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ENV203/GEO205
INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY
Lecture 06
THE EARTH SYSTEM
Earth’s
Radiation
Atmosphere
Sun
Biosphere
Geosphere
Hydrosphere
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ENVIRONMENT
CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT & ITS
COMPONENTS
-is the aggregate of all external factors or conditions that
influence the activities and existence of living things including
humans.
-the earth is a complex system consisting of different
components, the Geosphere, the Hydrosphere, the
Atmosphere & the Biosphere.
-Each of these components has their own characteristic
features and their specific functions but these have strong
interlinks with each-other so that any change in one may bring
about changes in the other.
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GEOSPHERE
The geosphere is the solid Earth,
including rocks, soil, and loose
sediments, that provides the
foundation for plants and other
living organisms.
Lithosphere: 50-100 km thickness
Directly involved with other
spheres
Crust: 5-40 km thickness;
composed largely of lighter
silicate minerals
COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH
1. Inner core;
2. Outer core;
3. Lower mantle;
4. Upper mantle;
5. Lithosphere;
6. Crust (continental and
oceanic)
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Earth’s Layered Structure
Lithosphere
The lithosphere consists of the
solid crust (100 km) on which
the continental masses
comprising of mountains, valley
& plains exist. It’s the solid,
outer part of earth. The earth’s
surface supports humans,
other terrestrial animals &
plants.
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Earth’s Crust
Earth’s solid and rocky exterior is the crust composed of a
great variety of rocks.
Rocks respond to diverse ways to earth-shaping processes.
Practically crust is the only portion of the lithosphere of
which earth scientists have direct knowledge.
Earth’s deep interior components, the mantle, core are of
concern to the physical geographers primarily because they
are responsible for any change in the lithosphere particularly
the crust that forms the ocean floor & continents.
Oceanic Crust & Continental Crust
Continental crust is composed of mainly sial. The upper part of
the crust is continental crust or sial layer (high in Si & Al ).
Oceanic crust exists in the lower part of the crust. Oceanic crust
is composed of heavy metals, dark coloured, iron rich rocks that
are also high in Si & Mg (also known as sima).
Compared to continental crust, oceanic crust is quite thin
because of its density (3 g/cm3) which is greater than that of
continental crust (2.7 g/cm3).
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Rock Cycle
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Processes of the Earth’s Change
Sudden change
Slow change
Agents: River, air/wind, glacier, tides
Processes
Endogenic (tectonic movement- earthquake or volcanic
eruption etc.)
Exogenic (weathering/erosion, mass movement, transportation
of loads/sediments, deposition etc.)
Extra-terrestrial process- (meteor fall or cosmic ash etc.)
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Earth’s Major Relief/Landform
Mountains (the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, the
Rocky mountains etc.)
Plains (indo-gangetic plains)
Deserts (Sahara, Thor, Gobi etc.)
Plateaus (Indian Deccan Plateau)
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Earth’s Mantle
It has a thickness of approx. 2,885 km representing around
two-thirds of the Earth’s mass. Therefore, the mantle is the
largest of Earth’s interior zones.
Scientists agree that the mantle consists of silicate rock,
and also contains a significant amount of Fe & Mg.
The mantle is composed of various layers distinguished by
different characteristics of strength and rigidity.
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Earth’s Mantle
The outermost layer of the mantle, with an average thickness of
100 km, behaves like an elastic solid.
Elastic solids are rigid & brittle.
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Earth’s Mantle
Together the uppermost mantle layer and the crust form
a unit called the lithosphere.
The term lithosphere has traditionally been used to describe the
entire solid earth.
In recent decades, the term lithosphere has also been used in a
separate sense to refer to the brittle outer shell of the earth,
including the crust & this rigid uppermost mantle layer.
Extending down from the base of the lithosphere, about 600
kms further into the mantle is the asthenosphere (a thick
layer of mantle material). This material can flow both vertically &
horizontally.
