hard surface
or using polishing machine.

For efficient retention the green colour - during storage - moisture content of
10 to 12%.
Stored - gunny bags. (300 gauge black polythene lined gunny bags)- store
them in wooden boxes for better storage efficiency.

Grading of capsules - sieving under different diameter sieves .

The cardamom with good green colour and above 7 mm will fetch the highest
price in the market.
 GRADES OF CARDAMOM

1. Bold: Popular Export Grade. Wt. will be 415 g/l with greenish colour.
Yellow/Black/open cardamom removed.
2. Super Bold: A very special variety. Wt. will be > 450 g/l with greenish
colour. Cannot see any yellow/Black/open cardamom.
3. Extra Bold: Best in the Export market. Wt. will be 435 g/l with greenish
colour. Yellow/Black/open cardamom will be removed.
4. Bulk: This grade will contain all size, matured and immatured capsules,
black, yellow and splited cardamom.
5. Small: Wt. will be around 385 g/l with black capsules.
6. Open / Splits: The colour may be partly greenish/pale yellow.
Other grade.(international market)
1. 'Alleppey Green Extra Bold' (AGEB)
2. 'Alleppey Green Bold' (AGB) and
3. 'Alleppey Green Superior' (AGS).
 Cardamom Products- Green cardamom
After harvesting, capsules are dried either in fuel Kiln
or electrical drier or in the sun.
Soaking freshly harvested green cardamom capsules
in 2 % washing soda solution for 10 minutes prior to
drying helps to retain original green colour during-
drying.
Under flue pipe drier, it should be dried at 45-50 °C
for 14-18 hours, while over night drying at 50-60°C
is required under an electric drier.
The capsules are spread-thinly and stirred frequently
to ensure uniform drying.
 Bleaching in cardamom.
Creamy white or golden yellow in colour
Dried capsules or fresh capsules
Bleaching agents - sulphur dioxide/ potassium
metabisulphite / hydrogen peroxide.
Karnataka, bleaching of cardamom is carried out by steeping dried
capsules in soap nut water (Sapindus saponaria).
Bleached cardamom is inferior in quality (low volatile oil content) but its
keeping quality is slightly better.

Cardamom Oil- The basic cardamom aroma is produced by a combination of

the major components, 1,8 - cineole and α- terpinyl acetate in essential oil.
obtained - steam distilation, for 4 hours.
Oleoresin 1 kg of oleoresin can replace 20 kg of ground spice.
Volatile oil contains – 52-58%
Decorticated seed &
Cardamom Seed Powder.
 CINNAMON
Cinnamomum verum
(Syn. C. Zeylanicum)
Lauraceae
2n=24
Cinnamon or sweet wood or true
cinnamon (Dalchini or dorchini)
or Ceylon cinnamon
Tree spice in India.
Cinnamon of commerce - Dried
bark
Bark and leaves - strongly
aromatic.
Cinnamon bark oil- light
yellow in colour when freshly
distilled. On storage it becomes
reddish.
Bark oil - cinnamic aldehyde
(60-75%), eugenol (10%) etc.
Leaf oil has a slight
camphoraceous odour
resembling that of clove oil due
to the presence of 70-95%
eugenol
Bark -sweet and agreeable taste - spice or condiment.
It is aromatic, astringent, stimulant and carminative.
Powdered cinnamon - chocolate preparation in Spain.
Flavouring cakes and sweets, candy, gum, curry powders,
dentifrices and perfumes.
Leaf oil - cheaper types of perfumes, soaps, toothpastes, hair
oils and face creams
Used commercially as an agent for flavouring liquor and
synthesis of vanillin.
Cinnamon buds - good for flavouring and spicing like the
bark itself
Seeds - 3% fixed oil - making candles.
Seed oil is also called 'cinnamon suet' - boiling the
crushed ripe fruits, suspended in water. The oleaginous
matter rises to the surface and solidifies on cooling.
The bark oil obtained from the matured stems is very
little and expensive in comparison to the cost of its
extraction.
costly perfumes, for flavouring confectionery, in liquors
and in pharmaceuticals, especially to mask the
unpleasant taste of certain preparations and in soap
manufacture.
Cinnamon wood provides a soft timber for use as a low-
grade board wood
The root bark also yields 3% oil, which differs from both
the stem-bark and leaf oil.
It is a colourless liquid with a camphoraceous odour.
Camphor, pinene, cineole, dipentene, phellandrene,
eugenol, safrole, caryophyllene, borneol and cinnamic and
benzoic aldehydes.
In addition, the true cinnamon of commerce cassia is
obtained from various sources like
 C. cassia, (True cassia or Chinese cassia)
 C. burmanni, (Indonesian cassia)
 C. lourneirii (Saigon cassia)
 C. tamala (Indian cassia).
The other economically important species include
C. camphora, C. oliven and C. malabaricum.
 Difference between Cinnamon bark and Cassia bark

Cinnamon bark Cassia bark

Bark is thin and smooth Bark is coarce and thick
Bark powder is tan in colour Reddish brown in colour
Less intense aroma More intense aroma
Essential oil content is less Essential oil content is high (1-
(0.5-2 %) 4.5 %)
Eugenol is the main Cinnamaldehyde is the main
constituent in the leaf oil content in the leaf oil
Flavour is good Not so delicate flavour
Origin and distribution
Native - Sri Lanka and the Malabar coast of India
Cultivated - Burma, Vietnam, China, Malayan Peninsula and Brazil.
India - Naga hills in Assam, the coastal districts of South Karnataka and
the Western Ghats.
The cultivated type C. zeylanicum is confined to the lower elevation of the
Western Ghats in Cannanore, Calicut and Kottayam districts of Kerala and
the lower Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu.
The biggest cinnamon estate in the world is the Randathara estate of
Auyarakandy near Telicherry in Kerala with an area of 85 hectares and the
cinnamon produced here is considered better in quality than that produced
in Sri Lanka.
Area and Production:
Sri Lanka is the major producer of true cinnamon
India - 1,000 ha. With an annual production of 1,670 tonnes.
The productivity is 1000 kg/ha.
The cinnamon produced in India is being exported to about
15 countries, of which Japan, Taiwan and France are the
major importers.
Botany:
Cinnamon is a bushy, evergreen tree
height of about 6-15 m, but in cultivation
it is generally coppiced or cut back
periodically.
Its bark and leaves are strongly aromatic.
The leaves are stiff, evergreen, with the
petiole 1-2 cm long, grooved on the upper
surface
it is reddish when young, and turns dark
Flowers are axillary borne in terminal
panicles at the ends of twigs
In Karnataka, the tree flowers in January
and the fruits ripen 6 months later.
Climate:
topical evergreen rain forests, 1800 m above MSL. The annual
rainfall - 150-250 cm, average temperature is 27oC – Ideal
Prolonged spells of dry weather are not ideal.
best cultivated cinnamon is grown at low altitudes in Sri Lanka,
with an average temperature of 30°C and 200- 250 cm rainfall per
annum.
Soil:
wide range of soils.
Sandy loam soils with rich humus results high quality bark.
Silicaceous sandy soil, produced higher yield than other type of
soil.
Avoid water logged soils.
Varieties
The National Conservatory of Cassia Germplasm consist of
262 accessions.

In India there are some varieties like ‘pat’ or ‘mat-pat’ and

‘kurunchi’ which are considered best for cultivation.

'Sweet Cinnamon’, 'Honey Cinnamon', Camphor cinnamon,

Snake cinnamon, Astringent cinnamon, etc., are some of the
popular types locally cultivated in Sri Lanka and India.
Improved varieties - Navashree and
Nithyashree selections released from
IISR, Calicut.
Navashree
It is a superior selection.
It has high and stable regeneration
capacity (6-7 shoots/ year)
high yield (average yield 56 kg/ha in the
first 4 years),
high bark recovery (40.6%), bark oil
2.7%
cinnamaldehyde content 37%, bark
oleoresin 8%, leaf oil 2.8%.
Its very young flushes are purple which
turn green in 7-10 days.
It is recommended for cultivation both
in plains and high altitudes.
Nityasree
This is also a good stable
selection which produces 4-5
shoots per year
average yield is 54 kg/ha in first
four harvests.
The bark contains 2.7% oil, 10%
oleoresin and 3% leaf oil
eugenol content of 78%.
The young flushes are purple in
colour and turn green in just 2
days.
This variety is also recommend
for both hills and plains.
YCD-1
selection from Horticlutural Research Station, Yercaud.
It comes to harvest from third year onwards can be maintained
economically for 20 years.
Bark yield - 359.75 kg quills and 3800 kg of dried leaves/ha
with high bark recovery of 35.3 percent.
volatile oil - 2.8 and 3 % in quills and leaves,
It gives a high regeneration capacity of 19.2 harvestable shoots.
Quills are sweet and light pungent in taste.
commercial cultivation in Konkan region and Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu
Konkan Tej
Clonal selection at Konkan Krishi
Vidaypeeth, Dapoli
bark oil (3.2 5), cinnamaldehyde
(70.23%) and eugenol (6.93 %)
yields 789.75 g fresh bark and 3.56 kg
leaf per plant.
commercial cultivation in Konkan
region and Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
Konkan Tejpatta
Sugandhini
It is a selection from Aromatic and
medicinal Plant Research Station,
Odakkali, Kerala Agricultural
university.
It is recommended for cultivation in
the maidan and highlands of kerala
both in open and as intercrop in
coconut gardens for cinnamon leaf
oil.
Average leaf yield is 18 kg/tree/year
and average bark yield is 1.2 kg/tree
year.
Leaf oil yield is 295 ml/tree/year or
125 kg/ha
Eugenol content is 94 % in leaf oil.
PPI (C)-1
It is selection made at horticultural Research station, Pechiparai, Tamil
Nadu.
It give a fresh bark yield of 980 kg/ha.
Bark recovery is 34.22%,
leaf oil recovery 3.3 %
bark oil recovery 2.9%.
RRL (B)C-6
It is a selection made at Regional Research laboratory, Bhubaneswar.
Leaf oil 0.8%.
Bark oil yield is 250kg/ha
Eugenol 94%
Cinnamaldehyde 83%
Propagation
The most common method - seeds.

Desirable characteristics of cinnamon

mother trees for seed collection
Smooth bark
Erect stem
Easy peeling of the bark
Vigorous growth
Free from diseases and pests
Good flavour and pungency of the bark,
high oil content

Cinnamon flowers in December-January

and the seed ripens in May-June.
Collection of seeds:
The fruits are picked when the outer pulp begins to turn
black and the seeds are gathered, dried and heaped up in a
shady place till the pulp rots and turns black.
To free the pulp, the whole mass of seeds is trampled and
then washed. After separation of the pulpy mass, the seeds
are separated.
Seeds are dried in the air - not to expose them to the sun
(If they are exposed, the seed coat cracks and causes
damage to the seeds).
Seeds should be sown immediately after the removal of
the pulp (seeds lose their viability), in raised nursery beds
or polyethylene bags (30 x 15 cm) during July-August.
The seeds germinate within 15-20 days of sowing.
The seedlings raised in nursery beds are transplanted into
polybags or baskets 4 months after germination of the
seed.
Artificial shade is required for the seedlings till they are
about 6 months old.
10-12 month old seedlings are ready for transplanting
Disadvantage - lot of variability
 Vegetative - cuttings and air-layers.
Hard wood cuttings - IBA 2500 ppm - 45 % rooting.
Hardwood and semi hardwood cuttings - IAA 1000 ppm
resulted in 50 %.
semi hardwood cuttings of about 10 cm length with 2
leaves are taken and dipped in IBA 2000 ppm for 1 minute.
Single noded cuttings treated with IBA or IAA @ 2000
ppm for 1min dip(with one or two leaves) made to root in
40 days under mist.
Air-layering is obtained during September-95 %
Micro-propagation - TC

Propagation by old stumps

Gives quicker results
Stumps are removed 15 cm away from main projections.
Twigs would be ready for harvest in one year.
Preparation of land and planting
Pits - 50 cm3
Spacing -2 x 2 m or 3 x 3 m .
June-July - 10-12 months old seedlings are used for
planting,
in each pit, 5 seedlings can be planted.
Partial shade - initial years
Care should be taken to provide a drainage channel
from the pit along the slope( to avoid water stagnation)
 Manures and fertilisers
Age of trees Per tree (g/plant/year)
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium FYM
(N) (p2 O5) (K2O) (kg/tree/
year)
One year old 20 18 25 20
2-4 years old 40 36 50 20
5-9 years old 100 90 100 20
>10 years old 200 180 200 20

The fertilisers should be applied in two split doses, in

May-June and September-November.
 Irrigation
• Raised mostly as an un-irrigated crop.
• In the initial 2-3 years irrigation is done 2-3
times during dry months.
Interculture
• Weeding in June-July and October-November.
• Digging soil around bushes in Aug-Sept.
• Mulching with weed, grass, spent cinnamon
leaves & covering with soil.
Pruning/Coppicing:
Coppicing young trees is done 2 years after planting to
induce formation of large number of lateral shoots.
In about 2 years, the seedlings grow up to a height of 2 m
and form healthy bushes.
The young trees are cut close to the ground to a height of
15 cm from the stump and covered with soil (earthing
up) to encourage side shoots. 4-6 shoots are allowed to
grow. This process is called coppicing.
This is done until the whole tree assumes the shape of a
low bush with the side shoots
Young shoots increase each year and reach a maximum in
about 8 years.
Harvesting and processing of cinnamon
Harvesting starts 3 years after planting.
The crop is harvested in the months of May and November, by
cutting the shoots for the extraction of the bark.
As soon as the rain stops, the cutting of shoots for peeling of the
bark is commenced.
At this time the new growth of bushes is stopped, the trees have
mature leaves and there will be free flow of sap between the
bark and the wood and gives best quality bark.
After cutting, young shoots spring up from the stump which will be
ready for removal in the subsequent seasons within 18 months.
The bulk of the bark is obtained from the shoots that are 1 to 2
years old.
The shoots selected for cutting : 1.5-2 m long and 2 to 2.5 cm
thick.
To judge the suitability for peeling, the peeler makes an oblique
cut and lifts the bark to see whether it separates easily with a
free flow of sap that facilitates easy peeling.
If there is any difficulty in peeling, the peeler rejects the shoots.
The shoots that are ready for peeling are removed from the stumps
from the terminal ends of shoots.
Harvested shoots are cut into straight pieces of 1-1.25m length.
Such shoots are bundled after removing the leaves and terminal
shoots
Peeling
Peeling is done with a small knife with a round edge at the
end. Outer bark is peeled first and then inner bark
The cut stems or sticks are given longitudinal slits from one
end to the other.
By working the knife both ways, the two halves of the entire
bark are removed.
If the bark does not peel easily, the sticks are rubbed in
between hard pieces of wood which enables the easy
detachment of the bark.
Rolling
The barks are packed together and placed one above the other and
pressed well.
The length of the bark slip is reduced to 20 cm and piled up in small
enclosures made by sticks.
Covered with dry leaves or mats to preserve the moisture for the
next day's operation and also to aid in the slight fermentation.
Preservation of moisture is very important for the subsequent
operation, known as piping.
Piping
After peeling and rolling, the slips (quills) are bundled
and taken to the piping yard for the piping operation.
Three sticks are driven into the ground in such a way that
they cross each other at a height of 30 cm from the
ground level. This serves as a support to keep the fourth
stick resting on the knot.
The operator sits down and places the slips one by one
on the fourth stick to scrape off the outer skin with a
small curved knife.
The scraped slips are sorted into different grades
according to their thickness.
Grading
Whole tubular form: finest, smoothest quality - "00000",
coarsest - "0" .
Barks which cannot be taken out like tubes and broken
pieces below 200 mm in length – quillings
The scraped pieces - 'feathering'.
Quills- scrapped peel of inner bark of mature shoots
Chips- dried un-peelable bark of cinnamon shoots
Cuts- quills cut in different sizes
(used mainly for grinding or for the distillation of
cinnamon oil)
Commercial bark should not be more than 0.5 cm thick
and the thinner the bark the better the grade.
The outer bark possesses a slightly acidic flavour and its
removal enhances the delicate aroma.
 Drying
• The bark rolls are covered in jute sacks and left to cure
lightly for a day, after which they are air-dried indoors
on hammocks for two days.
• When dried, the bark is curled round into golden-
brown quills, which are again dried outdoors in filtered
sunlight for one or two days.
• By this time the cinnamon is dried to a crackling,
papery texture and possesses the true cinnamon
colour.
• Compound quills are dried in shade and sun
alternatively till they are dried sufficiently.
• Moisture content of 12% is recommended for dried
quills
 Quality
Good quality cinnamon should not be thicker than a thick paper.
It should be light brown with wavy lines and produce a fractured
sound when broken.
When chewed, it should become soft, melt in the mouth and sweeten
the breath.
The bark of a large shoot is coarse, whereas the tender ones are very
thin and straw coloured.
The shoots which are exposed to the sun are said to be more spicy
than those grown under the shade.
The best quality cinnamon is always obtained from the thin bark from
the shoots in the centre of the bush and from the middle portion of
the shoot.
 Yield
Under favourable conditions, when the plants reach a height of 1-2
m after two or three years of transplanting, the first cutting is made.
About 65-125 kg of quills can be obtained per hectare from the first
crop.
When the trees are 10 or 11 years old, 225-300 kg of quills per
hectare
In addition, about 70 kg of quillings and featherings are obtained
from one hectare of cinnamon.
 Leaf and bark oil from cinnamon
Distilling the dried cinnamon leaves and bark.
The dried cinnamon leaves are steam distilled in special distilleries.
About 4 kg/ha of bark oil
Cinnamon bark oil contains cinnamic aldehyde which is the principal
aromatic substance and eugenol.
The chips yield 0.5-1.0% oil. The higher the cinnamic aldehyde
content, the higher is the price.
The leaves yield 0.5-0.7% oil, and the oil contains eugenol and
cinnamic aldehyde.
Value-added products
Whole and ground cinnamon, the essential oils of the leaf and
bark, seed oil, root-bark oil and oleoresin

Cut Cinnamon Cinnamon Powder Cinnamon Leaves

Cinnamon Bark Oil Cinnamon Leaf Oil

 Pest and diseases of cinnamon
Leaf spot and die back
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.
Small deep brown specks appear on the leaf lamina
Pruning the affected branches and spraying Bourdeaux mixture
1%.
Seedling blight
Diplodia sp. Occurs on seedlings in the nursery
The fungus causes light brown patches on the stem which girdle
the stem and cause death of seedlings.
The disease can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture 1%.
 Pests of cinnamon
cinnamon butterfly (Chilasa clytia)
Most serious pest especially in younger plantations and in the
nursery
Generally seen during the post monsoon period.
The larvae feed on tender and slightly mature leaves
in severe cases of infestation, the entire plant is defoliated and only
midribs of leaves with portions of veins are left behind.

Spray quinalphos 0.05% on tender and partly mature leaves.

 Leaf miner - Conopomorpha civica
More common during the monsoon period and
nursery seedlings are seriously affected.
Larvae feed on the tissues between the upper and
lower epidermis of tender leaves resulting in
linear mines that end in 'blister' like patches.
The infested leaves become crinkled and the mined
areas dry up leading to the formation of large
holes on the leaves.
Management
• Spraying quinalphos 0.05% during emergence of
new flushes is effective in preventing the pest
infestation.
 Vanilla
Vanilla fragrans
(syn. V. planifolia.)
Orchidaceae
Economic part : Beans
Active compound: vanillin (1.3 – 3.8%)
Resins, fat, glucose, fructose, about 26 volatile
constituents as well as 144 compounds and moisture.
Vanillin the most abundant aromatic compound is
produced during curing.
Uses
• the most expensive spice, important source of vanillin (used
to flavor ice-cream, sweet dishes, chocolate, beverages,
cakes, custards and other confectionery).
• Food, Perfumery, Pharmaceuticals and medicine
• ‘Vanilla sugar’ - used in the manufacture of chocolates
History
• The aromatic qualities of vanilla beans were known long
before discovery of new world.
• Once the vanilla ingredient was finally known in 1510, the
Spanish conquerors imported vanilla beans from Mexico
into Spain.
• Commercial cultivation started only after 1814.
Synthetic vanillin
• From waste sulphite liquor of paper mills, coal-tar
extracts and eugenol obtained from clove oil
• Much cheaper,
• Inferior in quality than natural vanilla flavour.
• Carcinogenic
Demand for natural vanilla in developed countries has
shot up several folds increasing its prospects for large
scale cultivation.
 Origin
South Eastern Mexico, Guatemala and parts of
Central America
Distribution
Java, Comoro Islands, Reunion, Mauritius,
Madagascar, Tahiti, Zanzibar, Uganda, Tongo,
Jamaica and other islands of the West Indies,
India
 The Leading Countries In Vanilla Bean Production In The World

Rank Country Tons of Vanilla Produced

1 Madagascar 2,926
2 Indonesia 2,304
3 China 885
4 Mexico 513
5 Papua New Guinea 502
6 Turkey 303
7 Uganda 211
8 Tonga 180
9 French Polynesia 24
10 Réunion 21
11 Malawi 20
12 Comoros 15
13 Kenya 15
14 Guadeloupe 11
15 Zimbabwe 11

US, France and Germany, 80% of the world imports.

India - Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka
Botany:
Vanilla planifiolia - fleshy, herbaceous
perennial vine,
climbing - adventitious roots up onto
trees or other supports to a height of
10-15 m,
cultivation - trained to a convenient
height to facilitate hand-pollination and
harvesting.
adventitious roots - long, whitish,
aerial, singly opposite to the leaves
internodes that are 5-15 cm long.
inflorescences - axillary, racemose,
borne towards the top of the vine
20-30 flowers, opening from the base
upwards, generally with only 1-3
flowers opening at one time and each
lasting one day.
Flowers - large, waxy, fragrant and a pale-greenish yellow.
Pedicel is very short and the ovary is inferior, 3sepals, which are obtuse
to sub-acute and slightly reflexed at the opening.
The 2 upper petals resemble the sepals in shape, but are smaller.
The lower petal is modified as a trumpet-shaped labellum or lip, which is
shorter than the other perianth lobes.
The column or gynostemium is attached to the labellum.
It is hairy on the inner surface, bearing at its tip the single stamen
containing the two pollen masses or pollinia covered by a cap, and
below is the concave sticky stigma, which is separated from the stamen
by the thin flap-like rostellum
The fruit is a capsule, known in the trade as a bean, is
pendulous, narrowly cylindrical, obscurely three-
angled, 10-20 cm long and 1.5 and 4.5 cm in girth.
It is aromatic on drying, containing when ripe,
myriads of very minute globose seeds.
In commercial production, the capsules are harvested
before they are quite ripe.
Pollination
Peculiar structure of flower - not conducive for natural self pollination.
Pollen sacs of the flower are covered by a hood like structure ‘Anther cap’ &
Stigma is prevented from coming into contact with stamens due to the
presence of a lip-like projection called the labellum or rosellum.
Mexico and Central America - naturally- stingless bees of genus Melipona
and by humming birds - only a small percentage of fruits set
Hand pollination is unavoidable for fruit set.
Hand pollination is done using - pointed bamboo splinter or stem of a
still grass or a sharpened tooth prick.
rostellum is pushed back and overhanging anther is pressed against stigma
with thumb and thus smearing pollen over it. How to Pollinate Vanilla.mp4
Each flower lasts for a day only and so pollination
should be carried out on same day.
Ideal time for pollination - between 6 am to 1 pm.
The fruit set % was maximum at 8 am and showed a
decreasing trend as pollination get delayed.
Studies showed that complete transfer of pollen result
in maximum fruit growth and with less than 50 %
pollen, fruit size gets reduced considerably.
 A skilled worker on a average pollinates about 100 flowers a day.
Flowers which are not fertilized fall off within a day or two.
Normally 8-10 flowers located on lower side of inflorescence are
pollinated and not more than 10-12 inflorescences in a vine.
Remaining flower buds are nipped off to reduce strain on vine.
Once fertilization takes place, the ovary elongates rapidly for 45 days
until full length and full girth of beans are attained within 75 days of
fertilization.
Flowering, pollination and fruit set
 Varieties / genotype
Vanilla fragrans,
V. pampona- West Indian Vanilla
V. tahitensis
There are no named varieties

Four major types of vanilla beans - based on the countries of

origin.
1. Bourban vanilla (Madagaskar, Comoro and Reunion)-
Ranks highest in quality
2. Java vanilla (Java)
3. Bourban-like vanilla (Bali in Indonasia)
4. Mexican vanilla

ICRI, Myladumpara identified four genotypes viz., MCV-1,

MCV-2, MCV-3 and MCV-4
Climate
warm humid , 700 to 1500 MSL with an annual rainfall of 150 -
300 cm, temperature - 25° to 32°C and relative humidity is 80 %.

The rainfall should be well distributed for a period of nine months

and the rest of the three months should be a dry period.

Excessive humidity and moisture lead to diseased incidence

It can be grown successfully as an inter-crop in coconut, arecanut

and coffee plantations.
 Soil
 Loamy soils as well as laterite soils.
 Requires plenty of organic manures
 It does not withstand water-logging.
 It prefers land with a gentle slope.
Cultivation
Propagation
Stem cuttings - polythene bags
Any part of vine with dormant
axillary vegetative buds can be
selected for taking stem cuttings.
vines of current years growth
which are in vegetative phase
leaving tender shoots at tip are the
most ideal.
Longer cuttings – 2nd year to
flower
Shorter cuttings - 3 years to flower.
Ideal - cuttings with 60-120 cm
length, 4 to 5 cm diameter, with
8-10 internodes
Rapid multiplication technique - ICRI,
Myladumpara - large number of cuttings
from limited area.
Rapid multiplication nursery - 50 %
shade.
1 m cuttings are planted in trenches of 60
cm from wide and deep leaving 40 cm in
between.
Trenches are filled with top soil, FYM and
sand (3:1:1).
Standards for trailing of vines are planted
at a distance of 1 meter along trenches
atleast 2 months before planting vanilla.
Vines are allowed to grow on
supports and later coiled around
branches of supports.
A well maintained plant would
produce about five to seven
meters of growth per year.
On an average 1 ha of nursery
would be sufficient to produce
about 40-50 thousand meters
annually.
 For raising rooted cuttings, 2-3 noded cuttings are planted in polybags
- atleast one node is in potting mixture and two nodes above.
The cuttings are tied on to sticks planted in polybags.
Partial shade should be provided

Cuttings will root in

about 20 days and
they will be ready
for transplanting
after 6-7 months.
Micro-propagation:
Tissue culture - protocol - ICRI, Mayiladumpara - Nodal
segments of vanilla plants - explants.
Land preparation and Planting:
climbing vine - support for climbing.
Partial shade - 50% sunlight.
Low-branching trees with rough barks and
small leaves are grown for support.
Under Indian conditions - Glyricidia ,
Jatropha Curcas, Plumeria alba, Casuarina
equisetifolia and Erythrina
Vanilla cultivation in Kerala, India.mp4
standards are planted at a spacing - 2.5- 3 x 2 m
The vines may be trained on trellises,
Ideal time for planting - when the weather is neither too rainy nor
too dry
August or September - South Indian conditions.
At the time of planting, the 3 or 4 basal leaves are removed from
the cuttings and dipped in 1% Bordeaux mixture and kept in the
shade to dry for about a week.
Planted - one per support at a spacing of 1.5 x 3.0 m.
While planting, about 3- 5 cm of the cutting is projected above the
ground and stakes are provided for the cuttings to climb and grow.
 Manuring
 Requires lot of organic matter and decomposed mulch
 Early decomposable organic material is applied around the plant
base at least 3-4 times a year.
 40-60 g N as ammonium sulphate or CAN, 30 g P2O5 and 60-100 g
of potash as MOP/vine in two or three splits doses promotes
vegetative growth
 Should be applied 20-30 cm away from the plant
 Spraying 1% 17:17:17 NPK complex on foliage and stem enhance
the growth of the vines
Irrigation

Timely irrigation in the initial two to three years

Weekly irrigation with 2-3 liter /plant

Interculture

Weeds should be removed within a radius of 50 cm & left in situ to

decompose
Training and pruning:
trained to keep the vines within the limits for easy cultural
operations.
Vines are allowed to grow up to 1.5 m and then brought down.
Vines are twisted around lower branches of supporting tree or
over lattice of trillis so that they may hang down.
Bending of vines - flower and fruit set - due to accumulation of
carbohydrates and other flower inducing substances in that
region of vine.
If vegetative growth of vanilla vine are arrested by pruning,
Top 7.5-10 cm of the vine is pinched off at 6-8 months before
flowering season to encourage production of inflorescence
 In South India, planters follow their own techniques for pruning,
When harvesting is completed the whole branch which carries them
is cut off and only new shoots of previous year are retained.
Shade management:
judicious lopping of branches of living supports is very important
to adjust shade level to around 50 %.
During flower bud formation and blossoming, more light is
beneficial, but during dry periods support tree should maintain
much of their foliage for providing shade.
All pruned materials can be used as mulch.
Growth regulators:
2, 4-D and GA. helps in development of Parthenocarpic
beans.
Length and volume of beans - increase by swabbing the
flowers bud with 2, 4-D (0.20 mg/flower bud). However,
maximum growth and weight of beans were observed in hand
pollinated beans.
Growth regulators significantly influenced quality of beans.
Vanillin content fluctuated throughout curing period.
After sun drying, hand pollinated beans showed a high vanillin
content of 3.98 %.
After slow drying period IBA (200 ppm) recorded the highest
vanillin content of 4.22 % and after conditioning kinetin (200
ppm) recorded the highest vanillin content (4.20 %).
Intercropping:
under coconut, arecanut or any other tall crop, which
provide shade.
under high density multispecies cropping system (HDMCS) in
coconut plantation.
Coconut gardens of age between 8-10 years old offer favorable shade
requirement of 50-60%.
In between two rows of coconuts, two rows of standards are planted
at 1.8 m x 1.8 m spacing and vanilla planted.

In areca gardens, generally

vanilla is planted on to areca
plam itself and during 2nd
year vines are trained by
providing trellis in between
areca palms.
 Pests and Disease

Pests : Longicorn beetles, Ash weevil

Caterpillars, Grass hoppers
Aphids (0.02% Dimethoate or Democron 200
ml/ha),

Disease : Root rot (0.1 % Bavistin)

Stem rot or wilt (0.5 % BM or 0.2 % COC)
Anthracnose (0.1 % Bavistin)
Fruit and flower rot
Anthracnose in vanilla leaves
Wilt disease in vanilla
Fungal disease in vanilla stem and leave
Harvesting and Processing of Vanilla:

• Starts bearing 2-3 years after planting depending upon the

length of vine used for planting.
• Since flowering is staggered, harvesting is likewise
extended over a period of time
• About 9 -11 months are required for the fruit to mature after
successful pollination and fertilization, depending on the
temperature and elevation.
• The immature pods produce an inferior product and, if it is
picked too late, it will split during curing.
• Bunch or broom harvesting should be avoided.
Harvest indices
• The thickest portion of the fruit (blossom end) turns to
pale yellow colour.
• Overall pod colour changes from dark green to light
green.
• The fruits lose their lustre and become somewhat dull.
• Two distinct lines appear from one end of the fruit to the
other
• The well-ripened ready beans detach easily from the
bunch just by lifting them in reverse direction
The correct time to harvest vanilla is If pods are not picked at the
when the ends are starting to turn proper time, they can split
yellow. while still on the vine.
• Graded and Packed in wooden / plastic boxes
Grading of green vanilla:
• Whole vanilla: Fully mature beans, well developed
and with no mechanical or insect damages nor
illness.
• Spotted and cracked vanilla: Beans with
considerable damages by Antrachnose, which
produce a spotted apperance, mature fruits with
natural longitudinal cracks
• “Zacatillo” vanilla: Small. Immature malformed
fruits, with severe mechanical and insect damages.
 SIZE CLASSIFICATION OF VANILLA BEANS
Length of beans Grade of beans
15 cm and more I
12-15 cm II
8-12 cm III
<8 cm Splits, cuts and damaged beans IV
 PROCESSING OF VANILLA BEANS.
Curing
4 different methods for curing the beans
Mexican process,
Bourbon process,
Peruvian process and
Guyana process.
India: either the Mexican or Bourbon process can be followed.
During the process of curing is done until 80 % moisture is lost
and beans undergo enzymatic reactions for production of vanillin.
Curing involves four stages.
1. Killing or wilting
• Stops further vegetative development in the fresh beans and
initiates the enzymatic ((-glycosidase) reactions responsible
for producing the aroma and flavour.
• Graded beans are taken in an open basket, and dipped in hot
water (70°C) for 3 minutes.
• Basket is taken out and the hot water is drained off.
• Killing is indicated by the development of a brown
colouration of the beans.
Killing of vanilla beans
Grade of beans Period of immersion
(minutes)
I 5
II 4
III 2
IV 1.5
2. Sweating or fermentation
• In warm weather, the pods are spread over blankets and exposed
to the sun (12 noon to 3 pm).
• During mid-day the blanket is folded over and bundled and left
in the open for the rest of the day.
• They are wrapped in blankets in the night to maintain
continuous fermentation and sweating.
• This results in a rise in the temperature of the killed beans,
which promotes the desired enzymatic reactions and hastens
the drying period to prevent harmful fermentations.
• The pods should be wrapped in blankets when they are hot
to touch (50°C).
• Alternate drying and sweating
• Initial sweating is to be for 24 to 48 hours. Extension
of this period will initiate rotting

Sun drying of vanilla beans

Grade Period (days)
I 12-14
II 7-10
III and IV 5-7
Daily sun drying is to be followed by proper sweating for
controlled fermentation
3. Slow drying
This is done at an ambient temperature in the shade, till the
beans have reached about one-third of their original weight.
The beans are dried inside a room and will have 25-30% moisture in
them.
On completion of slow drying, the vanilla beans get heavy
longitudinal wrinkles, turn lustrous with brownish black color and
become supple.
They offer a soft leathery touch; can be rolled around finger easily
and on release, becoming straight.
Slow drying of vanilla beans
Grade Period (days)
I 20-35
II 10-20
III 3-10
IV 2-8
A bean with the correct moisture content is pliable.
4. Conditioning or aging
Beans are stored in closed boxes in bundles of 25-30 tied
together with cotton threads and wrapped in butter paper and
are again wrapped in woollen blankets and kept for a period of
three months or longer in closed wooden boxes to permit the
full development of the desired aroma and flavour. my
vanilla beans process.mp4
Organic Vanilla Farming.mp4
The reduction in weight from green to conditioned beans
ranges from 4.5:1 to 6:1,depending on the grade.
 YIELD
The average yield - 300 kg/ha of cured
beans per year.
better management - 500-800 kg /ha
The curing should be done within a
week of harvesting the beans.
The yield may decline after 12-15 years
of planting- replanting
Grading
I (best) grade: > 15 cm, soft to touch without any blemishes and
containing 2.5% vanillin.
II grade:12-15 cm length, without blemishes and with > 1.8% vanillin.
III grade: 8-12 cm and with some blemishes.
IV grade: rest of the beans - poor quality.

Trade varieties / grades:

Mexican vanilla
Bourbon vanilla (from Madagascar)
Indonesian vanilla
Tahiti vanilla (from Tahiti)
Vanillons (from West Indies) 'Ndali' Vanilla Bean Processing.mp4
Vanilla Cultivation.mp4
Extraction of vanillin
Gobley(1858), isolated the crystalline vanillin (C8H8O3) from the
vanilla beans.
Finely chopped beans are extracted with alcohol-water solvent in
glass lined or stainless percolators.
The freshly percolated extract is drawn off, filtered, aged for about
three weeks and bottled.

Products of vanilla
vanilla extract, vanilla flavouring, vanilla tincture (for
pharmaceutical use)
concentrated vanilla extract and concentrated vanilla flavouring,
vanilla oleoresin, vanilla powder, perfumery vanilla, vanilla
absolute, etc.
Vanilism (Vanilla poisoning)
Plant produces of oxalic acids in the leaves, stems and pods,
Too much of contact with vanilla creepers an ailment, vanillism
Characterized by heaviness of the head, skin irritation, fever and
intestinal disorders.
Vanilla poisoning may occur while planting and harvesting the
green beans and also later during curing, especially during the
conditioning operation.
Wear rubber gloves while handling the vanilla beans.
INTRODUCTION
• Garcinia indica, commonly known as kokum is an underutilized fruit
tree, native of the Western Ghats in India.
• In India it mainly grows in the western parts of Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Kerala and Goa.
• The fruit is used as a medicinal plant against obesity.
• The rind is used as souring and food coloring agent.
• Fat of the seed is extracted for cosmetic and confectionery
preparations.
• The main active component in kokum is hydroxycitric acid (HCA)
which is regarded as a fat reducer (Kamat, 2005).
• Kokum is evergreen tree that is abundant in Western India and is
considered to have great potential as a spice and medicinal plant
(Korikanthimath and Desai, 2005).
• G. gummi-gutta or uppage is another Garcinia species having equal
importance as that of Kokum which is also collected from the wild.
• The main harvest season is between April and early June.
• A fully grown ‘kokum’ tree can yield up to 80 kg of fruit, although
average yield is around 20 kg.
• The trees start yielding from the sixth year onwards and continue to yield
up to 60 years or even more
Reddy et al. 2005
BOTANY and FLOWERING
• Kokam is a dioecious, but seems to be highly variable in sex forms.
• Flowers are axiliary or terminal, solitary having 2 to 8 buds.
• Flower is tetramerous and hypogynous.
• Corolla consists of four petals slightly larger than sepals yellow to
pink dorsally and dark pink ventrally.
• Male flower has long pedicel, stamens are found surrounding
rudimentary pistil.
• Female flower has short pedicel, staminodes are arranged in four tufts
and very rarely in two tufts around the pistil.
• Bisexual flowers has long pedicel, four tuft of stamens surrounding the
pistil.
CROP IMPROVEMENT
• High yielding types in terms of bigger fruits, more
number of fruits with thick rind.
• Quality-Fruits free from astringency and bitterness
• Early flowering and early fruiting types to avoid
coincidence of peak harvest season with monsoon
• Late ripening types in which the ripening coincides with
clear weather at the end of monsoon.
• Higher hydroxy citric acid content
 SEX TYPES
• Basis of preponderance of particular type of flowers and the bearing
tendency of individual tree.
Staminate or male tree
• The flowers have mostly long pedicels, mass of stamens crowded on
receptacle and sometimes rudimentary pistil with pointed apex. They
are incapable of producing any fruit and serve as pollinators only.
Hermaphrodite or bisexual
• Young fruits produced by the tree are generally irregular in shape
containing 0 to 6 underdeveloped seeds. Yield per tree may vary from
1 to 3 kg of fruits.
Pistillate or female

• Flower is identified by short pedicel, well developed pistil and two or

four tufts of staminodes below. Fruits are round to globose, dark red
when ripe and contain 1 to 7 well developed seeds. Adult tree bears
heavy crop. In a population of 62 trees observed 37 per cent turned
out to be male, 8 per cent bisexual and 55 per cent
female.
Kokum Flower Kokum Fruits
 VARIETIES
Konkan Amrith
• Released from KKV Dapoli (Dr. B.S. Konkan
Krishi Vidyapeeth.).
• Developed by clonal selection.
• This variety is considerably early having short
harvesting period (78days) with a few pluckings.
The yield is high (138.28kg) with medium sized
fruits (34.45g) having rind of 17.55g. Filled seeds
were 3.55 per fruit.
• This variety is a pure female.
Konkan Hatis
• Released from KKV Dapoli (Dr. B.S.
Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth).
• This is female tree, Bigger fruit size,
Higher fruit weight (91.5 g), Thick
peel (5.58 mm), Good keeping
quality, Suited for processing.
Average yield 250 kg fruits / tree /
year.
Yellow kokum
• A unique variety of kokum in Uttara Kannada dist. It is locally
called as bili murugalu though the colour is yellow. It is
believed to posses more medicinal properties. Skin will turn
yellow at the time of ripening.
• At KKV, Dapoli, fourteen kokum types with early maturity, bigger
sized fruits and high yield have been identified.
Promising lines identified at ICAR RC Goa

• High yielders :- Kharekhazan 1, Borim 2, Kasarpal 5, Parashte 3,

Pednem Keri 1.
• Early bearers :- Savoi kamini 1Mashem 4, Hedode 1, Gola 17,
Parashte 3, Pednem Keri 1.
Constraints and suggestion for
kokum development in India
• No organized production of kokum.
• Short harvesting period: Fruit harvest in kokum is only for about six
weeks in a year, which is a short period for processing.
• During the first half of the summer the demand of kokum has to be
met out by the production of the previous year and then supplying the
production of current year for the second half.
• Better storage condition has to be maintained.
• Federations/ Cooperative groups, Processing and
marketing federations of collectors and growers
should be formed. Collective farming system should
be adopted.
• Regional and seasonal demand: Though kokum
drink is superior to many synthetic soft drinks in the
market, its use is not known through out India. It is
suggested to popularize kokum drink as a health drink
than a soft drink.
 NUTMEG
Scientific Name: Myristica fragrans
Family: Myristicaceae
2n=42
English name: Nutmeg
Indian name : Jaiphal (Hindi), Jayikai (Kannada),
Jathikka (Malayalam), Jatiphala (Sanskrit), Jathikai
(Tamil), Jajikai (Telugu).
Nutmeg yields two types of spice /commerce

Nutmeg- it is the Kernel which is the hard and brown,

enclosed in a thin brittle shell.