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Earth’s Mantle
Many scientists agree now that the energy for tectonic forces,
large scale forces that break and deform earth’s crust, sometimes
resulting in earthquakes and often responsible for mountain
building comes from movement within this plastic asthenosphere.
Movement in the asthenosphere is produced by thermal
convection currents that occur in the rest of the mantle below
the asthenosphere.
The interface between mantle and overlaying crust is marked by
a significant change of density, called a discontinuity, which is
indicated by an abrupt increase in the velocity of seismic waves as
they travel down through this internal boundary.
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Earth’s Core
Earth’s inner most section, the core, contains one third of the Earth’s
mass.
the core is under enormous pressure (several million times atmospheric
pressure at the Sea level.
The core is composed primarily of iron and nickel and consists of two
distinct sections: the inner core & the outer core.
Earth’s inner core has a radius of about 960 km.
The outer core forms a 2400 km thick band around the inner core.
The outer core is molten. Both cores are composed of Fe & Ni.
Internal temperatures are estimated at between 4,500 and
5,500 degrees C, as hot as the sun’s surface.
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ATMOSPHERE
The mixture of gases that surrounds the earth. Predominantly, nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1%
other gases.
Carbon dioxide accounts for just
0.03 - 0.04%.
Water vapor 0 to 2%
Works as:
A protective layer
Moderates Earth’s temperature
Absorbs damaging UV radiation
Transportation medium for the
hydrologic cycle
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FACTS ABOUT THE
ATMOSPHERE
• Dynamic – rising, sinking, moving across the
Earth’s surface
• Gravity hold the air molecule near the Earth’s
surface
• Thermal energy push the air molecules upward
• First 12 km carries ~90% of the weight of the
atmosphere.
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COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
-The atmosphere is mainly composed of N2 & O2. It also
contains a small amount of argon, water vapour, and
carbon-di-oxide etc.
-The content of water vapour is an important part of cloud
formation and atmospheric circulation.
-The term humidity is the presence of water vapour in the
atmosphere/air at a given temperature.
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COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
-Precipitation (snow, hail, rain etc.) remove water from the
atmosphere and deposit it on earth where it may enter
groundwater, rivers, lakes, oceans and glaciers.
-Eventually this water evaporates and return to the
atmosphere to begin the cycle again.
-The constant cycling of water between the atmosphere and
the earth’s surface is a major part of the hydrological cycle.
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STRUCTURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE
-The content of water vapour and temperature of the
atmosphere varies from the earth’s surface to its
upper limits.
-Compared to the size of the earth, the atmosphere
seems to be very thin, and it is very difficult to identify
the upper limits.
-Although the atmosphere has no well-defined
boundary, most of the gas molecules are
concentrated below a height of 100 km.
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LAYERS OF EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
• Earth's atmosphere has a
series of layers, each with
its own specific traits.
• Moving upward from
ground level, these layers
are named the
troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and
exosphere.
• The exosphere gradually
fades away into the realm
of interplanetary space.
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ATMOSPHERE
Exosphere: >700 km (>440 miles)
Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to
440 miles)
Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50
miles)
Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31
miles)
Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7
miles)
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TROPOSPHERE
• This is the lowest layer of our atmosphere.
Starting at ground level, it extends upward to
about 10-20 km above sea level.
• We humans live in the troposphere, and nearly
all weather occurs in this lowest layer.
• Most clouds appear here, mainly because 99% of
the water vapor in the atmosphere is found in
the troposphere.
• Air pressure drops, and temperatures get colder,
as you climb higher in the troposphere.
• Temperature decreases with elevation (from
17oC at the surface to -60oC at 12 km elevation)
• The upper boundary of the troposphere is
known as tropopause.
• Tropopause (-60oC; all vapour condense)
• Constant vertical mixing
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STRATOSPHERE
• The next layer up is called the stratosphere. It extends
from the top of the troposphere to about 50 km (31
miles) above the ground.
• The infamous ozone layer is found within the
stratosphere.
• Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy
ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun, converting the UV
energy into heat. Unlike the troposphere, the
stratosphere actually gets warmer the higher we.