Aril (mace) is surrounding the shell

which is scarlet in colour.
Nutmeg contains a volatile oil (6-16%) and mace
(4-15%).
The nutmeg and mace oil contains 4 % myristicin.
Uses:
Mace - culinary spice and largely as a flavouring
agent.
Husk - pickling, when the fruit is at a tender stage.
Fresh husks of the ripe fruit - jelly.
nutmeg - stimulant, astringent, aphrodisiac and
carminative.
The essential oil - medicine, toilet soap, dental pastes,
flavouring chewing gums, chewing tobacco, baked
goods, cakes, cookies
Origin and distribution:
Native - Moluccas Islands of Indonesia
The British East India Company introduced this spice into
India in 1800 AD.
Malaysia are Indonesia, Grenada, Sri Lanka, India, Tanzania,
Mauritius, Reunion, Trinidad and Tobago and China
85% - Indonesia and Grenada followed by Sri Lanka.
India- Ernakulam, Cannanore, Kottayam, Thrissur, Idukki,
Allepey, Wynad, Mylapuram, Thiruvanathapuram, Palghat
and Calicut districts of Kerala (3,502 ha), Dakshina
Karnataka (110 ha) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Nilgiris, Anjarakandi near Coonoor of Tamil Nadu and
[Link] Araku valley in Andhra Pradesh
Area and production:
In India the area -15,000 ha with an annual
production of 8,000 Mt. The productivity is
500 kg/ha.
The total Indian production of Nutmeg
( 5537 t ) and mace (5919 t) per year
Botany:
Evergreen tree with dense foliage
10-20 m tall, sometimes reaching a height of 20 m or
more.
Branches - spreading with a dark gray bark.
Leaves - shiny and oblong to oval in shape.
Inflorescence – cymes
Fruit - lemon yellow to light brown in colour.
Fruits ripen - 9 months after flowering.
Inside the fruit is the single, glossy brown seed with
a brittle shell over which is the beautiful, brilliant,
scarlet, net-like (reticulated) membrane or aril known
as the mace, which is very fragile and aromatic.
Nutmeg trees are dioecious in nature
Difference b/w female and male trees
Male trees have erect branches and the leaves
are generally smaller in size and conspicuously
less leafy than female trees.
The shape of the tree also is not regular.
The calcium oxalate content of the leaves is
also taken as a criteria for identification of sex
in nutmeg.
Climate
warm humid conditions, annual rainfall of 150 cm
to 250 cm and temperature of 25-35OC. 1300 m
MSL.
Partial shade appears to be beneficial in early
growth stages.
Soil
Clay loam, sandy loam and red laterite soils rich
in humus - ideal.
Both dry climate and water logged conditions are
not good for nutmeg.
A certain amount of iron in the soil is said to be
beneficial to nutmeg trees.
Varieties
West India and East India types.
West Indian variety - Islands of Grenada
and Trinidad
East Indian nutmegs are highly aromatic
and superior compared the West Indian
variety.
 Important characteristics of nutmeg varieties

Sr. Name of Institution Special characters

No. variety
1 Konkan Dr. B. S. K. K. V, Tree bears Male & female
Sugandha Dapoli, 1998, flowers on same plant,
For cultivation in Higher fruit set, Medium
konkan region size nuts (5 g), yield- (526
Single plant fruits / tree / year).
selection
2 Konkan Dr. B. S. K. K. V, Female plant, Higher
Swad Dapoli single plant percentage fruit set,
selection, Released Medium size nut (5.8 gm),
in 2003 yield-(761fruits/tree/year).
 3 Konkan Dr. B. S. K. K. V, Female plant, Higher
Shrimanti Dapoli, Single plant percentage fruit set,
selection Mace yield -1.916
Released in 2005 kg/tree/year
Nut- 9.370
kg/tree/year
4 IISR IISR, Calicut, Kerala average yield- 3,122
Viswashree Clonal selection from kg dry nuts / ha. and
elite trees, 2001,
480 kg mace (dry)/ha
recom. For Kerala

The other promising accessions under evaluation at

IISR, Calicut, are: A 11/29, A 11/70, A9/20, A 9/22,
A 9/25, A 9/79, A 9/86, A 4/12, A 4/22 and A 4/52.
 Konkan Swad Konkan Sugandha

Konkan Shrimanti IISR Vishwashree

Cultivation
Propagation
Seeds
Vegetative - (38-80%)
Propagation by seeds
Regular bearing trees, high yielding (>10,000 fruits/tree/yr
and >30g fruit wt and 1 g of mace wt/fruit)
Seed viability is low – immediately sown after harvest
Seeds are dehusked and dried for a day before sowing.
Storing the seeds in moss, plastic bags, moist sand is ideal.
Small and immature seeds show low germination.
Seeds should be collected during periods of peak
production.
Seeds may be sown in nursery beds, baskets, PE
bags, or other containers with suitable rooting
medium.
The seeds begin to germinate in four to six weeks.
The sprouted seeds at 2-leaf stage and having 15-
20 cm height are transferred to polythene bags
about a 12 to 18 months prior to planting in the
main field.
GA3 treatment enhances 75% germination
The seedling progeny - 50 % of each sex, which is
very difficult to distinguish until the trees flower
4-6 years after planting.
Vegetative Propagation
Dioecious crop- proper ratio of female and
male plants- maintained in the plantation.
Vegetative propagation techniques like stem
cuttings, air layering, approach grafting,
epicotyl grafting, budding and top working
were tried in nutmeg with varying degrees of
success.
Epicotyle grafting: At Central Plantation Crops Research
Institute (CPCRI), Kasaragod,
Mathew and Joseph (1982) tried epicotyl grafting using M.
beddomei as root stock and attained 48 % survival of grafts.
Krishnamoorthy (1987) - 80 % successful grafts during the
month of August - M. fragrans as the root stock.
Epicotyl grafting : Konkan Krishi Vidya Peeth, Dapoli.
Medium matured (4 months) and fully matured (6 months)
scion
sticks recorded higher success – grafting during September
Soft wood grafting - Regional Coconut Research Station,
Bhatye, MH
May – 80%.
At the IISR, Kozhikode,
Epicotyl grafting is carried out during August-September -80%
1. Take 20 days old healthy sprout (root stock)
2. Select a good scion (of lead pencil thickness) from a high
yielding female tree
3. Cut the top and make a vertical split to a length of 3-4 cm in the
root stock
4. Make a wedge cut of 3-4 cm length in scion
5. Insert the scion in the slit of the root stock and tie it firmly with a
polythene strip.
6. Transplant the grafted sprout to the polythene bag filled with the
potting mixture. Grafted portion is covered with a polythene bag to
ensure high humidity which helps in graft union
7. Remove the cover bag when new leaf emerges. Also remove the
polythene strip
Approach grafting: In India - Root stocks of M. fragrans,
M. malabarica and [Link].
M. beddomei and M. Malabarica - develop into low spreading
trees (nutmeg seedlings generally develop into tall trees).
Advantages:-
Grafts come to flowering in 4-6 years of planting vs 6-8 years by
the seedlings.
100 % success - grafted on wild species of nutmeg (when erect
branches of female nutmeg trees – scion - flowering commenced
in the second year after grafting.
Dapoli - approach grafts can be prepared throughout the year.
High percentage of graft success was recorded on wild nutmeg
root stocks M. Malabarica- 30-100 %
M. Fragrans- 40-90%.
Disadvantage :-
approach grafting is time consuming and a tedious method of
grafting.
Approach grafting done on the trees
with suitable support
Nutmeg grafted plant
ready for planting
Approach grafting using wild Nutmeg root stock
Approach grafting
orthotropic shoot
One year old grafted
plant before pruning
Pruning operation
After pruning Training
Myristica species used as rootstocks in grafting

fragrans malabarica beddomei

Myristica bedomei Wild Nutmeg as root stock
Budding: Forkert method of budding was tried
in M. fragrans and M. beddomei
very low (4%) in both the cases
maximum bud - May which coincided with the
flushing season in
nutmeg.
Buds remained alive even after one year without
sprouting.
Budding:
Forkert method of budding - M. fragrans and M. beddomei
Brown patch budding
percentage of success was very low (4%)
maximum bud take was in May which coincided with the flushing
season in nutmeg.
orthotropic scion shoots from elite mother trees are budded on
seedlings 3 years after planting in the main field.
RS and Scion should be in bark slip stage.
Budding done just above the 1st whorl of lower leaves.
July was best month for budding.
Budded plants – M. beddomi as root stock
Close planting of scion trees for bud wood collection
Top Working: the sex of nutmeg tree can be identified only
7-8 years after planting, when they begin to flower.
Generally, male and female trees are produced in 1:1 ratio.
single male tree is sufficient for every 20 female trees for
pollination (1:20),
the rest of the unproductive male trees can be made
productive by converting them into female trees by top
working.
Topping of male trees indicated that heading the trees above
the first tire during August - sprout production and reducing
the time for sprouting.
Successful graft union by cleft grafting - March
scion shoots having mature leaf and full green stem and
stock having two months growth.
The top working techniques adopted at IISR, Kozhikode
This technique assures cent per cent success.
Male trees are beheaded about 30 cm above the ground level in
May
the cut end is smeared with Bordeaux paste.
Decapitated trees are irrigated regularly
New shoots develop from the main trunk within 45-60 days.
Newly emerged shoots are ready for grafting when they attain
about 20 cm length.
A longitudinal cut of about 3 cm is made from the top downwards
on the retained stock.
This slit gives a 'v' shape when split opens.
Orthotropic scions of the same thickness as that of the stock are
collected in water from high yielding female trees of nutmeg on
the same day of grafting.
Scions with two leaves are used for grafting.
lower end of the scion is shaped into a wedge from both the sides of
the scion.
scion is inserted into 'v' shaped slit of the stock and secured in place
firmly with a 1.5 cm wide polythene strip.
Grafted shoot is covered with a polythene
A temporary shelter is provided above the tree
The Polythene cover is removed after 30-45 days when perfect
union takes place.
After successful union, all other shoots are removed from the main
trunk and Bordeaux paste is applied on the cut surface.
Overhead shade - removed after ensuring successful union of the
graft.
If the graft fail, re grafting done on either the same shoot or on a
different shoot.
Top working - conversion of unproductive male to productive
female trees.
The top worked trees yield from the 3rd year onwards.
Coppicing to induce bud growth
TOP WORKED PLANT WITH BETTER ROOT SYSTEM
SHOWING GOOD PERFORMANCE
In situ budding: In situ budding - most popular
method followed by farmers of Kerala to solve the
2 major problems
that restrict large scale cultivation of nutmeg -
Dioecious and long juvenile phase.
Budding done on plants within 2-5 years of
planting.
Orthotropic scion shoots from elite mother trees are
budded on seedlings two years after planting in the
main field.
The root stock and scion should be at the bark
slipping stage. Budding is done just above the first
whorl of lower leaves.
K A U - in situ budding on hard trunk - most
successful.
Forkert method with brown bud wood having
fallen leaves and the buds inserted by leaving
space on all four sides gave maximum success.

Budding on hard trunk - maximum success -3year

old plants -July
Maximum success obtained with patch budding on
M. fragrans and forkert method on M. Beddomei -
August -in situ budding and
July -budding in polybag plants.
Nursery – Grenada – West Indies
Collection of brown patch buds for patch budding from
selected mother plants
Brown patch bud
 ssss

Bud union tied with polythene strip

Bud Emerging From Leaf Axil
 Planting and aftercare
Spacing
8x9 m, 9x9 m, 6x6m, 8x8m
FYM- 50 kg / tree
Inorganic fertilizers: NPK g/plant
First year- 20 18 50
2nd year- 40 36 100
5th Year- 100 90 250
10th year 350 250 750
15th year 500 400 1000
Initial shade -banana or glyricidia
Permanent shade trees - site is on hilly slopes -as
a monocrop.
Nutmeg can also be grown as a mixed crop in the
old coconut and arecanut gardens
coconut or arecanut + nutmeg + Robusta coffee
forest trees + nutmeg + Robusta coffee + pepper
 Pests and diseases
Pests
Scale insects
Diseases
Die back (Diplodia natalensis)
Fruit rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporoides and
Botrydeplodia theobromae)
Leaf blight - Botrydiplodiea theobromae,
Leaf spot
Sooty mould
thread blight
Harvesting and yield
Female nutmeg tree starts fruiting from the sixth year
onwards
Economic yield - after 15 or 20 years and continues for 40
years or more.
The fruits are ready for harvest in about 6-9 months after
flowering. The flowering and harvesting continue
throughout the year, but, June-August or December—May
are the peak periods.
The fruits are ripe and ready for harvesting when the
pericarp splits open.
The harvesting is done by using a bill hook.
The fruits are split open, the outer fleshy portion is
removed, and the mace is manually separated from the
nut.
Nut and mace are dried separately in the sun in a drying
yard.
Mace should be dried for 10-15 days and the nuts for 4-8
weeks till the kernel rattles within the shell.
The scarlet-coloured mace gradually becomes yellowish-
brown and brittle when the drying is completed.
CPCRI has developed dryer which has burning cum
heat exchanger and drying chamber.
The fresh pericarp - making pickles, jams and jellies.
Trees of 15 years of age -1000-2000
30 years of age - 3000-10000 fruits per year.
yield per hectare - 1000-1500 kg of nutmeg and 200-500
kg of mace per annum.
The mace to nutmeg ratio is about 3:20 on a dry weight
basis. Generally, if the fruit weight is 60 g, 6-7 g nutmeg
and 3-4 g mace can be recovered. The rest will be the
pericarp.
For every 100 kg of nutmeg, a tree produces only 4 kg
of mace.
Grading
Dried nutmegs are graded by hand according to their weight, shape
and colour.
After grading, the nutmegs are fumigated with methyl bromide to
protect them from storage pests.
Nutmeg trade.
1. Whole and sound nutmeg
This is used in spice trade as: (a) large (b) medium and (c) small
2. Sound shrivels
Too expensive for oil distillation.
3. Rejections
Considerably low-priced, this grade - distillation of oil.
4. Broken and warmy- oil distillation
Grades of mace
a) Banda Mace - finest - bright orange colour and a fine aroma
b) Jave Estate Mace - Golden yellow with brilliant crimson streaks.
c) Siauw Mace - lighter colour than Banda mace and contains less
volatile oil
d) West Indian Mace- fourth grade - East Indian mace, is derived
from M. Argentea
`Banda' and Penang maces - superior in quality by the trade all the
world over.
Mace is available in the market as 'whole', 'broken' or 'ground'.
Mace
Driers
Collection and cleaning
Deshelling and Packing
Manual Grading
Adulterants
‘false’ nutmegs (M. malabarica)
‘Bombay nutmegs’ which are odourless and tasteless.
Oil - addition of turpentine oil or pinene.
Extraction of oil -seed, mace, leaves and also the bark by stem
distillation.
For oil-distillation, the economically viable and accepted materials
are the rejections from spice trade.
The oil yield ranges from 6 to 16% in nutmeg, 4 to 15% in mace,
0.14% in bark and 0.4 to 0.6% in leaves.
Nutmeg contains 25-40% fat - trymyristicin.
Aromatic ethers- myristicin and elemicin - oil and oleoresin.
Value added products
Nutmeg oil, mace oil, nutmeg oleoresin , mace oleoresin, myristicin,
nutmeg butter, volatile oil of bark and flowers.
Nutmeg Pericarp (Fruit/Pod)
Wealth from Waste
Nutmeg Pericarp Products
 Nut-Med

Liquor Jelly Jam Syrup

Grenada
Nutmeg Leather Fruit
Indonesia
CLOVE
 CLOVE
Syzygium aromaticum Syn. Eugenia carryophyllus
Myrtaceae, 2n-22
one of the important tree spice crop grown in India.
Commerce - Dried fully grown unopened flower buds of
the clove tree
The term 'clove' is derived from the French word 'cloy' and
the English word 'clout', both meaning 'nail‘- as it
resembles a broad headed nail.
Volatile oil - Eugenol- (80-90%) and Caryophyllene (4-
8%)
Ess. oil- extracted by steam distillation
Origin and distribution
Native- Molluccas Island of Eastern Indonesia
Indonesia, Madagascar, Tanzania, Islands of Zanzibar, Malaysia, Sri
Lanka and India- major growing countries.
USA, India West Germany and France are the major importing
countries
Tanzania and Islands of Zanzibar are the world largest producer of
clove, which supplies 90% of the total demand followed by ,
Indonesia and Malaysia.
World clove production is annually is 40,000-50,000 tonnes and 2/3rd
of it is used by Indonesia tobacco industry for the manufacture of
'Kretek' cigarettes (crackle when lighted).
India is the second largest clove consuming country in the world.
India imports both exhausted and unexhausted cloves along with
clove leaf oil and its derivatives.
In India, clove was introduced in 1800 AD by the East India
company and is now cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka.
In Karnataka it is being cultivated other mixed crop in coffee,
coconut and arecanut in Chikkamagalore, Hassan, Dakshina
Kannada and Shimoga districts.
Uses - culinary purposes, as a spice to flavour both sweet and savoury
dishes (pickles and sauces) and cakes, confectionery, chocolates, sweets,
syrups, preservative, etc.
Clove is used for flavoring curries, gravies, ketchup and spice mixtures.
Green cloves are used for pickling. The inferior cloves and rejects during
harvest are used for distillation of clove oil, the active principle being
'Eugenol'.
Clove oil- flavoring for all kinds of food products, in soap preparation,
perfumery and the synthetic preparation of vanillin.
Antiseptic property (eugenol)- ingredient in chewing gums, toothpastes
and mouthwashes.
In dentistry, eugenol is used in combination with zinc oxide for the
temporary filling of cavities.
It is also used for flavouring of `Kretek' cigarettes in Indonesia.
Botany :
The clove is an evergreen tree
growing to a height of 7-15 m.
The fruit (mother-of-clove) is
usually a single-seeded
drupe, but occasionally contains
two seeds also.
Bud composed of 2 parts- stem
and bulbous head.
Area and Production:
In India the clove is cultivated in an area of 2,600 ha. with annual production of
1,160 tonnes.
Productivity is 400 kg/ha.

Climate
Warm and humid climate.
The annual rainfall 150-300 cm and RH- 70% and 700- 900 MSL and 20-32°C.
The clove cannot withstand high winds, therefore, windy locations should be
avoided.
Providing shade during the early period of growth is necessary for its good growth.
Soil
Deep red loam, black soil and laterite soils rich in humus, pH - 4.0- 5.6- Ideal
Sandy soils and water-logged conditions are unsuitable
It can be grown well in both sloping and level ground.
Varieties
No named varieties in clove
In Indonesia- 3 types - Local types are under
cultivation.
Siputih,
Sikotote
Bunga Lawang Kiri
Three forms of clove are-
The buds hardly red when ripe
the buds red when ripe
white fruits -hardly red when fit for
gathering
In trade- diff. based on country of origin
Penang cloves-superior quality
Zanzibar cloves
Madagascar cloves
From India, Burliar-1 (King clove) is one of the
high yielding progenies selected in Tamil Nadu,
Amboyan clove (Liliput clove/mini clove) from
Odetham estate.
Cultivation
Propagation - seed
vegetative - soft wood cuttings and by buddings.
approach method of grafting using its own rootstock has been
successful in clove.
Seed propagation
Clove is propagated through seed which is called the mother’s of
clove.
The seeds are extracted from the ripe fruits (mother-of-clove) - regular
bearing trees.
The fruits for seed collection are allowed to ripen on the tree itself and
drop down naturally.
Only fully-developed, uniform-sized seeds, which show signs of
germination by the presence of pink pedicle, are used for sowing and
the remaining are discarded
The seeds are then soaked in water overnight prior to sowing
viability of the seeds is very short, sown immediately in raised nursery.
The seeds sprout in about two weeks depending on the individual vigour of
the seeds and germination is completed in 40 days.
If fresh seeds are sown- 90% germination.
The seedlings are very slow in their initial growth
when they are 50-60 cm tall they start branching and are transferred to
polythene bags (30 cm x 15 cm) containing a mixture of good soil, well
decomposed cowdung and sand (in the ratio of about 3:3:1).
one to two years old seedlings are ready for transplanting into the main
field.
While the seedlings are in the nursery, sufficient shade and irrigation should
be provided.
Age, colour of cotyledon and height of seedlings determine the time of
transplanting
Study revealed that clove seedlings can be made ready for transplanting in
one year by foliar application of GA (200 ppm).
Planting
Pits of 60-75 cm , spacing - 6 x6 m or 6x7 m.
If planted as an intercrop, the spacing should be adjusted based on the spacings
of the major crop.
The pits are filled with a mixture of top soil, burnt earth and FYM or compost.
Transplanting should preferably be done during June- August, And in low-lying
areas towards the end of the monsoon in September-October.
Clove prefers partial shade. Under Indian conditions, it is best suited for mixed-
cropping in older coconut or arecanut plantations or in coffee estates.
Kerala - coconut, banana, jackfruit, mango.
In case of pure plantation shade trees namely Acacia sp., Albizia sp., Subabool
and Banana are the common shade trees to be established 6-12 months prior to
clove planting.
Wind breaks like Casuarina and Japanese bamboo may be planted at the border
of the plots.
Mulching:
Mulching the soil around the base of the tree during summer conserves moisture
and prevents weed growth. Dry leaves or slashed weeds are used for mulching
around the base of the plant.
Manures and fertilizers
May –June and September-October
Per hectare
Organic Manure
FYM or compost
Before planting 3.5 tonnes
After planting 3.5 tonnes
II. Fertilizers (NPK)
First year 4.64:4.17:11.6 kg
After 2nd year 9.28:8.34:23.2 kg
After 5 years 28.20:20.85:58.0 kg
After 10 years 46.40:41.70:116.0 kg
After 15 years 69.60:58.12:174.0 kg
Application - shallow trenches dug around the plant normally about 1-1 ½ m away
from the base
Irrigation
In the first 3-4 years, extreme care should be taken especially during the summer
months.
dripping irrigation - eight liters of water per plant per day
Inter-cropping
coconut, arecanut, nutmeg and banana plantations of the midlands.
In higher elevations, it can be mixed cropped with pepper or coffee.
Pests and diseases
Pests
Shoot borer -0.05 per cent dimethoate /inject quinalphos (0.1%) into bore hole
Diseases
Sudden death of cloves (Valsa eugeniae)
heavy leaf-fall, coupled with wilting symptoms, usually during prolonged
drought period.
Die back
Seedling wilt, leaf spot, leaf rot
Harvesting and yield
4-6 years of their planting,
economic yield -18-20 years from the time of planting and the
production continues for 80 years or more.
bumper crop can only be expected about once every 4 years
being influenced by the weather and the previous crop load.
The flowering season varies from September-October in the
plains to December-January at high altitudes.
Cloves (unopened flower buds) are produced on the
terminal shoots of the twigs.
The buds are collected when they are dull red or pink
in colour and less than 2 cm long.
The inflorescence is harvested without damaging the
branches when the buds have reached their full size, but
before they open, so that the petals together with the
stamens inside form the head of the dried clove.
Delayed picking, i.e., after the opening of the buds, will
devalue the spice.
Yield of cloves is found to vary from year to year.
Burliar - 2 kg per tree (500 kg/ha) per year. But, there
are individual trees which are reported to give 8-10 kg
in some years.
Zanzibar - 40 kg/tree/year.
Yields upto 80 kg/tree/ year have also been recorded.
About 11,000-15,000 dried cloves weigh one
kilogram.
Cloves are normally packed in double jet sacks of 50-
60 kg capacity each.
Processing
The appearance, size, content and aromatic characteristics of its
volatile oil are the factors which decide the quality of the dried
spice.
Also, they should be free of mustiness and mould.
The best prices are obtained for whole dried cloves of a good bold
size with a bright, uniform, reddish-brown colour.
care should be taken in the harvesting, drying, cleaning and
sorting operations, and the storage conditions.
Prior to drying, the buds are removed from the stems
over-ripe cloves and gleanings of fallen flowers are sorted out.
Drying is undertaken as soon as possible, after the buds have
separated from the clusters.
If the buds are left too long in heaps they will ferment and the
dried spice will have a whitish, shrivelled appearance (choker
cloves).
In sunny weather, drying may take four to five days to produce a brightly-
coloured dried spice of attractive appearance.
The correct stage of drying is reached when the base of the bud is dark
brown, and the rest of the bud lighter brown in colour.
On drying, the cloves retain about two-thirds of their original fresh green
weight.
cleaning, sorting and grading is carried out by the exporting firms prior to
packing
sorting is done to separate 'mother-of-cloves' and ',choker cloves'.
clove oil - steam distillation method
The duration of distillation ranges from 8-25 hours depending upon the size of
the still, the nature and volume of steam and the condition of the cloves.
The leaves and small twigs yield clove-leaf oil.
Clove-stem oil is obtained from the stems attached to the buds and flowers,
and bud oil from the buds.
The essential oil yield is 17- 19% from clove buds, 6% from the clove stems
and 2-3% from the leaves.
Grading
Whole cloves are graded as
special (Hand-picked),
Grade-2, Grade-3, Ground
(powdered) cloves
defective cloves are named as
choker cloves, Headless cloves,
Mother cloves, Extraneous matter,
etc.
Value-added products
Clove oil, ground clove,
oleoresins, clove-stem oil, clove-
leaf oil, oil of mother of
cloves and clove-root oil.
• Choker cloves- cloves which have undergone fermentation due
to improper drying & are recognized by their pale brown colour
& whitish mealy appearance.
• Headless cloves- are those which do not have the ball shaped
unopened flower bud at the top. They may or may not have the
outer calyx.
• Mother of clove- Fruits(seeds) are known as mother of cloves.
How to test that exhausted cloves are not mixed:
Clove should have fine aroma and flavour and should readily
exude oil when the stem is pressed with thumb and finger nail to
make sure that exhausted cloves are not mixed.
Adulterants
Cloves are sometimes adulterated with headless cloves and clove
stems.
Choker cloves or mother cloves and other extraneous matter like
dust, dirt, stones, clay particles and pieces of wood.
The adulterants of clove-bud oil are stem oil, and clove-leaf oil.
Another form of adulteration is the addition of clove terpenes,
synthetic terpineol,
 TURMERIC
Curcuma domestica (Curcuma longa)
Zingiberaceae
Haldi (Hindi), Arishina (Kannada),
Manjal (Malayalum), Harita (Sanskrit)
Turmeric of commerce - dried rhizome
Curcumin - yellow colouring pigment
present in rhizome, high medicinal value.

Origin - India (South east Asia)

Distribution - India, Sri Lanka, China,
Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysa, Thailand,
Philippines,
 TURMERIC area (ha) production (tons) 2019-20

Chamarajanagar, Mysore, Belgaum, Bijapur,

Bagalkot, Gulbarga and Bidar districts.
TURMERIC Export quantity (MT) value (lakh Rs. ) 2018-19
Nutritive value- moisture 5.8%; protein 8.6%; fat 8.9%;
carbohydrates 63.0%; fibre 6.9%; mineral matter 6.8%; calcium
0.2%; phosphorus 0.26%; iron 0.05%; sodium 0.01%; potassium
2.5%; vitamin-A 175 IU/100 g; vitamin-B1 0.09 mg/100 g;
vitamin-B2 0.19 mg/100g; vitamin-C 49.8 mg/100 g; and niacin
4.8 mg/100 g. It has a calorific value or food energy 390
calories/100 g.
uses:
1. As spice:-
2. As medicine;- Antiseptic, Antibacterial, Antifungal and
Antioxidant property
3. As cosmetic
4. As dye
In Dye: Traditionally, turmeric has been used in case for
dyeing silk, cotton and woolen cloths to impart a yellow
shade. Currently its use is restricted to dye cotton. The
turmeric as dye is prevalent in confectionary, pharmacy, rice-
milling and in other food industries, paints and varnish
industries also utilize turmeric as dye.
Extraction of Value Added Products: Turmeric powder,
turmeric essential oil, oleoresin and curcumin for the raw
materials of turmeric rhizome. These materials have great
export demand in the international market. They finds place in
food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
 Origin and Distribution:
• Turmeric is native to India from this region it reached to Far
East and Polynesian Islands, South-East Asia is believed to
be the centre of origin of turmeric. In medieval period it was
identified as “Indian Saffron” production was confined to
Cannonore and Calicut and also in Goa. Large quantity of
turmeric was imported by the Arabs, Persians and Turkeys
from this place. During 8th century, it reached East Africa,
during 13th centaury to West Africa and during 18th centaury
to Jamaica. Presently, the cultivation of crops confined in
South-East Asian countries.

Area, Production and Export:

World Scenario; India, China, Sri Lanka, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Jamaica, Peru, El Salvador and Taiwan are
important countries in cultivation of turmeric.
Turmeric is essentially tropical crop grown in India, Pakistan, Malaysia,
Thailand, Philippines, China, Sri Lanka.

It is third important spice crop of India next to Chillies and Black pepper.

India is the largest producer and exporter of turmeric contributing about

80% of production and 45% of export. In India it is grown in an area of 2.33
lakh ha and annual production of 11.9 lakh tonnes and productivity of 5100
Kg per ha and India exports 50.750 tonnes of tumeric with an value of
Rs.40.23 crores.

Andhra Pradesh (40% of area), Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,

Maharashtra and Karnataka are the important states involved in cultivation.

Karnataka is cultivated turmeric in an area about 24,912 ha with an annual

production of 2,50,29 tons and productivity of 10.07 tons per ha.

Chamaraja nagar, Mysore, Mandya, Belgaum, Bagalkot and Raichur are the
important districts
Description of the plant
Erect perennial herb - grown as
annual.
Primary, secondary, tertiary
rhizomes, the whole forming a
dense clump.
The rhizomes have a distinctive
taste and smell.
They are brownish and scaly
outside and bright orange in colour,
inside.
The leafy shoots are erect, less than
1 m in height,
bearing 6-10 leaves with the leaf
sheaths forming a pseudostem..
• 1. Cytology and Species Diversity in Turmeric:

Turmeric cultivated types are triploid (2n=63) with basic chromosome

number X=21.

The family zingiberaceae consists of 40 genera and 400 tropical species.

In India about 117 species are reported, out of 40 genera only 3 are
commercially important as spices. viz., Curcuma (Turmeric), Zingiber
(Ginger) and Elettaria (Cardomom).

The genus Curcuma comprises 40 species located in tropical asia. Among

these species only two species viz., Curcuma longa L., syn domestica
(Kesari type) and Curcuma aromatica I (Kasturi type) are commercially
cultivated for the production of turmeric.

Besides these, few economically useful species of curcuma are also in use.
 (i). Curcuma longa-Linn:
• It is one of the important economic species comprising majority of the
commercial cultivars belong to kesari type.
• Pseudostem is tall, 60-85 cm robust with oblong/elliptic leaves narrowed
at the base. Plant height at 67-83 cm in long duration, 67-69 cm in short
duration types, 8-10 leaves long, 7-8 for short duration types.
• The leaf length may range from 30-45 cm broad with petiole equaling the
blade. Spike length ranges from 10-15 cm with a diameter of 5 cm.
• Flowers are pale yellow in colour equaling the bracts. Flowering is stray
and the species is a sterile triploid (3n=63) and don’t set viable seed. The
inflorescence is cylindrical, fleshy spike, aromatic ranging from 10-15 cm
length and 5-7 cm wide, which is terminal on the leaf shoot.
• The flowers are borne cincini of two to three in the axils of the bract,
opening one at a time, two lateral staminodes and cylindrical stylodes of 4
mm long seeds small, ovoid and brown in color.
• Rhizomes are bigger in size with a stout mother rhizome, with branching
primary and secondary fingers exhibiting yellow to bright orange yellow
core. Rhizomes are rich in curcumin but moderate in volatile oil. Most of
the high yielding cultivars fall in this group and have a prolonged
Curcuma longa-Linn
Curcuma aromatica-Salisb
• (i). Curcuma aromatica Salisb:
It comprises cultivars belongs to “Kasturi type” with good aroma.

Pseudostem is slender, short with elliptic/oblong leaves.

Flowers are pale yellow and plants are tetraploids (4n=84) and fertile.
Flowering is common in this species and set viable seed which give rise to
weak seedlings.

Plants produce peculiar root tubers at the end of the fibrous roots.

Rhizomes are very slender, rich in volatile oil responsible for the unique
aroma but moderate in curcumin content.

Rhizome production is much poorer compared to C. longa types. Cultivars of

this species mature early, within 6-7 months.

Rhizomes possess pleasant aroma and hence this turmeric is called ”Kasturi”
in Andhra Pradesh and few other states in India and used as an aromatic spice
besides coloring agent in culinary food preparations.
Curcuma angustifolia- It is known as Indian arrow root. The
rhizome is a good source of starch. It is found in wild form in
many parts of India.
Curcuma decipiens- it is used for extracting starch.
Curcuma caesia- It is Black turmeric, the aromatic rhizomes
contains camphor and are used as a cosmetic and in indigenous
medicine.
Curcuma amada- it is known as mango ginger. Its rhizomes are
mango flavored. This species is cultivated on very minuscule scale.
It is used as vegetable and also for making pickles and chutneys.
Curcuma zedoaria- it is occasionally cultivated species and found
mostly in wild. Rhizome is used for extracting oil, in indigenous
medicine and also in toiletry preparations.
Curcuma mangga- is cultivated in Java and Malaysia and the
rhizomes have odour of mango and are used for seasoning
food.

Curcuma purpurascens- is cultivated Java and the rhizomes

are used for seasoning of foods.

Curcuma xanthorrhiza- “Temoe Lawak” in Indonesia. The

deep yellow rhizomes have a pungent smell and bitter taste
and are being used in local medicine.

Curcuma aeruginosa- native of Burma and Cambodia, being

used in medicine.
Climate
warm and humid climate
Tropics and subtropics , An annual rainfall of 100-200 cm is ideal.
1220 m. above MSL at the temperature range of 15-35OC.
High temperature and low humidity cause slow emergence of the
pseudostem and leaves.
Soil
wide variety of soil
well-drained loamy or alluvial soils, rich in good organic matter
are well suited. The pH range of 5 to 7.5 is ideal
The crop cannot withstand water logging.
Gravelly, stony and heavy clay soils are unsuitable for the crop,
because of their interference with the development of rhizomes.
 Turmeric (Curcuma longa L) Varieties
Amalapuram
Salem
Rajapuri
kadapa
Suvarna(PCT-8)- Short duration(200d), Suitable for export.
Sudarshan(PCT-14)- short duration(190d), Suitable for export.
Suroma(PCT-24)- higher field tolerance to leaf blotch, leaf spot and
rhizome scale.
CO-1- suitable for drought prone, hilly, saline and alkaline areas. Crop duration
is 270 days.
BSR-1 –Suitable for drought prone areas of Tamil Nadu.
BSR-2- A high yielding short duration variety with bigger rhizomes, resistant
to scale insects.
Krishna- moderately resistant to pests and diseases. Yield of fresh rhizomes is
9.2t/ha
Sugandham- Thick round rhizomes with short internodes, moderately tolerant to
pests and diseases.
Roma-. Suitable for rainfed and irrigated condition, suitable for hilly areas and late
season planting.
Ranga- suitable for late planting and low lying areas. Moderately resistant to leaf
blotch and scales,.
Rasmi- suitable form both rainfed and irrigated condition, early and late sown
season
Rajendra Sonia- grows wild under NI conditions
Megha turmeric- Suitable for north hill and north west Bengal
Pant peetabh- resistant to rhizome rot.
Kanthi
Sobha-
Sona- best suited for central zone of kerala, field tolerant to leaf blotch,
Varna- Suited for central zone of kerala, field tolerant to leaf blotch
• Suranjana- Var is suitable for open and shaded conditions, sole or intercrop,
suitable for rainfed as well as high fainfall areas. tolerant to leaf blotch and
rhizome rot, resistant to rhizome scales and moderately resistant to shoot borer.
• Suguna- field tolerant to rhizome rot.
• IISR Prabha
• IISR Prathiba-
• IISR Alleppy supreme- shows tolerance to leaf blotch disease,
• IISR Kedaram- tolerant to leaf blotch
 Turmeric varieties grown in different states in India
state Varieties grown

Andhra Pradesh Amruthpani, Armoor, Duggirala, Tekurpeta,

Kasturi, Kadappa Amalapuram, Krishna

West Bengal and Pattani

Assam
Maharashtra Deshi, Rajapuri, Weigon, Karhadi
Kerala Alleppy, Wynad
Tamil Nadu Chinnanandan, Perianandan, CO-1
Karnataka Salem, Bidar-1, Bidar-4
Cultivation
Propagation
Mother rhizomes, primary and secondary fingers
Seed rate 2,500 kg/ha

Pro trey method of nursery – turmeric multiplication

Land preparation
Raised bed: 1-1.5 m width, 15- 25 cm height and of convenient length
Ridges and furrows.
Planting
Healthy and disease-free mother and finger rhizomes
The early planting results in more yield,
Planting in middle of May is ideal.
Rhizomes weighing 20-30 grams with two healthy buds
Rhizomes are treated with 0.3 % Dithane M 45 and 0.1 %
Quinalphos for 30 minutes and shade dried.
Beds- 25 x 25 cm or 30 x 25 cm
Ridges and furrows - 45 x 25 cm.
The rhizomes are planted in a small pits of 10 cm depth and
covered with soil or cattle manure.
Mulching:
In bed planting, mulching is done immediately after sowing with 15
tonnes of green leaves per hectare which is repeated 2 months after
planting.
Manures and fertilizers
FYM - 40 t/ha.
Rainfed - 30:30:60 or 60:30:90 kg of NPK per hectare
Irrigated - 60:30:90 kg of NPK - Kerala condition.
In Karnataka as the per POP - 40-50 tonnes of FYM, 150:125:250
kg of NPK per hectare.
The fertilizers are applied in three split doses.
The whole of P205 and half the dose of K20 are applied as a basal
dose and N is supplied in two split doses after 45 and 90 days after
planting, along with the remaining half dose of K20.
Irrigation
Rain-fed crop under heavy rainfall area and irrigated crop in maidan
areas.
In irrigated crop, depending on weather and soil conditions,
15-40 irrigations is required at 7-10 days intervals.
 Inter-culture
Weeds - manually / herbicides.
60, 120 and 150 days after planting, depending upon the weed intensity.
Early weeding may be avoided by the use of 2, 4-D as a pre-emergent
herbicide.
Earthing-up operation is followed immediately after the application of
fertilizers at different stages.
Inter-cropping and crop rotation
Turmeric also comes up well under sparse shade.
Inter-crop in coconut and arecnut gardens.
Mixed crop with red gram, chilli, colocasia, vegetables, maize and ragi.
In wetlands, crop rotation with paddy, sugarcane, banana or vegetables.
In garden lands, crop rotation is done with rain-fed paddy or mixed with
red gram, maize, groundnut and sunflower.
Use of growth regulators
Kinetin 75 and 100 ppm, CCC at 1000 and 1500 ppm and MH at
50 ppm increased curcumin content of rhizomes.
Pest and Diseases
Leaf eating caterpillar
Shoot borer- (Conogethus punctiferalis)-
Malathion 2ml or dimethoate 1.7ml per litre
of water at 3 week’s interval is effective.

Rhizome borer- dimethoate 1.7ml/l, or 0.5

ml/l phosphomidon.

Thrips

Rhizome scale- (Aspidiella hartii) infests

rhizomes in the field (at later stages of the
crop) and in storage.

Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and

burrowing nematode
(Radopholus similis)
Leaf blotch- Taphrina maculans- brown spots can be seen
on young leaves and drying of leaves. mancozeb @2g/l

Leaf Spot - Colletotrichum capsici - Oblong brown spots

with grey centres are found on leaves. The spots are about
4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width as the disease
advances; spots enlarge and cover a major portion of leaf
blade.
Rhizome from disease free areas. Seed treatment with
mancozeb @ 3g/litre or carbendazim @ 1 g/litre, for 30
minutes and shade dry before sowing.
Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/litre of water or carbendazim @ 1g/litre;
2-3 sprays at fortnightly intervals.
Field sanitation.
Spraying Blitox or Blue copper at 3 g/l of water was found
effective against leaf spot.
Crop rotations and cv. Suguna and Sudarshan.
 Rhizome and root rot-
pythium aphanidermatum and pythium
graminicolum, -
• leaves - yellow and exhibit gradual
drying along the margins.
• Water soaked lesions develop on the
pseudostem and become soft to the
touch.
• rhizomes turn brown in colour
Control measures:
• raise the crop on raised beds,
• proper drainage,
• before planting the rhizomes are dipped
in captan 0.3% ,
• sprays of bordeaux mixture 1%, or 0.3%
copper oxychloride or 0.3% mancozeb
poured till the root zone is wet.
 Harvesting and processing
Depending upon variety, the crop becomes ready for harvest in 7 -9
months after planting.
Early varieties mature in 7-8 months,
medium varieties in 8-9 months and-
late varieties after nine months.
Harvesting at proper maturity results in the highest yield of cured
turmeric.
The land is ploughed and rhizomes are gathered by hand
picking.
Harvested rhizomes are cleaned off mud and other
extraneous matter adhering to them.
Yield- 20-25 t /ha of green turmeric.
High yielding varieties yield up to 35 t/ha.
 Curing
Fresh turmeric is cured to get dried commercial product.
Fingers are separated from mother rhizomes.
Mother rhizomes are stored for seed purpose.
Traditional method of curing, fresh rhizomes are boiled in water just
enough-to immerse them. Copper / galvanized iron/ earthern vessels are
used for the purpose.
Boiling is stopped when froth comes out and white fumes appear giving
out a typical odour.
At this point (about 45-60 minutes) rhizomes turn soft. The stage at
which boiling is stopped largely influences color and aroma of the final
product.
Over cooking spoils color of final product while under cooking renders dried
product brittle.
In improved method of curing, cleaned
fingers (approximately 50 kg) are taken in a
perforated trough of 0.9 m x 0 .5mx 0.4 m
size made of GI or MS sheet with
extended parallel handle.
Perforated trough containing fingers are
then immersed in a pan,
100 litres of water is poured into the trough
to immerse turmeric fingers. Cooked
fingers are taken out of the pan by lifting
the trough so as to drain water into the pan.
Water used for boiling can be used for
curing fresh samples
Processing is to be done two or three days
after harvesting.
If there is delay in processing, rhizomes
should be stored under shade or covered
with saw dust or coir dust.
An alkaline solution prepared by dissolving 100
g sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) or sodium
carbonate (NaCO3) in 100 ml of water is
poured into the trough so as to immerse the
turmeric fingers. The whole mass is boiled till
the fingers become soft. This can be tested by
piercing with a wooden needle. If the needle
passes through the rhizome without much
resistance, the softness is confirmed. Usually
the boiling is continued for 45 to 60 minutes
until frothing occurs and white fumes appear
emitting a characteristic turmeric odour.
 Draying
Cooked fingers are dried in sun by spreading them in 5-7 cm thick
layers on bamboo mats or on drying floor.
During night, rhizomes should be heaped or covered with any material. that
provides aeration.
It may take 10-15 days for drying.
Artificial drying, using cross-flow hot air at a maximum temperature of
60°C also gives a satisfactory product.
In sliced turmeric, artificial drying gives a brighter coloured product than
sun drying which tends to undergo surface bleaching.
Yield of dry product varies from 10-30 % depending upon variety and
locality.
Polishing
Dried turmeric has a poor appearance and a rough dull outer surface with scales and
root bits.
Appearance is improved by polishing outer surface by manual or mechanical
rubbing.
Turmeric is also polished in power operated drums.
Yield of polished turmeric from the raw material varies from 15-25 %.
Colouring
Colour of processed turmeric influences price of produce.
For an attractive product, turmeric powder may be sprinkled during last phase of
polishing.
 Colouring:
The colour of turmeric always attracts buyers.
The boiled, dried and half-polished fingers are placed in a basket, which is
shaken continuously in a prepared emulsion (The colour emulsion comprises of
alum (0.04 kg), turmeric powder (2 kg), castor seed oil (0.14 g) or sodium
bisulphate (30 g) and concentrated HC1 (30 m1).
They are later sun-dried.
 Grading :
Turmeric is included in the list of spices which must have an
Agmark grading before they can be exported from India.
Three grades of finger turmeric, two of bulb turmeric and one
grade of powdered turmeric are specified, as follows:
a. Finger turmeric, other than the Alleppey variety is sub-
graded into 'Special' Good' and 'Fair.
b. Alleppey finger turmeric is sub-graded into 'Good' and
'Fair'.
c. Rajapore finger turmeric is sub-graded into 'Special'. 'Good'
and 'Fair'.
Storage
The polished turmeric is stored in double gunny bags in
ware houses.
Well dried turmeric (< 5% moisture) is not susceptible to
any mould growth/disease problem.
Fresh rhizomes : 25-30 t/ha
Cured rhizomes : 5-6 t/ha
Preservation of seed rhizomes
1. Rhizomes for seed purpose are generally stored by heaping in well
ventilated rooms and covered with turmeric leaves.
2. Pits with saw dust, sand along with leaves of Stychnos nuxvomica
(Kanjiram). The pits are to be covered with wooden planks with one
or two openings for aeration. The rhizomes are to be dipped in
quinalphos (0.075 per cent) solution for 15 minutes if scale
infestations are observed and in mancozeb (0.3 per cent) to avoid
storage losses due to fungi.