• That trend of rising temperatures with altitude means
that air in the stratosphere lacks the turbulence and
updrafts of the troposphere beneath. Commercial
passenger jets fly in the lower stratosphere, partly
because this less-turbulent layer provides a smoother
ride. The jet stream flows near the border between
the troposphere and the stratosphere.
• Temperature increases with elevation (reaches -2oC at
the stratopause)
• Very little vertical mixing
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MESOSPHERE
• Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere.
• It extends upward to a height of about 85 km
(53 miles) above our planet. Most meteors
burn up in the mesosphere. Unlike the
stratosphere, temperatures once again grow
colder as you rise up through the
mesosphere.
• Absence of high levels of radiation-absorbing
species
• The coldest temperatures in Earth's
atmosphere, about -90° C (-130° F), are found
near the top of this layer. The air in the
mesosphere is far too thin to breathe; air
pressure at the bottom of the layer is well
below 1% of the pressure at sea level, and
continues dropping as we go higher.
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THERMOSPHERE
Reaches temperature as high as 1200oC
Absorption of energetic radiation of
wavelengths (<200 nm) by gas species
The layer of very rare air above the
mesosphere is called the thermosphere.
High-energy X-rays and UV radiation from
the Sun are absorbed in the thermosphere,
raising its temperature to hundreds or at
times thousands of degrees.
However, the air in this layer is so thin that it
would feel freezing cold to us! In many ways,
the thermosphere is more like outer space
than a part of the atmosphere. Many satellites
actually orbit Earth within the thermosphere.
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CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE
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HYDROSPHERE
All of Earth’s water, including oceans (>97%), lakes,
streams, underground water, snow, and ice –
excluding water vapor in the atmosphere
(considered as part of the atmosphere)
Cryosphere: Where water is in solid form
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HYDROSPHERE
the oceans & seas cover 7/10 of the earth’s surface. Around 97% of
the total water supply on earth are held in the oceans & seas,
while the rest 3% is freshwater.
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Hydrosphere
-The sphere that covers all water bodies or maintains overall
hydrological cycle is the hydrosphere.
-The circulation of water from one part of the overall earth
system to another is known as the hydrological cycle.
-Water enters the atmosphere through evaporation from
earth’s surface
-Condensation of air moisture in the atmosphere
-Precipitation (through rain, snow etc.)
-Transportation
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Hydrosphere
However hydrological cycle is a closed system.
-Water may appear in the system in all three major states
(liquid, vapour & solid) and may be transferred from one
state to another
---but there is no gain or loss of water by the system.
-Water cycle is exceedingly dynamic in nature
-Area of all oceans and seas on earth: around 352 million
sq km and the rest (around 160 million sq km) is landmass
-Out of the oceans, the Pacific is the largest one (nearly
165 million sq km)
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Major Natural Stores of Water on Earth
Store Proportion of Total (%)
Oceans 97.41
Ice caps and glaciers 1.9
Groundwater 0.5
Soil Moisture 0.01
Lakes and Rivers 0.009
Atmosphere 0.0001
Park, 1997
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BIOSPHERE
Biosphere: all of the earth’s organisms,
including both animal and plant
species.
• Biotic – living organisms and other
aspects directly pertaining to them
• Abiotic – nonliving components
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BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is composed of all
living organisms.
Plants, animals, and one-celled
organisms are all part of the
biosphere.
Most of the planet's life is found
from three meters below the
ground to thirty meters above it
and in the top 200 meters of the
oceans and seas.
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WHY IS EARTH ‘JUST RIGHT’ FOR LIFE?
Why Just Right?
Distance from sun:
Leads to a temperature range favorable to life (between freezing and
boiling point of water); energy flow from sun sufficient to drive
weather and supply energy for life;
Size:
Enough gravitational mass to hold its atmosphere of light molecules
(N2, O2, CO2) and water;
Rotation:
Leads to daily patterns (night & day);
Orbit around sun:
Leads to seasonal patterns;
Atmospheric evolution:
Accumulation of O2 in lower atmosphere; formation of ozone shield to
screen harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
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