3. Storage of seed rhizomes in open sand media with partial closed

pandal system recorded the highest percentage of germination (96 per
cent), less weight loss (4.1 per cent) and high seedling vigour (22.8
cm)
 Value-added products
The value-added products of turmeric are curcuminoids, dehydrated
turmeric powder, oil and oleoresin.
 KOKUM
Kokum or Kokam (Garcenia indica Choisy) of the family Guttiferae is also known as ‘kokum
butter tree’, ‘Brindonia tallow tree’ or ‘mangosteen oil tree’. It’s fruits, seeds, dry rind and bark are
the economic parts. Out of more than 200 species, 36 species of Garcinia occur in India. Among these
[Link] (combogea) and [Link] have medicinal value and are also used as spice.
[Link] and [Link] are also cultivated for their fruit and Gambodge, respectively.

The fruits, seeds, dry rind contain mainly tartaric acid, garcinol, reducing sugars and fat. Kokum
bears small to medium sized fruits whose per cent composition of the fresh rind is as follows; moisture
80.0; protein (N x 6.25) 1.9; crude fibre 14.3, total ash 2.6; tannins 2.8; pectin 5.7; starch 1.0; crude fat
hexane extract 10.0; acid (as hydroxy citric acid) 22.8; pigment 2.4; ascorbic acid 0.06; carbohydrates
by difference 35.0. All values are expressed on moisture-free basis. The seeds yield 31% edible fat.

Kokum has been traditionally used as an acidulant in certain foods and is locally called
Punarpuli and amsul, respectively in some regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra. It is specially used
in fish fries/curries, as it imparts a delicate flavour with its minimal use. It is also used to make a red
pleasantly-flavoured extract for use as a beverage. A very popular product. ‘Amrut kokum’ which is a
syrup is usually pressed from the rind of kokum. Besides kokum nectar, squash, agal are also prepared
from the rind. The fruit has an agreeable flavour and a sweetish acid taste it is used in konkan area
chiefly in the form of kokan prepared by drying the outer rind, soaking it repeatedly in the juice of the
pulp and sun drying. Kokam contains about 10% malic acid and a little tartaric and citric acids. It is
used as a garnish to give an acid flavour to curries and also to preparing cooling attractive red coloured
syrups during hot months.

Kokam rind contain 2-3% anthocyanin pigments and is a promising source of a natural
colourant for acid foods. The processing conditions have been established at CFTRI, Mysore for the
extraction and purification of the pigment concentrate on a commercial scale. As a colourant, kokam
finds use in the area of processed fruit products, alcoholic and non alcoholic beverages, preserves and
instant foods.

A process has also been standardized for making a concentrate which can be used as an
acidulant in various food preparations. The acid present in the kokam rind has been identified as
hydroxy citric acid (HCA) present to the extent of 15%. Isolation of the acid in a pure form has been
carried out on a small scale. The acid finds a potential application in medicine, and is widely used
against obesity and weight management. HCA is said to block the enzyme responsible for storing fat
in our body. It is also reported that liver produces more glycogen when HCA is present and suppresses
appetite. HCA also burns fat. Further, HCA slows down the oxidation of protein and hence loss of clean
tissue reducing while reducing obesity.

A new fat-soluble yellow pigment, namely garcinol has also been isolated from the fruit rind.
The chemical identity of this pigment has been established by chemical and spectral studies, and an
integrated process to extract it from kokam has also been developed at the CFTRI. Thus, the kokam
fruit appears to be a promising industrial raw material for commercial exploitation in view of its
interesting chemical constitutes.

The fruit is anthelmintic and cardiotonic, and useful in piles, dysentery, tumours, pains and
heart complaints. A syrup from the fruit juice is given in bilious affections. The root is stringent. The
seeds (8-10%) of the fruit yield 23-26% on the weight of seeds and about 33-44% on the weight of
kernels, a valuable edible fat known in commerce as ‘Kokam butter’. It is extracted mostly on a cottage
industry basis by crushing the kernels, boiling the pulp in water and skimming off the fat from the top;
or churning the crushed pulp with water. It is white in colour with yellowish tinge. It remains solid at
room temperature. Importantly, it has good export potential.

Kokam butter is considered nutritive, demulcent, astringent and emollient. It is suitable for
ointments, suppositories and other pharmaceutical purposes. It is used as a local application to
ulcerations and fissures of lips, hand, etc. The cake left after the extraction of oil is used as manure.

The physico-chemical characteristics of the fat are as follows – melting point 39O-43OC, Ref.
index at 40OC 14565-14575; sap value: 187-191.7; iodine value 25-34. Unsap mat 14to 23%; R.M. value
0.1-1.0; and free fatty acids (as oleic acid) 7.2%.

Kokam butter as sold in bazzars, consists of egg-shaped lumps or cakes of light grey or
yellowish colour with a greasy feel and a bland oily taste. It is used mainly as an edible fat and is also
used as an adulterant of ghee. As ordinarily seen, it contains seed particles as impurities. Refined and
deodorised fat is white in colour and compares favourably with high class hydrogenated fats. It is also
used in the preparation of chocolate and confectionery.

The butter, like other Garcinia fats, is rich in combined stearic and oleic acids. It contains about
75% of mono-oleodisaturated glycerides. It is suitable for use as confectionery butter. However, as it
solidifies with a rough surface, addition of another fat is necessary to correct the defect. It is also
suitable for candle and soap manufacture.

A method has been developed for the production of stearic acid from the fat with a yield of
4.57%. It possesses properties similar to piney tallow (from Vateria indica) and may be employed in
the sizing of cotton yarn.

The fat is also used in the manufacture of soap, candle and ointments. An ointment made out
of kokam fat, while dammar resin (resin exuded by Varteria indica tree) and wax is said to be effective
in treating carbuncles. It is reported that Italy and some other foreign countries are importing kokam
fat from India for use in confectionery.

Origin and distribution

Kokum tree originated from tropical rain forests of Western ghats of Kerala and
Malaysia. Its cultivation is confined to the coastal hilly regions of Maharastra and Goa states
and is popularly known as ‘Ratamba’. Some kokum trees are also observed in Tamil Nadu, the
Western ghat forests of Karnatka, Kerala as well as in parts of West Bengal, Assam and Gujrat.
It is reported to flourish well on the lower slopes of the Nilgiri hills.
Kokum is reported to be imported in to Japan, Taiwan, USA, Zangibar etc., from India.

Description of the plant

Kokum is a slender pyramid shaped evergreen tree with drooping branches, leaves ovate or
oblong, leanceolate, 6.25 to 8.75 cm long and 2.5 to 3.75 cm broad, dark green above and pale
beneath. It is an androdioceious tree producing male and bisexual flowers is separate plants, flowers
during. December-January on past seasons shoot in the axil of leaves. Flowers, pale yellow in colour
are borne either singly/solitary or in clusters, female flowers are 2-3 in number and male flowers are
3-4 in number. Male buds are short and roundish whereas, female buds are oval in shape and show
variation in the size, their weight varies from 50 g to 180 g, fruits globose or spherical 2.5 to 3.75 cm
diameter, dark purple when ripe enclosing 5-8 large seeds, fruit has 7-10 ridges, it takes 4-5 months
for ripening. It takes about 8-10 years for commercial bearing when grown by seeds. The fruits are
edible with agreeable pleasant flavour and sour – sweetish taste inducing cool feeling.

Climate and soil

In its natural habitant, it comes up well in hot humid climate under partial shade. The
soil should be well drained, deep and have good water holding capacity. However, the crop can
also be grow on sandy, clayey, loamy and lateritic soils which can hold moisture. It tolerates
water logged conditions and also drought conditions, to some extent. It thrives well all along
the river and sea shores. When grown in transition belts and drier track plants should be
irrigated preferably through drip irrigation. Clear cut cultivation details are not available for its
cultivation in traditional areas. The tree favours dry and warm condition, also comes up well
under shade to some extent.
Varieties
After studying and evaluating the local types collected from all over konkan for several years,
a variety ‘Konkan Amrita’ (S-8) was released in 1998 from Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli,
Maharastra. A full bearing tree of this improved variety attains a height of 10.3 m having 48.58 m 2
volume. This is an early bearer and the fruits could be harvested well before the onset of monsoon. It
has the shortest harvesting period (78 days) and lowest number of harvests (3). It bears attractive
apple-shaped fruits with maximum shelf-life (15 days). The average fruit yield is 138.28 kg/tree/year.

For the development of superior genotypes, the germplasm of kokum are being evaluated for
(1) earliness (2) big size fruits with high juice content (3) better processing characters and (4) altractive
colour and shape of fruit at the Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla, Dist. Sindhudurg,
Maharastra. Some of the accessions collected at this Research Station recently are described below.

Accession No. Characters

KV-18 Big size fruits with attractive red colour
KV-19 Early type with big size and attractive coloured fruits
KV-20 Red attractive colour
KV-21 Attractive blood red colour
KV-22 Red with white stripe fruits
KV-23 Early type
KV-27 Early type, heavy yielder
KV-29 Early bearing type
KV -32 Early flowering male plant
KV -35 Very early type, male
KV-38 Very early type, male
Trade varieties
 There are several trade varieties of Kokum available in Indian markets, viz., (i) Plain kokum
(ii) Satted kokum (iii) Lonawala kokum (iv) Pakali kokum (v) Khane or edible kokum and (vi) Khola
kokum.

Cultivation
Propagation
Traditionally kokum is propagated by seeds. In this method, the main problems are long
gestation period, bigger growth (plant) size, and it was not possible to differentiate male and bisexual
plants. Further plant selection for quality and yield was not possible. Seeds take more time to
germinate (more than 7 months) when they are in dorment condition and it can be overcome by
treating, the seeds in 500 ppm GA3 for about 12 hours.

However, recently high yielding clones are used for soft wood grafting. Grafting is done using
one year old comboge root stock and nine month old orthortrophic scion shoots of 6-8 cm length for
soft wood grafting is good. June is supposed to be the best month for grafting. The other root stocks
used are Garcenia indica and Garcenia tintoria. Planting material is available with Indian Institute of
Spice Research, Calicut, Indian spice associates Koppa (Chikkamagalore) and Konkan Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Dapoli (Garcenia indica).

Land preparation
Field should be prepared thoroughly by ploughing and breaking the clods, about 25 tons of
Farm Yard Manure can be incorporated in to the soil at the time of final ploughing.

Planting
Though it is suggested to plant seedlings at a spacing of 8 x 8 m or 10 x 10 m and grafts at a
spacing of 5 x 5 m, it is not advisable to go for seedlings. Grafts are of compact size and fits as an
intercrop and suits for higher density planting (200 plants/ha) both in coconut and arecanut. The pit
size should be 1 m3 and pit should have sufficient organic manure and plants should be mulched. One
year old plants are best for planting. Another possibility is in-situ grafting. Seedlings can be planted
prior to mansoon or even in summer under drip irrigation. These can be grafted using elite clones from
bisexual plants.

After care
Kokum has to be irrigated once in 7-10 days in summer and the planted area should be
kept weed free. It does not require any fertilizers. However, about 40 kg of Farm Yard Manure
needs to supplied to get higher yields.

Intercropping

Under protective irrigation of drip it is possible to grow kokum as an inter crop in coconut
garden. Generally 5 x 5 m spacing is suggested so that one row of kokum can be planted in between
two rows of coconut. It is also possible to grow them in arecanut gadens, but arecanut should be
widely spaced (10 x 10 m) and under closer spacing, at later stage the yield of arecanut may be
affected. The crop can also be tried in cardamom plantations also.
Pests and diseases

Kokum is not affected by any pests or diseases of serious nature.

Harvesting and yield

Kokum plants starts bearing after 7-8 years after planting and harvesting is done when the
fruits are mature and ripe which takes about 5 months after flowering. Kokum flowers in November-
February and fruits ripen in April-May. Usually the fruits will drop down after they also fully ripe. Since
male and female flowers are borne in separate trees (diecious) the grown up seedlings are separated
as productive female plants and unproductive male plants.

Immediately after harvest, fruits are cut opened and the seeds along with the pulp are
separated, then the rind can be dried under sun or smoke for about 1-2 weeks, and rind turns to coal
colour and imparts characteristic flavour. The dried rinds used for culinary purposes can be preserved
by rubbing them with salt and coconut oil which further improves appearance and quality. The dried
rind fetches about Rs.200/kg in the local market. A well maintained bearing tree (5-7 years) gives an
yield of 300 to 400 kg of fresh fruits. Farmers can get very high returns with minimum inputs and with
little care from this plant.

Packaging and storage

Kokum is packed in gunny bags. The life of fresh fruits is about 5 days at room temperature.
Hence, sun-drying is practiced for its longer preservation.

Value added products

Dried green kokum rind

This product is prepared from the native green kokum fruits. The fruits are cut into four
longitudinal pieces and kept in a solution of potassium metabisulphide for two hours and then dried
at 50 to 55OC temperature in a dryer or in sun.

Kokum syrup (Amrit kokum)

This product is prepared from the fresh ripe kokum rind by adding cane sugar at the rate of
1:2 proportion. The mixture is kept as such preferably in sunlight, after packing in glass container for
8 days stirring occasionally. The mixture is strained through muster cloth and the syrup is stored in the
food grade plastic container or in glass bottles. If required, the preservative viz., sodium benzoate is
used at the rate of 160 mg/kg of syrup. This product is required to be diluted 5 to 6 times with water
before consumption as sharabat. A pinch of common salt and cumin powder are added for taste.

Dried ripe kokum rind

The ripe kokum rind is dried under sun or in a cabinet drier at 60OC temperature. It is treated
with brined kokum juice and again dried, this is done for five minutes. The finally dried product is used
in curry in place of tamarind.

Kokum agal (brined kokum juice)

 This product is prepared either from ripe kokum fruit rind, unripe kokum fruit rind and pulp
or only from pulp. For preparing this product 15 to 16 per cent common salt is mixed with the fruit
part. The mixture is kept for 8 days by occasional stirring and the extracted kokum juice is strained and
stored in food grade plastic container or glass bottles. This product is used for making ‘skolkadhi’ a
refreshing drink after lunch.

Kokam butter, kokum oil, stearic acid from Kokum fat, Kokum concentrate, Kokum rind acid,
Kokum colour ointiment, garcinol, gamboges are the other value added products of Kokum. Stearic
acid is obtained from Kokum fat. The Kokum fat is rich in combined stearic and oleic acids.

Constraints for area expansion

Kokum trees are found scattered on roadsides, in Jungle, backyard of houses, waste
lands and in coconut and arecanut plantation. Kokum is not cultivated systematically. This is
mostly because of certain specific problems in this crop. They are as under:
➢ Dioecious nature of the plant, where the sex of the plant is confirmed only after completion
of juvenile period i.e, after 7 to 10 years.
➢ Fifty per cent plants being male are unproductive
➢ Large variation in quality and quantity of fruits due to seedling progenies
➢ Late bearing and harvesting period which extends in rainy season leading to loss of fruits.
➢ Grafted plant is unable to gain normal shape and becomes bushy, irregular and viny. The
internodal length is reduced.
➢ Lack of scientific studies on sex variability and productivity of different types.
 Tamarind
Tamarindus indica
Imli, Hunase
Family - Caesalpinaceae
(2n=24)

tree of semi-arid tropical

conditions suited for Dry
Land Horticulture
Every part of the plant is used for different purposes.
The ripe fruit (pod) - 55% tamarind pulp, 33% seeds and 12% fiber.
fruit pulp is sweetish or acidic in taste - condiment - as an acidulant
like amchur or kokum
pulp - serving curries, chutneys, sauces, soups, sambar, rasam etc.
pulp - carminative, laxative, appetizing - cures vata, pitta and kapha
and wounds and fractures.
The tamarind kernel powder (TKP) is used as a sizing (gelatinous)
material in textile and leather industry
fruit pectin's.
seeds are used as a source of carbohydrates for
paper and jute products.
seeds -fatty oil which is used in paints and
varnishes.
Tamarind wood - making agricultural
implements
The leaves, flowers, unripe fruits and bark -
medicinal uses.
The plant acts as a good wind-break.
Original and distribution
Native:- Africa
India and Burma,
India - Bihar, Orissa, parts of Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
About 2,50,000 MT of fruit are marketed within the country and
in America.
tamarind is being exported to 46 other countries of which
Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Japan and Germany are the major
countries importing tamarind from India.
Description of the plant
Semi evergreen tree, height of 24 m
Inflorescences - racemes
Climate
semi-arid tropical regions with alternate wet and dry seasons,
but it can be grown in heavy rainfall areas also,
RF-500-1500 mm, temperature 0- 46OC
It can withstand drought, but is sensitive to frost.
1000 m above mean sea level.
flowering - March.
Soil
variety of soils ranging from gravely to deep alluvial soils. But,
deep, loamy or alluvial soils- ideal.
Varieties
‘brown sour types’ and ‘reddish sweet types’.
local types - Bangalore Tamarind, Tumkur Tamarind, Hosur
Tamarind, Krishnagiri Tamarind, Natham Tamarind, Nagarkoil
Tamarind, Villupuram Tamarind, Ranchi Tamarind
A few improved varieties of tamarind are
PKM-1 - early variety yielding 263 kg pods per tree with a pulp
content of 39%. spacing of 10 m x 10 m.
The variety is characterized by purple pigmentation in the
terminal buds, stems dark brown in colour, fruits borne in clusters
of 4-5 nos, they are slightly curved with brown pulp.
Urigam - long pods having fleshy sweet pulp. It bears 2-3 pods
per bunch. The fruit yield is low when compared to PKM-1.
 Pratisthan - sweet pulped high yielding variety of tamarind
released from Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani.
NTI-19 (DST–1)-yield well in Dharwad region of
Karnataka. The pods are big and the grafted plants start yielding
in 4-5 years of planting. The average yield per plant is about 3 kg
at 5th year.
Red Tamarind
The variety is recommended for cultivation by the Tamil
Nadu Agriculture University. The pulp is red in colour which has
a great demand in Arabian countries.
GKVK-6 and GKVK-33
These two are local types released by the Division of
Horticulture, UAS, Gandhi Krish Vignana Kendra, Bangalore.
 Propagation
Seeds,
seed – nursery bed – polyethylene bags - about 3-6 months old
seedlings are transplanted in the main field. But 12-15 months old
seedlings of about 75-100 cm in height are preferred for planting.
Cuttings, gootee, grafting (approach or soft wood grafting)
and budding (patch budding).
Softwood grafting is done using 6-12 months old root-stocks.
Spacing - 10 m x 10 m or 13 m x 13 m for seedlings and 6.5 m x
6.5 m for buddings and grafts.
FYM- 15-25 kg, 100 g. Super phosphate and 1 ½ kg neem cake per
pit.
seedling tree budded/grafted
1st Year- NPK- 73:18:68 g/plant 36:09:34 g/plant
10th Year- NPK- 730:180:680 g/plant 365:90:340 g/plant
Inter crops
Amla, Pomegranate, Karonda, Anona
Pests and diseases
Fruit borer
Powdery mildew, sap rot , sooty mould,
 Harvesting and yield
The seedling plants start yielding in 8-12 years whereas,
budded/grafted plants in 4-5 years after planting.
Harvesting is done during January-April, average yield being
25 t of pods per hectare (180-225 kg/fully grown tree).
The budded/grafted plants yield 100 kg per tree per year.
Storage
Tamarind can be stored after removing the seed.
Tamarind pulp absorbs more moisture from air there by the
reducing sugars and amino acid present in pulp get changed and
gives dark colour to the pulp.
Stored in air tight constrainers.
Pulp and salt can be mixed and packed in palmyrah leaf
before sending to market.
In West Indies sugar is mixed with pulp and is being exported
to Europe.
 Value added products of tamarind
The CFTRI Mysore - tamarind concentrate which is free
from fiber, seeds, foreign matter, etc., and is very hygienic - demand
for it from abroad.
It is almost of jam consistency.
It is easily dispensable in hot water at the time of its use and is
being exported to other countries.
A powder made from the kernel of tamarind seeds is also being
exported from India.
CFTRI, Mysore - tamarind powder, beverages, pectin, tartarates
and ethanol (alcohol) from tamarind pulp.
 CURRY LEAF

S.N. : Murraya koenigii

Family : Rutaceae, 2n=18
English name: curry leaf
Indian name : Barsanga (Hindi), karibevu (Kannada)
Curry leaf of commerce - fresh and dry leaves
Curry leaf is a spicy leafy vegetable used in our day-to-day culinary
preparations, mainly to increase the flavour and taste of food.
economic part - leaf - slightly pungent, bitter with feebly acidic taste
and the leaves retain their flavour and other qualities even after drying.
The fresh leaves contain 2.6% of a volatile oil (curry leaf oil) -
fixative for heavy type of soap perfume.
Rectified curry-leaf oil is deep yellow in colour with a strong
spicy odour and pungent clove-like taste.
The leaves, bark and the root - medicine - tonic, stomachic,
stimulant and carminative
The juice of the root is taken to relieve pain associated with the
kidney.
The fruit is edible. It yields 0.76% of a yellow volatile oil
Origin and distribution
Native -Terai region of Uttar Pradesh in India
Andaman Islands upto an altitude of 1500 m.
Sri Lanka, China, Pakistan, Australia and the Pacific Islands
Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and South and the
South western States.
On a commercial scale, it is cultivated in large areas in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Botany
The plant is an attractive aromatic more or less deciduous shrub
(0.9 m) or a small tree that grows up to 6 m height
The tree bears flowers from February-May
Self-pollinated
There are two important species:
Murrya paniculata - Chinese box wood (or) Andaman satin wood.
Murraya exotica - A popular hedge and well adapted for topiary.
Climate:
Curry leaf is hardy crop can tolerate higher temperature ranging from
26° to 37°C.
Soil: Curry leaf can be cultivated in a wide range of soils.
Red sandy loam with good drainage is ideal for its better growth and
leaf yield.
To a certain extent, also it can tolerate drought.
Heavy clay with poor drainage is not suitable for its cultivation.
Varieties
1. Senkaampu:
It is a local cultivar grown in different parts of Tamil Nadu.
The petiole is purplish-red in colour.
The leaves have a good aroma and flavour due to its high oil content.
2. DWR-1 (Suvasini)
It is developed by UAS, Dharwad,
dark green, highly aromatic, shining leaves.
It is sensitive to low temperature in the winter
The leaves are dark green, shiny and highly quality (5-22 % oil) and
made into dry powder.
The plant could be trained to grow as a low bush (up to 90- 120 cm
height). This variety is resistant to leaf-spot.
3. DWR-2
This is an open-pollinated seed progeny with pale green leaves with
less aroma (5.09%).
It is not very sensitive to low winter temperature
It is also 8 times higher in the growth of shoot length and weight of
new shoots than DWR-1.
Due to its winter tolerance, it can give extra income to growers.
Cultivation
Propagation
seeds
raised -nursery beds or poly bags - good and well-ripened fruits
from high yielding mother trees.
fruits - July-August
vegetative propagation - root suckers, semi hard wood cuttings
Soft wood cuttings - 600 ppm IBA induced rooting upto 23 %.
One year old root suckers are used.
micro propagation - Nodal segments from matured trees
Land preparation and planting
FYM @ 20-26 tonnes/ha. is applied. Pits of 30 cm3 or 60 cm3
size are dug, at a spacing of 1.2-1.5 m or 3 x 1.5 m
HDP- 90 x 90 cm - soils with low fertility.
June-July planting is the best.
Use of growth regulators-
GA at 100 ppm increased length of new shoots, intermodal
length, number of new shoots and number of leaves in DWD-2
variety.
NPK(g/plant) N P2O5 K2O
1st year 50 25 25
2nd year 150 37 37
3rd year 300 50 50
Irrigation:
Light irrigation is given immediately after planting.
Later stages - once in a week.
Intercropping
cowpea, black gram, green gram or soybean first year.
Pruning and training
In the initial stage, the terminal bud is allowed to grow upto an
height of 1 m.
After attaining this height, it is cut off to encourage basal branching.
This will maintain the plant in a bushy state so as to facilitate the
harvesting and other operations.
About 5-6 branches are maintained per bush.
Branches which grow tall in a vertical fashion have to be removed so
that it will not become a tree.
The first harvest started ten to 12 months after planting.
Harvesting and yield
The plants allowed to grow up to an height of 1 to 1.5 m – 1st year and
it will be harvested at this stage.
The economic yields - 2nd year onwards.
While harvesting, the new shoots produced above the final pruning are
harvested with sharp knives at the dense green leaf stage,
crop is harvested four times in a year with an interval of three months.
The yield of leaves per hectare is given below:
I year 250-400 kg of leaves/ha
II year : 1800 kg/ha once in 4 months, which works out to 5400 kg/ha
per year
III year: Around 5400 kg/year.
IV year : 2500 kg/ha once in 3 months, which works out to 10,000
kg/ha/year
V year onwards: 5000 kg/ha once in 3 months, which works out to
20,000 kg/ha
The plants can be maintained for 25 years.
Post harvest management:
The young shoots with tender leaves are harvested, packed in gunny
bags or tied in bundles and transported.
The leaves are dried and ground into powder and used as curry-leaf
powder.
Value-added products
volatile oil and dehydrated curry leaves.
 GINGER Zingiber officinale Rosc

Zingiberaceae, 2n=22
Sanskrit Adraka Hindi - Adrak,
English : Ginger, Kannada : Shunti
One of the oldest known spices,
Esteemed for its aroma and pungency
(Distinct).
Ginger of commerce fresh and dry
rhizome of Zingiber officinale.
Fresh and dry ginger in cooking (aroma, flavour and
Pungency).
Ginger beer, ginger wine, cordials and carbonated drinks
in confectionery, pickles and pharmaceutical
preparations.
Relieves flatulence, stimulates the gastrointestinal tract
and acts as a rubefacient and counter-irritant.
A daily intake of 5 g of ginger - protect against coronary
artery disease (CAD) that normally afflicts individuals
who habitually consume fatty food.
Ginger also increases fibrinolytic activity and thereby
protects against CAD.
EO and oleoresin - manufacture of flavouring essences
and in perfumery.
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION:
Origin- South-East Asia, (Under cultivation in India and China from ancient
times).
Spread throughout tropical and subtropical regions in both hemispheres
(easiness of carrying the rhizomes)
India, China, Jamaica, Taiwan, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Figi, Mauritius,
Indonesia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Ghana, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Trinidad, Uganda, Hawaii, Guatemala and many Pacific
ocean islands.
Ginger was grown on west coast of India from time immemorial and later on
its cultivation spread to various other parts mainly to Bengal and North
Eastern India.
Ginger was exported from ancient Malabar coast of Peninsular India.
Arabs, Portuguese and the Dutch took it to western world.
'Cochin ginger' was the most sought after commodity in spice trade between
India and Europe.
Kerala, Orissa, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and Karnataka
Karnataka, Coorg, Chikkamagalore, Hassan and Shimoga
Area and Production:
India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of ginger.
The annual production is about 9.431akh tonnes from an area of about 1.71
lakh ha contributing approximately 30 to 40 % of world production.
Gujarat stands first in productivity with 15.89 tonnes/ha, followed by
Uttaranchal (10.10 tonnes/ha),
During 2010-11, India exported 26699.73 tonnes of ginger valued at Rs.
87813.42 lakhs. (USA, Vietnam, UK etc)
Area (%) Production
Karnataka 27.21 17.85
Orissa 10.01 13.42
Assam 9.58 11.94
Meghalaya 5.52 5.61
Arunachal Pradesh 3.86 5.55
Gujarat 2.56 7.38
Botany
Ginger, monocotyledon, slender, perennial herb, grown as an
annual.
30-100 cm tall, robust branched rhizome borne horizontally near
the surface of the soil, bearing leafy shoots close together.
The fleshy, sympodial rhizome is hard, thick, somewhat laterally
compressed, often palmately branched and usually pale yellow
within.
It is covered with small distichous roots in the top layers of the
soil.
The leafy shoots are annual,
erect, about 50 cm tall and 5 mm
in diameter.
The aerial pseudostems usually
bear 8-12 distichous leaves.
The inflorescence arises directly
from the root-stock, is spicate and
15-25 cm long.
 Chemical composition
• Ginger rhizomes contain startch-40.4-59%
• Crude fibre- 4.8- 9.8%
• Essential oil 1-2.7%
• Fixed oil, pungent compounds, resins, proteins
and mineral elements.
• Of these pungency levels, volatile oil contents
and fibre are important.
Climate
Requires a warm and humid climate.
The plant thrives 0-1500 m msl in the Himalayas, (optimum 300 - 900 m msl).
Well distributed rainfall (150 – 300 cm) during growing season and dry spells
during land preparation as well as before harvest are required for large scale
cultivation of crop. In areas receiving less rainfall, the crop needs regular
irrigation.
Day temperature ranges from 28-300 C.
Soil
Ginger can be grown in a wide range of well drained soils of at least 30 cm depth,
ranging from heavy laterite loams to clayey loam.
Laterite loams containing not more than 30 % sand or 20 % clay and free from
gravel are
The ideal soils are sandy loams, red loams, clayey barns, lateritic soils and black,
rich clay soils.
It is very sensitive to water-longging and therefore such situations should be
avoided.
The ideal soil pH range for the crop is 5.5 to 6.5.
Cultivars and varieties:

The local cultivars are usually named after the areas where they are cultivated.
The popular local cultivars are Wynad, Manathodi, Narasapatnam, Thaiguppa
and Karkala, Kuruppampadi, Maran, Nadia, Thodupuzha, Jamaica and
Himachal Pradesh.
The exotic varieties Rio de Janeiro and China are also popular and are in
cultivation.
• Varieties of ginger suitable for different end uses

High yield of dry rhizome Karakkal, Nadia, Bajpai and Maran,

Mananthody, Valluvanad and
Kuruppampadi
High oil Sleeva local, Narasappattan, Chernad,
Himachal
Yield of fresh rhizome- Rio-de-Janeiro, Kuruppampady,China,
Wynad local, Tafengiya
Low fibre content- China, Nadia, Jamica, Bangkok,

Oleoresin Ernad, Chernad, China, Kuruppampadi

and Rio-de-Janeiro
Varieties
Suprabha-selection from kundali local(PGS-
35)variety. It has got bold rhizomes and suitable for
fresh and dry ginger production. Duration is 7-8
months and 8.9% oleoresin and 1.9% essential oil
Suruchi- selection from kundali local(PGS-19)variety.
Rhizomes are thin and reddish brown coloured. Can
be grown under rainfed and irrigated crop and crop
duration 7-8months. 10% oleoresin, 2% essential oil.
Suravi- durn-7-8 m, bold rhizomes, dark brown
coloured and 10.2% oleoresin and 2.1% essential oil
content. Suited for rainfed as well as irrigated
conditions.
Himgiri- New variety of ginger released by college of
Forestry and Horticulture, Solan.
State Cultivars
Andhra Pradesh Local types i.e., Medak and Tuni
Ar P Shiilong
Bihar Desi and Dorabhanya
Gujarat Local types named after the localitites
Haryana and Punjab Local types named after localities
Himachal Pradesh Himachal No 1, SG 666, SG 645, and Narag
J&K Himachal No 1
Karnataka Wynad, Mananthodi, Narasapatnam, Thaiguppa and
Karkala
Kerala Kuruppampadi, Wynad Local, Valluvanad, Maran, Nadia,
Maran/Lodi, Ernad, thodupuzha, Rio de Janeiro,
Jamaica.
MP Local ginger, types found in Tikkamgarh, chindwara and Bastar
districts
MH Local types
Manipur Shing type, Thingpuri and Shingtam
Meghalaya Nadia, Poona, Rio de Janeiro, Wynad, Thingpuri, and Maran
Mizoram Thingpuri, Maran and Rio de Janeiro
Nagaland Rio de Janeiro
Orissa Kuruppampadi, Wynad types, Local types
sikkim Gurubathane, Bhaisey, Nadia, Rio de Janeiro, thingpuri
TN Rio de Janeiro, Maran, Nadia
Tripura Himachal No 1 and Local types
UP Localtypes named after localities
WB Gurubathan, Sambuk-A, Turuksadan, Malli, Rio de Janeiro,
Thingauri, Maran, Tura and Bombay Desi
 Propagation
• Rhizome propagated .
• Seed rate -1500 kg/ha .
• Healthy and disease free plants in the field are marked when
the crop is 6-8 months old and still green.
• Select the best rhizomes free from pests and diseases from
marked plants.
• Rhizomes are handled carefully to avoid damage to buds. Soak
the selected rhizomes for 30 min in 3g mancozeb and 2 ml
quinolphos /lit
• Dry the treated rhizomes in shade by spreading on floor which
is lined with sand or saw dust. Pits are covered with coconut
fronds.
• The rhizomes are examined at monthly intervals and before
planting the same treatment as above is given.
• Seed rhizomes size of 15 g with one or two viable buds is
recommended in India.
 Land preparation, planting
• Ploughed 4-5 times to bring to fine tilth.
• Beds of Length 3m-5m x 0.90m width and 15 cm ht at 40
cm spacing are prepared.
• 2000 beds of 3m-5mx0.90m are prepared /ha land
• Planting is done in shallow pits, 4-5 cm deep, on 15 cm
high beds.
• 3mx1m size beds can accommodate 40 plants.
• Spacing in the beds is 30cmx20cm is given.
• Fertilizers: 100: 50:50 kg/ha of NPK and 25 tons.
• Treated rhizomes should be stored in shaded places or
thatched houses on sand and covered with dry leaves.
Rhizomes can also be stored in Zero Energy Cool
Chamber till planting is done.
 Irrigation, weeding, mulching
• In areas with low rainfall, irrigation is a must.
• As irrigated crop it is irrigated at fortnightly intervals
• 2-3 weedings are done during crop growth period
• First weeding is done just before mulching
• Next at monthly intervals
• 2,4-D can be applied as preemergent weedicide.
• Mulching helps in conservation of moisture and reduces
the weed growth.
• Crops rotated with ginger in kerala are tapioca, chilli, rice,
ragi, groundnut and maize. Ginger is also grown with
maize as a mixed crop and as an intercrop in arecanut
and coconut gardens.
 Pests and diseases

• Shoot borer- Cnogethes punctiferalis. – Larvae bores into

the shoots, and the plants wilt and eventually die.
Monocrotophos 1ml or 1.7ml dimethioate or 2ml
endosulphon per litre of water should be given as
prophylactic sprays. Seed rhizomes may be dipped in
0.1% quinolphos for 5 min before planting.
• Rhizome scale- can be controlled by application of
quinolphos or Fenthion 0.025%.
• Leaf roller – larvae cut and fold leaves, remain within and
feed on them. The adult larvae are medium sized and
have brownish black wings with large white spots. Sprays
of carbaryl 0.1%, Dimethoate or phosphomidon 0.05%
each checks the infestation.
• Soft rot or rhizome rot (Phythium
Diseases
apanidermatium, and Fusarium solani)-
• most serious disease of ginger.
• The bases of aerial shoots become soft,
watery and they rot.
• The affected plants become pale, followed by
complete yellowing and drying.
• The shoots fall and cease to produce
rhizomes.
• The infection also spreads to the rhizomes
and the inner tissues are reduced to a soft,
black and putrefying mass.
• The disease is favoured by high soil moisture
content of the soil with insufficient drainage.
management of disease
 Eradicate the infected plants and avoid the monocropping with
ginger.
 For fresh planting only sound, disease free and healthy seed
rhizomes.
 Before storing the rhizomes they are treated with 3 g mancozeb per
litre of water for 30 min and dried under the shade and stored.
 Planting is taken up in March wherever the disease incidence is
severe.
 Select well drained soils for planting
 Before planting treat the seed rhizomes with 6 g metalaxil /litre of
water and dip for 30 min before planting.
 While planting 100kg of neemcake with 1 kg trichoderma per acre
while planting.
 Mixed cropping with castor or redgram for providing shade to ginger
 Remove the diseased rhizomes and apply 3 g copper oxychloride
/litre of water.
 Leaf spot disease-Helminthosporium
• Appearance of small circular or semicircular
light yellow spots on the leaves and the spots
coalisce and there will drying of affected
leaves.
• Control:
• Spray 3g copper oxychloride per litre of water
and should be sprayed or spray 1% bordeaux
mixture
 Harvesting ,yield and processing of ginger
• 7-8 months, when leaves turn yellow and start drying
up.
• Before the digging out the rhizomes the plot should
be irrigated 4-5 days before harvesting.
• Yield of fresh rhizomes is from 15-20 tonnes per ha.
• Processed products of ginger are:
• Fresh (green) ginger
• Dry ginger
• Bleached ginger
• Preserved ginger in syrup
 Fresh or green ginger
• Fresh ginger is consumed as a vegetable spice, both
when immature and mature.
• It is of lesser importance in world trade, but in the local
market it is a major commodity.
• For preparation of green or fresh ginger the rhizomes
are washed in water for 2-3 times after harvest to
remove soil and dirt.
• Then the damaged and diseased rhizomes are
separated and graded depending upon the requirement
of the market.
 Dried ginger
• To obtain more pungent and aromatic spice, ginger should
be harvested at proper maturity and dried properly.
• For this purpose the harvested rhizomes are soaked in water
overnight and rubbed well to remove the adhering soil.
• The outer skin is removed with a split bamboo with a
pointed end, taking care to see that only the outer skin is
peeled as otherwise the essential oil glands beneath the skin
will also get damaged and thus the oleoresin will be lost.
• The peeled rhizome is washed and uniformly sun dried for a
week.
• It is also used for the extraction of ginger oleoresin, and
ginger oil.
 Bleached ginger

• The fresh rhizomes are peeled off and soaked

in 2% lime water for about 6 hours.
• The produce is then removed and dried for 5-
6 days and rubbed with a piece of gunny cloth
to give the desired dried appearance.
 Preserved ginger
• This is prepared from immature rhizomes, tender,
succulent, and mild in pungency, 7 months of age,
mostly for export purpose.
• Preserved ginger in sugar syrup and dried and coated
with crystalline sugar
 Ginger oleoresin
• Obtained by the solvent extraction of ginger
powder using organic solvents like acetone,
ethylene dichloride- aroma, flavour and
pungency.
• Ginger oil is distilled from the dried spice-
aroma and flavour of the spice but lacks the
pungency.
 Grading
• Classified as Malabar ginger (Cochin and Calicut ginger),
Assamese ginger and Himachal ginger.
• Bleached or limed Calicut ginger is mainly exported to the
Middle Eastern countries.
• Cochin dried ginger is about 20 mm long and has a light
brown to yellowish-gray colour,
• Calicut dried ginger is orange to reddish-brown in
colour and is generally considered to be inferior in quality
to the Cochin spice.
• Both types are graded prior to export into the following
categories, according to the number of fingers on the
rhizomes—B (three fingers), C (two fingers) and pieces
(individual finger).
 Storage of seed ginger
• Seed rhizomes should be stored properly in pits under the shade.
• The rhizomes usually harvested during December-January, have to
be preserved for about 4 months before planting (April-May).
• Good, disease-free, big, plump rhizomes should be selected for
seed purposes and treated with 0.25% organo-mercurial compound
for 10 minutes, against soft-rot disease, and then dried in the
shade.
• If the seed rhizome is infested with rhizome scale, it is advisable to
treat it with 0.05% Malathion or Dimethoate.
• Then, the seed rhizomes are loosely placed in pits of convenient
size to a height of 10-15 cm from the top and covered with a
wooden plank.
• The remaining surface is plastered with mud.
• In certain areas, the rhizomes are loosely heaped over a layer of
sand or paddy husk and covered with dry leaves
 CORIANDER
Coriandrum sativum L.
Umbelliferae / Apiaceae, 2n= 22
The essential oil – seeds- 0.1-0.7%.
The active principle - linalool.
Origin and distribution
Native -Eastern Mediterranean region or Southern Europe.
In India - Rajasthan, Gujarath, AP, Bihar, KNK, MH, MP, WB and TN.
In Karnataka- Darwad, Bijapur, Bagalkot, Chithradurga,
Chikkamagalore and Belgaum.
Area and production
In India, - Rajasthan stands 1st both in area as well as in production,
followed by AP, TN and MP.
KNK stands 5th - area and production
Botany:
The plant is a smooth, erect
annual herb, 30-90 cm high,
The plant comes to the flowering
stage in about 45-60 days after
sowing.
Flowers - compound terminal
umbels.
Fruit – schizocarp
Climate
Tropical crop - rabi season in areas that are free from severe frost
during the flowering and seed setting stages.
Dry and cold weather favours higher seed production.
Cloudy weather - flowering and fruiting stages increases pest and
disease incidence.
In WB and UP, the seeds are sown - rabi season, in MH - kharif,
in TN- kharif and rabi and in KNK- May to August and October to
January.
Soil
Both- irrigated and rain-fed crop.
irrigated crop - almost all types of soils, provided sufficient OM
A rain-fed crop - heavier types of soil - better WHC - heavy black,
clayey cotton soils and rich silt loams
Saline, alkaline and sandy soils are not suitable for this crop.
Varieties
Rajasthan Agricultural University.
1) RCr-41 - highly resistant to stem gall and wilt but only
moderately tolerant to powdery mildew.
2) Rcr-20 - It is moderately tolerant to powdery mildew, wilt as
well as stem gall.
3) RCr-435 - irrigated conditions
4) RCr-436
5) RCr-446 - irrigated conditions.
6) UD-20 - rain-fed conditions, resistant to wilt and stem gall
diseases
Gujarath Agricultural University:
1) GC-1- moderately tolerant to wilt and powdery mildew.
2) GC-2 -moderately tolerant to wilt and powdery mildew
Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University:
1) CS-4 (Sadhna) - tolerant to white fly and mites.
2) CS-6 (Swathi) - rain-fed and late-sown conditions.
3) CS-2 (Sindhu) - tolerant to wilt and powdery mildew and
resistant to aphids.
Tamilnadu Agricultural University:
1) CO-1- rain-fed conditions of the southern districts
of Tamil Nadu.
2) CO-2 - dual-purpose, It can be grown in waterlogged,
drought, saline and alkaline conditions.
3) CO-3
4) CS-287 - irrigated and rain-fed conditions
Rajendra Agricultural University, Bihar:
1) RD-44 (Rajendra Swathi)- It is resistant to stem gall and
moderately resistant to wilt, aphid and weevil.
Harayana Agricultural University:
1) DH-5
Central institute of Medicinal and Aromatic crops, Bangalore:
1) CIMPO, S-33
It is selection at the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic
Crops, Bangalore from the Bulgarian introduction.
The variety is a tall, late-maturing type with small seeds and can
yield 21 q/ha of seeds (three times more) compared to 7.5 q/ha
from the local cultivars.
I oil content of 1.3% as against 0.18% of the local, giving 27.5 2
kg/ha of oil which is seven times more compared with the local
variety.
DWD-3- UAS Dharwad,dual purpose,Rabi, 90days,
The other important cultivars are CS-15, CS-362, CS-52, CS-7,
CS-11, CS-358 Rcr-648, Hissar Anand, Pant Haritima, Azad
Dhania, Gwalior 5365, V1, V2, Naranul
Selection, NP (D) 95, NP (D) 172, NP (K) 24, Amber and Pusa
selection 360.
Varieties for seed purpose:
CS 2, MS 1, MS3, CS, 3 CS 4, CS 6, RCI, Karan (UD 41), UD 1,
UD 2, UD 20, UD 21, GAU 1, CIMPOS 33, CIMAPS 20, S 15 and
S 33.
Varieties for dual purpose :
CS 5, Co 1, Co 2, IARI S 360, IARI Seethal 36-3, CIMPOS 28,
and CIMPOS 52.
Cultivation
Propagation - seed.

Before sowing the seeds are rubbed until the two mesocarps are separated
Land preparation and sowing
irrigated crop - beds and channels of convenient size (3 x 2 m) are formed.
seed rate - 10-15 kg/ha - irrigated and 25-30 kg/ha -rain-fed crops.
seeds treated - Agrosan-GN or Carbendazim at 2 g /kg of seeds.
Sowing - broadcasting or by drills in rows at 20-30 x 10 cm spacing.
The seeding depth should not exceed 3.0 mm.
Soaking seeds in a solution of 50 ppm Gibberellic Acid is beneficial.
Seeds soaked in 1% Potassium dihydrogen phosphate solution - rain-fed
crop.
The seed germination - 10-15 days.
The thinning of plants is done after 30 days of sowing leaving only two
plants per hill.
Manures and fertilizers:
FYM- 10-20 t/ha
Fertilisers @ 40:40:40 or 30:40:20 kg or 15:40:20 or 35:35:35 or
20:30:20 NPK per hectare
Nitrogen - 2 split doses.
1st dose - at the time of sowing and the next one is applied after 6
weeks of sowing
A foliar application of Cu, Zn and Mo is reported to increase the
seed yield.
Irrigation
immediately after sowing - germination, later - 7-10 days intervals,
depending upon the soil and climatic conditions.
Inter-culture
weeding, hoeing and earthing-up should be done at 40-45 days after
sowing,
A spray of 250 ppm Cycocel (CCC) one month after sowing is
beneficial for the rain-fed crop.
 Use of growth regulators
GA 3 - 5 ppm upto 50 ppm - improves flowering, when sprayed at
the five-leaf stage
Soaking the seeds in 50 ppm IAA improves flowering
Magnesium chlorate at 8 kg/ha at the waxy stage of ripening
makes harvesting easier and improves the essential oil content.
Harvesting
Matures - 90-120 days- seed and 40 days - Leaves.
The kharif season crop matures earlier than the rabi season crop.
Harvesting has to be done when the fruits or 50% of seeds are
fully ripe and start changing from green to brown colour.
High yields could be obtained when the plants are harvested at the
stage where 100% of the fruits turn yellow.
For harvesting, plants can either be uprooted or cut back using
sickles.
Dried, the grains are separated by beating them gently against the
threshing floor.
The grains are winnowed and stored in a moisture-free godown,
till they are sold.
Yield
seed yield of 400 to 500 kg/ha under rain-fed conditions and 1000
to 1250 kg/ha under irrigated conditions
Pest and diseases
Aphids-Myzus persicae, Hyadaphis coriandri
• Dimethoate at 10 days interval effective.
Red mites-Petrobia latens, weevils, stink bugs, leaf eating
caterpillers, white fly - Dicofol 0.3% (mites)
Thrips- Scirtothrips dorsalis, thrips tabaci and cutworms
Storage pests- Fumigation with suphur dioxide
Diseases-
Wilt- Fusarium oxysporum f [Link] - Trichoderma viride
Powdary mildew-Erysiphae polygoni - wettable sulphur 0.3%
Downy mildew Peronospora umbellifarum
Blight – Alternaria - 0.2% of Mancozeb
Stem gall c.o.- Protomyces macrosporus- Galls appear on the leaves
and stems of the plants – seed treatment, fungicide spray and
crop rotation
FENNEL
Foeniculum vulgare Miller
Apiaceae, 2n=22
Saunf, Sonp (Hindi)
Seed oil - anethole.
Fennel oil of good quality - 50-60% transanethole.
Indian fennel oil contains over 70% anethole and 6% fenchone.
Origin and distribution
Native - Southern Europe, Asia and Africa.
Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujharat, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh.
Karnataka, - Belgaum and Dharwad districts.
The major types of fennel in the world market are Indian fennel,
Egyptian fennel and Chinese fennel.
Botany:
Fennel is a annual, biennials or
perennial aromatic herb.
Climate
fairly mild climate and is cultivated as
a cold weather crop in parts of North
India
Season
sowing - October-November -plains
and March-April -hills.
Under Bangalore - winter season
crop - September, October and
November.
Soil
well-drained loam or black sandy soil
containing sufficient lime.
Varieties/cultivars
Rajasthan Agricultural University:
1) RF-101
2) RF-125
Gujarath Agricultural University:
1) PF-35:moderately tolerant to sugary disease, leaf spot and leaf blight.
2) Gujarat Fennel-1:moderately tolerant to sugary disease
It is good for early sowing and reasonably tolerant to drought.
3) S-7-9: dwarf selection
Tamilnadu Agricultural University:
Co-1: suitable for drought-prone, waterlogged, saline and alkaline
conditions. It is suitable for hilly areas as well as for intercropping and
boarder cropping.
Other released varieties are:
Gujarat Fennel 2, Hissar Swarup, Azad Sanuf 1, Pant Madhurika
and Rajendra Sourabha.
CIM Sujal- High - anethole content ( 75- 80 %) & low fenclione
content (8.08%)
Cultivation
Propagation seeds, but can also be grown by root or corm divisions.
Land preparation and sowing:
FYM-25 t/ha, 30-100:25-60:25-90 Kg NPK/ha
Spacing – 45 -60 x 10 cm spacing for rain-fed and 40 -80 x 40-45 cm
- irrigated crops.
Seed rate- 8-10 kg/ha
Irrigation
irrigated immediately after seeding
Initially, the irrigation upto one month is given at 3-4 day intervals
Later weekly or 15-20 day intervals
Inter-culture
frequent weeding
Physiological disorder
Fennel is most vulnerable to frost damage at the flowering and early
seed-formation stages.
The frost damage can be minimised by spraying 0.1% Sulphuric acid
solution,
irrigating the crop prior to the incidence of frost, using wind breaks and
creating smoke cover in the early morning.
Harvesting and yield
harvested after 5-6 months of sowing, before the fruits are fully ripe, to
avoid shattering.
The umbels are harvested at 'half length size of grain yet green stage'.
For the production of the chewing type, the crop can be harvested when
the grains are at half length size (around 30 days after anthesis).
While harvesting, the stems are cut with a sickle and spread out in loose
bundles to dry in the sun.
The dried fruits (after 4-5 days) are threshed and cleaned by winnowing.
seed yield -20-25 quintals/ha, 35-40 kg/ha of essential oil under
irrigated conditions.
The dried and cleaned seeds should be stored in jute bags
Seeds - classified for trade purpose according to their place of
origin.
In India - Bombay, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
The fennel seeds from Lucknow are considered to be the best for
culinary purposes and are higher priced than those from other
areas.
Distillation of Oil
oil - steam distillation is a pale yellow-coloured liquid with a
characteristic taste and odour.
Two types of oil are recognized in commerce:
(i) Sweet fennel oil - Foeniculum vulgare var., dulce,
(ii) Bitter fennel oil - Foeniculum vulgare var., vulgare.
FENUGREEK
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Fabaceae, 2n=16
Fenugreek, commonly called Greekhayes or Methi,
It is cultivated as a leafy vegetable, condiment and as a medicinal
plant (Diuretic, tonic, carminative, aphrodisiac and contraceptive)
Seeds - sapogenin - diosgenin.
Seeds - protein, starch, sugars, mucilage, mineral matter, volatile
oil (0.02%), fixed oil, (7%) vitamins and enzymes, amino acids.
Fenugreek leaves and stems - rich in calcium, iron, carotene,
ascorbic acid and protein (3-5%).
Fenugreek paste - Cardamom Research Institute (Spices Board) is
used for the coating of bamboo mats, for drying black pepper
Origin and distribution
Native- South East Europe and West Asia
India- Rajasthan (84%), Gujarat (15%), Utter Pradesh (1%),
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Maharashtra and Punjab are
the major states.
Fenugreek is the 3rd largest seed spice in India after coriander and
cumin.
The major international markets for fenugreek seeds - Saudi Arabia,
Japan, Sri Lanka, Korea, Singapore, UAE, the Netherlands and the
United Kingdom.
Botany:
2 species of the genus Trigonella,
1. Trigonella foenum-graecum or the
common methi
2. Trigonella corniculata or the Kasthuri
methi.
Fenugreek is an annual herb, 30 to 90 cm
tall, and has light green leaves which are
pinnately trifoliate.
The plants flower in about 30-37 days after
sowing and the
duration of the flowering phase is 7-8 days.
The species is typically self-pollinated and
A pod contains 10 to 20 small, hard,
yellowish-brown seeds,
Climate
tropics and in temperate regions.
It requires a moderately cool climate for its proper growth
and high yield.
It can be grown either as a rain-fed or irrigated crop.
Soil
Fertile and well-drained loamy or sandy or clayey loam soils
It also tolerates more salinity compared to other leguminous
crops. pH- 6 to 7
Varieties
1. Non-scented or Deshi or Common methi:
Quick growing and upright plants with white flowers. Pods are
straight, 8-10 cm long containing 10-15 seeds.
2. Scented:
Slow growing types, cultivation is confined to North India. Kasuri
methi, Marwari methi and Champa methi come under this group.
Improved varieties of fenugreek are given below.
RMt 1 (Prabha) –moderately resistant to root-rot and tolerant to powdery
mildew.
RMt 143 –moderately resistant to powdery mildew
CO-1 - It is a quick-growing, dual-purpose type.
ML-150 -This hybrid -T8 x T36 -Punjab
Prabhat (NLM) -Gujarat and Rajasthan
Rajendra Kanti – moderately resistant to powdery mildew, caterpillar and
aphids and Cescospora leaf-spot
It is suitable for inter-cropping in both the kharif and rabi seasons.
Lam selection 1 -Madhya Pradesh, dual-purpose
Hissar Sonali - moderately resistant to the leaf-spot and root-rot complex of
diseases.
HM 103 -moderately resistant to the leaf-spot disease.
HM 57 – Haryana
Pusa Earl Bunching : A high yielding variety recommended for Andhra
Pradesh. Plants are tolerant to powdery mildew, root rot, caterpillars and
aphids.
Vallabh Chinki
Cultivation
Propagation - seeds
Beds of convenient size (3 x 2 m) prepared
Sowing - Northern India -last week of October to the 1st week of November.
Southern India - it is grown both in the kharif and rabi seasons.
In the kharif, the yield is less than in the rabi crop.
Sowing -2nd fortnight of June to July end, in the kharif crop and for the rabi
crop, 1st fortnight of October
Spacing – 30 x 10, 20 x30 cm
Seed rate - 15-25 kg/ha for the seed crop and 30-35 kg/ha for the leafy
vegetable crop
The seeds are soaked in water for 2 days prior to sowing - germination.
Seeds -soaked in a cycocil at 50-100 ppm - germination and seedling growth.
treated with Rhizobium culture before sowing.
seeds germinate within 6-8 days after sowing.
The line sown crop is thinned within the row at the 3 to 4- leaf stage to retain
1-2 plants per hill.
Manures and fertilisers
FYM - 10-15 t/ha , 40:40:0 kg/ha of NPK.
60:90:50 kg NPK/ha -Bangalore conditions
2 foliar sprays of urea (1%) at about 45 and 60 days after sowing gives
a better economic green-leaf yield as well as seed yield per unit area.
Irrigation
immediately after sowing. The crop requires about 5-7 irrigations in all
Inter-culture- weeding and earthed-up
Use of growth regulators
A spray - ascorbic acid at 250-450 ppm improves the plant growth,
enhances flowering, seed number and size.
GA spray @ 10-100 ppm concentration enhances the internodal
length, height and number of leaves.
 Harvesting and Yield
crop duration varies from 70 to 150 days depending on the
variety.
The harvesting should be done when the crop has turned yellow
and most of the leaves, except the top ones, have fallen off.
The grain will shatter if the harvesting is delayed beyond this
stage.
The harvested plants are stacked in small bundles.
After drying them in the sun for 4-6 days, the grains are
separated by beating the bundles on the threshing floor or by
using a mechanical thresher.
The grains are cleaned by winnowing and then stored
Seed yield -10-15 q/ha. high as 30 q/ha -good management.
Grading
Fenugreek seeds are graded as 'Special', 'Good' and 'Fair'
 DILL - Sabasige (Kannada)
Anethum graveolens L
Apiaceae/Umbelliferae

2 species under cultivation

1. European dill- A. graveolens L. - 2.5 to 4.0% volatile oil
2. Indian dill- A. sowa - 1.2 to 4.0% volatile oil.
seed oil –carvone (19.5 to 69.7%).
Carvone content is the highest in European dill.
A. sowa - higher proportion of terpenes (a-phellandrene),
dillopiole but no carvone.
The European dill seed oil is preferred in Pharmacy over the seed
of the Indian dill due to the presence of a large percentage of
dillopiole (15.6 to 39.6%) and a lower percentage of carvone
Origin and distribution
Native - Mediterranean countries
In India- Jammu and Kashmir, MH, Gujarat,
AP, MP and Rajasthan. Indian dill is a native
of Northern India.
Botany:
annual or biennial aromatic herb, growing to
a height of about 1 to 1.20 m. 2n=22.
Climate
It is a long day, cold weather crop, growing
during the rabi season in the Indian plains.
Strong winds and heavy rains during the
flowering period may be injurious and
extreme heat during maturity reduces the oil
yield.
Soil
sandy loam soils with good drainage, pH upto 8.6.
Varieties
Haldwani selection‘ and 'English stock' -cultivation in India.
`Gribovskii' is recommended for early sowing, and high herbage and
seed yield.
Indian dill- N.P. 127 and N.P. 179, N.P. 115 for Gujarat and N.P. 15
for the hills.
Propagated - seeds. sown - March-April or in mid October
FYM @ 19 t/ha. 40-90: 40:0 kg/ha NPK,
Seed rate -3-5 kg/ha, spacing – 60 x30 cm, 45 x 20 cm
Weeding and irrigation - 8-9 irrigations are quite adequate
Use of growth regulators
GA (50 ppm) - 15 days after emergence and again 10 days later,
increases the yield and improves the flavour.
Ascorbic acid (50 ppm)- increases oil yield with a high concentration
of carvone and the lowest amount of dillapiole.
Harvesting
About 5.5 - 6 months for maturity.
Dill oil - about 3.5 months old and is in the milky, ripening seed
stage
After harvest, the plants are allowed to wilt in the field for 1-2 days
and then distilled.
Seed - fruits are fully developed (ripe), but still green in colour.
The fruit at this stage contains maximum oil and carvone content
Yield
The herbage yield -2.5 to 3.0 t/ha - distillation -18-20 kg of oil - 30%
of carvone,
seed yield - 5 to 7 q/ha.
 CUMIN
Cuminum cyminum L., Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae,2n = 14
Jeera or Zeera (Hindi), Jeerige (Kannada)
aromatic odour due to the presence of an aromatic
alcohol- cuminol
Cumin seeds- volatile oil (2.5 to 4.5 %), the chief
constituent of which is cuminaldehyde (20-40%)- used
in perfumery
Native - Egypt,
It is an important cash crop of India, Argentina, Cyprus,
Denmark, Iran, Morocco, etc
Iran is the major world exporter of the cumin
In India - Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab and Madhya Pradesh.
Gujarat is the leading cumin seed producing state in
India
international trade - Iranian cumin, Indian cumin,
Egyptian cumin, Turkish cumin and cumin
Botany:
It is a small, slender, annual herb of about 30-
45 cm height
Climate
Cumin thrives well in tropical and sub-tropical
climates.
well in a mild cool climate rather than the hot
plains.
rabi crop during October-November.
Soil - Sandy loam or loamy soil, pH - 7.0 to 9.5
The crop can tolerate salinity
Varieties
There are 4 cultivars of cumin viz. (1) tall,
(2) dwarf, (3) pink flowered and (4) white
flowered.
The pink flowered variety yields better than
the white flowered variety.
Improved varieties:
RS-1
MC-43 -Tolerant to wilt and blight diseases.
UG-19- resistance to wilt.
UC-220
UC-217
JC-147
Gujarat cumin-1 - resistance to wilt and powdery mildew diseases.
This variety is also free from lodging and seed shattering.
Gujarat cumin-2 (MC-43-73) – moderately resistant to wilt,
Alternaria blight and powdery mildew diseases.
Gujarat cumin-3
S-404 - moderately resistant to powdery mildew disease.
RZ-19 (Rajasthan zeera-19) - tolerant to Fusarium wilt and
Alternaria blight diseases.
UG-198 - highly tolerant to wilt and is very rich in volatile oil
Sel. 7-3 - It is a high yielder and is resistant to wilt disease.
CJS-182 - high yielder preferred for commercial cultivation.
UC-52, UC-91 NP (J)-1, NP (J) 126, NP (J) 149, Rcr -1
The exotic cultivars - EC-232684, EC-243373, EC-243375 and EC-
109635- resistant to Fusarium wilt disease.
Propagation - seeds
Land preparation - Plots - 2 x 2.5 m
Sowing - 1st fortnight of November up to 15th December.
broadcasting seed rate- 10-20 kg seeds/ha, in line sowing 9-12 kg/ha
soaking the seeds with Potassium nitrate (100 ppm) for 24 hours is
best.
Line sowing - 22.5 to 30 cm x 15 cm spacing
FYM @10-15 t/ha, NPK - 25:20:20 or 50:50:80 kg/ha
Irrigation
just after sowing and the second after 7-8 days of sowing. totally 4-
5 irrigations.
Irrigation should be withheld at the time when the crop is maturing
as this may adversely affect the seed quality.
Inter-culture
Weeding
Harvesting and yield
about 80 to 120 days after sowing.
At this stage, the leaves of the plant become yellow.
Seed yield - 8 - 15 q/ha
oil recovery - 2.5 to 4.5%
 Celery
Apium graveolens Linn
Apiaceae / Umbelliferae
India - Apium graveolens var. dulce.
Gudda Sompina Elegalu – kannada
Bari ajmod- Hindi
Seeds- pale yellow essential oil (1.75%) – limonene (80%), rich in
vitamin B
Native - Italy
India - North western Himalayas, the Punjab, Haryana and Western
Uttar Pradesh.
Punjab contributes to about 90% of the total Indian production.
Celery seed is in great demand both in India and abroad.
Indian celery seed is exported - UK and USA
Botany:
Celery is a herbaceous annual or biennial erect
herb growing to a height of 60-90 cm.
Climate
Cool climate
It is behaves as annual plant in plains and in cold
- biennial plant.
Soil
Celery is not suited to clayey soils.
It does not withstand water stagnation. pH -6.0
to 7.5
Varieties
EC-99249-1 and RRL-85-1
'Standard Bearer' and 'Wright Grove Gaint' - for
salad purposes.
Propagation: seeds. seed rate - 1.5 kg/ha
seeds are sown in March-April.
In the plains, sown -middle of September to October
Spacing - 30 x 30-45cm
FYM -10-20 t/ha,
NPK – 80-200 kg N : 33-60 kg P : 20-40 kg K/ha
Bo and Mn deficiency in soil can cause black heart and cracked
stem,
Mg deficiency of can cause chlorosis.
Irrigation:
The crop requires 10-12 irrigations at an interval of 8-7 days during
the crop period.
Harvesting and yield:
In cooler climates and on the hills, celery is a perennial plant and
produces seeds only in the second year.
It takes about 4-5 months from the time of sowing to seeding.
In the plains, the crop matures in about 3 months after transplanting.
The crop is harvested when about 80% of the buds begin to turn light
brown.
The average yield of celery is about 1000-1500 kg/ha.
 MUSTARD
Brassica Juncea - Indian Mustard
Cruciferae
condiment
Origin and distribution
Natives - North Temperate Zone - Europe, Central and Southern
Asia and China.
Assam, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal - major states
Recently, the crop - cultivated in the northern Telangana zone of
Andhra Pradesh.
Botany of different Mustards species :
1) White mustard (Sinapis alba or B. hirta)
self-sterile species, easily recognised by its hairy stem, devoid of any
bloom.
It has irregularly pinnate leaves, large yellow flowers that are
spreading, and few seeded and hairy pods.
The seeds are large, white and give a considerable amount of mucilage
with cold water.
S. alba is a native of southern Europe and Western Asia.
It is grown only as a garden crop, in temperate northern India, during
the winter. In India, it does not contribute to the supplies of mustard or
mustard oil.
2) Black mustard or True mustard
(B. nigra Koch)
highly self-sterile and is quite distinct
from other brassicas.
India - is a cold season crop, grown to a
limited extent in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab
and Tamil Nadu.
It does not contribute to the supplies of
mustard oil.
3) Indian mustard (B. juncea)
Indian mustard is also a self-fertile
species, annual.
The seeds - reddish-brown, and
generally smaller.
B. juncea is a common field crop of
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal
Climate
Cool season crop.
Sowing - 30°C with a relative
humidity of 40%.
best time for sowing is mid-
October to mid-November;
Soil:
wide variety of soils -medium to
heavy soils
State Varieties
Punjab RLM 514, 601, PBR-91
Haryana RH 8812 (Laxmi), RH 781,
IARI, Delhi Pusa Bold, Pusa Bahar, Pusa Jai Kisan, Agrani, Jagannath
Madhya Pradesh Kranti, Narendra rai, Pusa Bold, Rohini, Vardan, Varuna
UP Pantnagar Karnti, Krishna,
Kanpur Varuna, Vardan, Vaibhav, Rohini, Urvashi,
Rajasthan Arawali , Rajat
Gujrat Pusa Jaikisan, Rajat, Gujrat Sarson-1
Bihar Rajendr Sarson-1, Swarna, Kranti, Pusa Bold, Varuna
West Bengal Seeta, Bhagirathi, Sarma, Pusa Agrani, Sanjucta asech
Benoy (B-9), Subenoy, Jhumka
Assam Pusa Agrani, Varuna
Maharastra Pusa Bold, Pusa Jaikisan, Rajal
Andhra Pradesh Bhavani, PT 303, GMI, Divya, Kranthi, Vardan, Varuna
RH 30, RH 819 and Vaibhav are drought-tolerant.
RH 781 is frost-tolerant,
S 52 and Narendra rai are salt-tolerant.
Sourabh (RH 8113) is moderately tolerant to Alternaria blight
and white rust.
Pusa bold and Sarma are suitable for late sowing.
RT-11 - aphid resistant
RH 30 - late-sown conditions,
Kranthi is resistant to shattering.
Propagated - seeds. Seed rate- 8-12 kg/ ha -broadcast and 5-10 kg/ha-
line sowing.
The seeds are treated - Apron SD 35 (@ 6 g/kg- for the control of
white rust and downy mildew at the seedling stage.
Land preparation
FYM -20-30 t/ha, 40:35:15 kg/ha NPK
Spacing – 30x10-15 cm
Weeds - Orobanch, Chenopodium album, Anagalis aruensis,
Conuoluolus aruensis, Melilotus alba, Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus
rotundus, etc. – herbicides Fluchloralin, Isoproturan and
Pendimethalin,
Irrigation:
Mustard has a low water requirement. Generally six irrigations
sufficient
Inter-cropping
inter-cropped with wheat, barley, gram, pea, sugarcane, lentil,
potato, etc., for better economic returns- sporadically as a sprinkle
crop along with finger millet, groundnut, etc., or as a mixed crop
along with chickpea, coriander, jowar, etc.
In orobanche endemic areas, it is recommended to adopt crop
rotation with cereals or legumes.
Harvesting and yield
matured - 80-120 days.
mustard crop is harvested as soon as 75% of the pods turn yellowish
and moisture content of the seed is around 40%. At this stage, the
majority of the seeds will be firm when pressed between the fingers.
The oil content in the seed is the maximum at this stage.
To minimise shattering losses, the crop should be harvested
preferably in the morning when the pods are slightly damp with the
night dew.
Drying- Threshing - seeds are separated by winnowing.
The moisture content of the seeds must be less than 8% at storage
time.
Yield- 600-900 kg/ha in rain-fed crops and 900-1300 kg in
irrigated crops.
 AJOWAN
Trachypermum ammi
Umbelliferae/Apiaceae
‘Bishop’s weed’ - English, ajowian - Hindi.
ajowan caraway, carom seeds, or thymol seeds,
ajowan seeds - 2.5 to 4% essential oil - thymol (30-60%) and
some carvacrol, p-cymene (50-55%)  and -pinenes (4-5%),
dipentene (4-6%)
The aqueous portion left after the separation of essential oil -
omum water - against flatulence in gripe water preparation
for children.
Origin and distribution
Native - Egypt
Mediterranean region and South West Asian
countries such of Iran, Iraq, Egypt,
Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.
In India - UP, Bihar, MP, Gujarat, Punjab,
Rajasthan, WB, TN, MH and AP.
Description of the plant
annual herbaceous plant growing to a height of
70-90 cm.
Climate
The crop is tolerant to drought and has wide climatic
adaptability.
winter crop in subtropical and temperature climate.
October-November - NI and May-June -South India.
Soil
any soil type from heavy clay to silt loams but performs best in
humus rich loam or clayey loam soils.
rainfed crop in heavy soils
Black cotton soil- ideal
Varieties- Gujarat Ajowan-1 - tolerant to drought,
Lam Sel.1 - erect type
Lam Sel.2 - spreading bushy type,
S25, S95, S47, S84 and IC3743 - essential oil upto 3.9% in
plains and upto 4.9% in cooler areas.
 Propagation – seeds
FYM-10-15 t/ha
Spacing – 45x35 cm
NPK & S -80 kg N, 30-50 kg P2O5 and K2O and 50 kg S/ha
Harvesting and yield
The plants start flowering in 2 months time.
harvested 120-140 days after sowing when the flower heads
turn brown or the mature umbels can be cut with sickle manually.
Yield - 1100 to 1400 kg/ha - 30-35 kg/ha of ajowan oil
Grading
Indian standards are specified for three grades of ajowan
viz., special, good and fair.
LECTURE 15

Betelvine
Scientific Name : Piper betle Linn
Family : Piperaceae
Indian Name : Veledalae
English name : Betel leaf

Betelvine or pan (Piper betle) is a perennial, dioecious, evergreen creeper grown

in India. It is a chewing stimulant. The crop is highly labour-intensive and particularly
suited to small holdings. Once established, it becomes a perennial source of
employment and cash flow for day-to-day income of the farmers. Betel leaf is on ther
auspicious offering in Hindu customs particularly festival and wedding ceremonies.

The betel leaf occupies a significant place in everyday life of the Indian people.
Other than its use in ethosocial rituals, chewing of the leaf or ‘pan’ as it is called, is an
ancient habit among all classes of people.

The betel leaf is fairly rich in vitamin B and C, and is supposed to be a tonic to
the brain, liver and heart. It clears the mouth and throat and helps digestion by
encouraging salivation and neutralizing excess of acid by the lime eaten with it. The
leaves contain an essential oil which gives the aroma and pungency to the leaves.

Origin and Distribution:

Betelevine (Piper betel Linn.) is a native of central and eastern Malaysia and
has spread through tropical Asia and Malaysia. It was also taken to Madagascar and
East Africa at a later date. It is an important cash crop in Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura,
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal with an annual turnover of about Rs 700 crores. Its
leaves are exported to Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Burma and
Thailand. In Karnataka, Chitradurga, Bellary, Uttara Kannada Dharwad,
Chikkamagalore, Hassan, Mysore, Shimoga and Bangalore are the important districts.

Area and Production:

1
 In India, the area under betelvine is 54,681 hectares with annual production of
17 million crores of leaves. The leaves are exported worth of Rs.18 million. Its leaves
are exported to Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Burma and Thailand.

Botany:
Betelvine belongs to genus Piper of the family Piperaceae which is having
about 10 genera and over 1000 species of herbs, shrubs and climbers. About 65
species have been described in genus Piper. The species P. Betle is a perennial
dioecious dictyledonous creeper with semi woody stem which climbs by short
adventitious roots. Leaves are 5-20 cm long, broadly ovate to slightly coradate and
offer unequal at the base, shortly acuminate, acute, entire with often an undulate
margin, glabrous, yellowish to dark green, shining on both the surfaces; petiole is stout,
2.0 to 2.5 cm long. The plant produces orthotropic (vegetative) and plagiotropic
(reproductive) branches. Growth rates in terms of stem elongation, number of leaves
and branch production are higher in vegetative branches compared to reproductive
branches. Vegetative branches also produce leaves with higher petiole length and
intermodal length. The reproductive branches bear male or female flower in a plant.
The male spike arising singly from leaf base are long, cylindrical and wavy, measuring
54-90 mm in length with a stalk length of 23-30 mm. The female spikes also arise
singly from the axil and are short, stout, cylindrical and creamy-white to light orange
in colour. The spikes measure 40-55 mm in length with a stalk measuring 19-26 mm.
Individual flowers are small, sessile, 5-7 lobed with 3-5 stigmas. During maturation,
irregular swelling called nodosites are formed on the fleshy fruits and their number
varies from 5 to 7. The mature fruits possesses 2-20 spherical to oval, smooth surfaced
seeds.

Climate:
Betelvine requires tropical climate for its luxuriat growth. The favourable
conditions are moist soil and shady place with high humidity. It grows well where the
rainfall is high (2250-4750 mm). It grows upto an elevation of 1,500 m MSL.

Soil:
It is generally grown on different types of soils-heavy clayey loam, laterite and
sandy loam. However, soil with good organic matter and drain-age system is best-
suited for its cultivation. It requires pH ranges between 7-7.5. Avoid saline and
alkaline soils.

Varieties:
There are a number of varieties recognized by the growers and traders. Based on
shape, size, brittleness, taste ofleafblade and other characters, betel vine is classified
into different types-pungent and non-pungent varieties. The important varieties grown
in different states are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Important betelvine varieties for different states

2
 State Varieties
Andhra Pradesh Karapaku, Chennor, Tellaku, Bangla and Kalli Patti
Assam Assam Patti, Awani pan, Bangla and Khasi Pan
Bihar Desi Pan, Calcutta, Paton, Maghai and Bangla
Karnataka Kariyale, Mysoreale and Ambadiale
Kerala Nadan, Kalkodi and Puthukodi
Madhya Pradesh Desi Bangla, Calcutta and Deswari
Maharashtra Kallipatti, Kapoori and Bangla (Ramtek)
Orissa Godi Bangla, Nova Cuttak, Sanchi and Birkoli
Tamil Nadu Pachai Kodi and Vellaikodi
Uttar Pradesh Deswari, Kapoori, Maghai and Bangla
West Bengal Bangla, Sanchi, Mitha, Kali Bangla and Simurali
Bangla

Bangla, Meetha, Sanchi, Kapoori, Deshawari, Khasi, SGM-1, Bidhan pan, DBP-6 are
commercial cultivated varieties of betel leaves.

Propagation
Betelvine is propagated through cuttings having 3-5 nodes planted in such a
manner that 2-3 nodes are buried in the soil. A single node cutting with a mother leaf is
also planted. Cuttings of the apical and middle portions of the vine are used for
planting. Cuttings are generally made from matures stem and it is collected from 2-3
years old plantations. Lower and tender portions of the plant take longer time to stout,
moreover the lower portion of the plants are pruned to infection by phytophthora sp.
Dipping of cuttings in 50 ppm NAA and IBA solution has been shown to increase the
root formation and vigour of the crop.

Propagation of betelvine through seed is possible though not practiced.

Flowering and formation of seed has been observed to occur sparingly in southern parts
of India. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore has achieved some
success in propagation through seed, which is helps for genetic improvements of the
crop.

Betelvine is cultivated under fast-growing plants which provide support as well

as shade. Under artificially-created shed known as Boroj, Bareje etc. it is also
cultivated. Besides, mixed cropping with arecanut, coconut, jackfruit and mango is
followed on a limited scale.

Cultivation

3
Construction of Bareja or Boroj

Barejas are normally made on raised slightly slopy land. It is constructed with
locally-available materials-bamboo, jute sticks, straw etc. Its shape may be square or
rectangular with a height of 2-2.5m. Usually a wide passage (0. 5-1. Om) is provided
inside along the wall of the bareja. The walls and top of the bareja are covered with
thatching material like leaves of coconut, wild datepalm, sugarcane, straw, grass and
jute stick. It should be constructed near a source of irrigation. The site must be at a
higher level than the adjoining area. There must be a slope in all directions for a quick
drainage of excess water.

Raising of support plant in open cultivation

Plants of Sesbania grandiflora, S. sesban, Erythrina variegata and Moringa oleifera
are raised to provide support and shade. They are sown in 45-60cm rows at least 45
days before planting the cuttings of betelvine. The proper wind break, quick growing
freely branching and non competing crops are to be raised all along the border of the
betelvine garden. Coconut, jack fruit, casurina, silver oak are grown for this purpose.

Land preparation

Land is prepared well by 4-5 ploughings. It should be raised by 5-10 cm from

the adjacent areas. It is done by applying soil collected from ponds or tanks. The land
is raised with proper gradient on both sides for quick drainage of excess water. Before
use, the soil should be pasteurized by solarization technique. In Maharashtra, the
selected land is ploughed twice and harrowed 4-5 times before levelling. In Madhya
Pradesh, the land is first dug manually. Then it is irrigated, pulverized and levelled.
Afterwards, beds of suitable size (15cm high and 30cm broad) are prepared.
Soil treatment

Soil is moistened occasionally and covered during hot summer months (March-
May), hen the soil temperature rises sufficiently, to destroy inoculum of soil-borne
pathogens. Soil polarization is advocated in Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra
Pradesh and TamilNadu before establishing new gardens for better plant stand and to
minimize initial inoculum levels.

For new plantations, application of Carbofuran@ 1.5kglha or neem cake (0.5

tonneslha) + Carbofuran (0.75kglha) is also recommended to minimize initial soil
nematode population. However, Carbofuran should not be recommended in established
gardens at any stage because a time gap of 65-70 days as safe waiting period is
required between application and harvesting of leaves.

4
 Table 2 Planting seasons for different states
State Planting-season

Andhra Pradesh September-October

Assam April-May and August-September
Bihar June-duly, September and May-June
Karnataka July-August
Kerala May-June and September-November
Madhya Pradesh January-March and September-November
Maharashtra July-August and October-November
Nagaland April-May
Orissa
Tamil Nadu May-June and September-November
Tripura March-May and August-October
March-April and September-October
Uttar Pradesh
October-November
West Bengal
June-July and September-October

Planting
The onset of monsoon is ideal time of planting. But where support plants are
used, the planting may be done up to October-end, Nearly 40,000-75,000 cuttings are
used for hectare where support crop is used, whereas 1,00,000-1,20,000 cuttings/ha are
sufficient in bareja (closed) system of cultivation. Rooted cuttings raised in nursery are
also planted. The planting season varies from state-to-state and even place-to-place.
Most prevalent planting seasons are given in Table 2. 'Planting is done in rows.
Spacings followed in different states under Bareja conditions are: given in Table 3.

Table 3. Spacing followed in different states

Spacing
State
Row-to-row Plant-to-plant
West Bengal 50-70 cm 10-20 cm
Uttar Pradesh 100 cm 10-15 cm
Maharashtra 80 cm 20 cm
Bihar 80-100 cm 10-20 cm
Madhya Pradesh 50-60 cm 15 cm

5
 In Karnataka Basin method, Begalum or Flat method, Deep trench system long bed
and trench method, short bed method, Trench and furrow systems are adopted in cultivation
of the crop.

Training/pruning
Young sprouts creep along and require support 1 month after planting. Trailing
is done by tying vines on support crop or stalks. In Bareja system, jute sticks or bamboo
sticks are placed by the side of the creeper as supports and tied with grass or banana
fibre to facilitate trailing. Tying is also done at 20-30cm intervals when vine trails up to
a height of 2.22 m and touches the roof of the bareja. They are untied from the support
and lowered down to the ground level by harvesting the lower leaves, keeping 4-6
leaves at the top.

In open system, side branches of supporting trees are removed up to a height of 2 m

for better growth of vines. Training is done by fixing the vines loosely along the
standards with the help of banana fibre or easily available material at 10-15cm intervals.
Training is done every 15-20 days depending upon the growth of vines.

Manures and fertilizers:

The recommended dose of manure is 25-50 tonnes per ha. in the form FYM,
compost or supplemented with castor cake, linseed cake, sesamum cake or neem cake
are applied as manure @ 15 quintals/ha. The cake is first rotted in water in a big earthen
pot for 6-8 days. Then it is applied in the form of a slurry. Oilcakes in powder form are
also applied in the rainy season. The NPK fertilizers @ 200:100:100 kg/ha/year has to
be applied in 4-5 splits doses at 2-3 months intervals. In betelvine normally chemical
fertilizers are not used, however the adequate quantity of manures should be applied for
better growth and yield of seeds.
Trailing the Vines:
The sets begin to sprout and creep along in a month after planting. Trail the
creeper to the supporting tree by tying the vines at an interval of 15-22.5 cm with the
help of the banana fibre. When they come in contact with the supporting tree and strike
advantageous roots which help them to climb further, attend trailing of vines for 15 to
20 days depending upon the rapidity of the growth of the vines.

Lowering of the Vines:

When the vines reach a height of 3-4 m. in one year’s time, the vigour of the
vine to produce normal size leaves will reduce. At this time, they need rejuvenation.
This is achieved by lowering the vines down to the ground level at least once a year.

Betel vine is a crop demanding frequent irrigation. Wherever providing regular

irrigation is not possible, burry a large portion of the exposed vine in the soil. Attend to
the lowering of the vines either in the commencement of monsoon or at the end of the
monsoon. Summer is the best time for lowering the vines. Before lowering do harvest
all the leaves. Untie the vines from bottom upwards, coiled up carefully leaving 1 or 2
feet length of top shoots, then burry in a small trench dug at the base of supporting tree.

6
 Lowering is done during March-April (1 time) in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Bihar, during May-June in Andhra Pradesh; during January-February or
April-May in Tamil Nadu and 3-5 times in West Bengal and Orissa. In West Bengal
and Orissa, after every lowering stem is covered with loose soil brought from out side.
In open system, soil is dug and stem is coiled and lowered and thereafter covered with
soil.
Irrigation
Betelvine requires high soil moisture. Frequent light irrigation is necessary
depending upon the season. Irrigation should be need-based. The flood irrigation should
be avoided. Since over irrigation or excess water causes wilting of plants, proper drainage is
essential during rainy season. The initial tests of drip irrigations systems in betel vine
plantation has shown rich promise in Maharashtra.

Intercrops:
To get additional income, often many growers are cultivating intercrops, such as
cucurbits, coccinia, chillies, ginger, banana, drumstic, brinjal, bendi etc., in North India. But,
it is not common in other states.

Weeding:
The plots of betelvine should be kept free from weeds. Two to three manual weeding
is done.

Harvesting:
Mature leaves are plucked along with a portion of petiole. They are plucked by hand
without any aid. However, in certain areas iron nail is used to facilitate plucking. In Karnataka
and Tamilnadu, leaves are plucked from side shoots. In south India, comparatively tender
leaves are preferred in the market. After plucking, they are washed thoroughly and made into
bundles according to the prevailing custom of the area. On an average, about 60-80 lakh
leaves are harvested annually from one hectare garden.

Grading and Packaging:

Harvested leaves are washed, cleaned and graded according to their size and quality.
Then they are packed after cutting a portion of the petiole and rejecting the damaged leaves.
All growers do not grade their leaves. The picked leaves are sorted into different grades
according to size, colour, texture and maturity. After that, they are arranged in numbers (the
number varies from place-to-place) for packing. Grading and packing of leaves are very
specialized jobs. For packing mostly bamboo baskets are used and in many places straw: fresh
or dried banana leaves, wet cloth etc. are used for inner lining. In Tamilnadu, 100-200 leaves
form a Kavili and 10 kavilis form a palgai.

7
 Usually betel leaves are used for chewing as fresh unprocessed. But in certain areas,
leaves are subjected to processing known as bleaching or curing. There is a good, demand for
such leaves which fetch higher prices in the markets. Bleaching is done by successive heat
treatments at 60°-70°C for 6-Shr.
: REFERENCES :

1. Bose, T.K., Mitra, S.K. and Farroqui, A.A., Sadhu, M.K., 1999, Tropical Horticulture – Vol.1,
Nayaprakash, Calcutta, India.
2. Chadha, K.L., Retrinam, P 2010, plantation and spices crops., Advances in Horticulture,
Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, INDIA, PP 293-345
3. Chadha, K.L., 2010, Hand Book of Horticulture, Indian Council of Agricultural Crops, 2006,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.
4. Edison, S., Johny, A.K., Nirmal Babu, K., and Ramadasan, A, 1991, Spices Varieties, published
by National Research Centre for Spices, Calicut.
5. Farroqui, A.A. and Sreeramu, B.S., 2005, Tropical Spice Crops and their cultivation, University
Press, Hyderabad.
6. Horticulture Crops – Area, Production, Productivity and export statistics 2009-10 published
by National Horticultural Board.
7. IISR, Annual Report 2010-11, published by Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut.
8. Kumar, K., Abdulkhadar, Rangaswamy, P and Irrwlappom, 2010, I, Introduction to spices,
Plantation crops, Medicinal and Aromatic plants. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
9. Package of practices of tree spices 1989, published by Indian Institute of Spice Research,
Calicut.

BETELVINE
Questions:
I. Choose the correct answer in the following:
1. Betelvine is a type of creeper
a) Dioecious b) Monoecious c) Hermophrodite d) a and c
2. Betelvine is a native of
a) Brazil b) Malaysia c) Moluccas d) Trinidad
3. The active principle of betelvine leaf is
a) Anethole b) Curcumin c) Piperine d) Cineole

8
 4. Ambadiale is popular variety of
a) Andhra Pradesh b) Tamil Nadu c) Karnataka d) Kerala
5. Lowering of vine is practiced in the month of
a) March-April b) December-January c) May-June d) September-October

II. State whether the following sentences are True or False:

1. ‘Kavili’ comprises 100-200 leaves popular grade of Maharastra.
2. Betelvine is non labour intensive crop.
3. Sesbania grandiflora is a popular standard for betelvine.
4. Betel vine is commercially propagated through seeds.
5. Deswari is the popular variety of Maharastra.
III. Match the following:
Part-A Part-B
1 Cuttings a IIHR, Bangalore
2 Seed propagation b Tamil Nadu
3 Vellaikodi c Intercrop
4 Silver oak d NAA 50 ppm
5 Cucurbits e Windbreak
f Maharastra
Answers

I
1 a
2 b
3 a
4 c
5 a

II
1 False
2 False
3 True
4 False
5 False

III
1 d
2 a
3 b
4 e
5 c