English VVI Note for AFU/TU Entrance Exams in Help For Ag App.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE

1) Universal truths

 If+S+v1/v5+O S+v1/v5+O
Eg: if you put ice in the sun, it melts.

2) Possibly true/Present Tense

 If+S+v1/v5+OS+will/shall/can/may+V1+O
Eg: If you speak the truth, I will believe you.

3) Past Tense

 If+S+v2+OS+would/should/could/might+v1+O
Eg: If the soup has salt in it, it would taste better.

4) Past Perfect Tense

 If+S+had+v3+OS+would/should/could/might+have+v3+O
Eg: Had I loved a child, I would have told you.

NOTE:- 'But for' has the same structure as of case

4)

Exercise:

1. If the train is late, we ____.

a) Walk b) will walk c) would walk d) walked.

Ans: b) will walk.

2. If I ___ you, I'd apply for the job.

a) Were b) is c) will be d) would be.

Ans: a) were.

3. I should never have troubled him if I ____ he was so busy.

A) Know b) knew c) have known d) had known.

Ans: d) had known.

4. If you drove too fast, you ____.

a) Get killed b) would get killed c) would have got killed d) got killed.

Ans: b) would get killed.

5. If you ___ ice, it turns into water.

a) Heats b) will heat c) heated d) heat.

Ans: d) heat.

6. But for the rain, the crops ____.

a) Die b) Would have died c) to die d) had died.

Causative verbs

1. Get-verb

 Get + no agent / objectv3

Eg: I got my car washed.
 Get + agent to +v1
Eg: I got him to do that work.

2. have-verb

 Have + no agent / object v3

Eg: I have my hair dyed.
 Have + agentv1
Eg: I had her tell a story.

3. make-verb

 Make + agent v1
Eg: He made me do the job.

Note:

 Let is similar to make and take v1 with agent.

Eg: let him open the door.
 Allow, permit, forbid, cause, force, compel take 'to+v1' with agent.
Eg: he allowed his children to go outside.
 Help take both 'v1' and 'to+v1'.
Eg: I helped him do/to do the homework.
 In the case of passive structure of 'make':
 Agent+ aux. + made + to +v1 + (by agent).
Eg: He was made to sing a song.

Exercise:

1. Sabita will have Ram ____ a folk song.

a) Sing b) to sing c) sung d) sang.

Ans: a) sing.

2. Shristee got her dress ____.

a) Ironed b) to iron c) iron d) ironing.

Ans: a) ironed.

3. My uncle made Mr. Lama ____ the watch.

a) Mended b) mend c) to mend d) mending.

Ans: b) made.

4. The teacher _____ me to participate in the contest.

a) Makes b) gets c) has d) none.

Ans: b) gets.

5. She is made ____ the letter.

a) Translate b) translated c) to translate d) none.

6. I will have got her ____ the material.

a) Copy b) copied c) is copying d) to copy.

Ans: d) to copy.

7. He forbids me ____ football.

a) Played b) play c) playing d) to play

Ans: d) to play.

Affirmative and Negative Agreements

1. Affirmative agreements:

 Sub + auxiliary verb + too

 So + auxiliary verb + sub
Eg: You like books and so do I.
OR, you like books and I do too.

2. Negative agreements:

 Sub + auxiliary verb + either

 Neither + auxiliary verb + sub
Eg: He didn't know the answer and I didn't either.
OR, He didn't know the answer and neither did I.

Exercise:

1. Ram and Sita haven't completed the job yet and Radha ____.

a) Hasn't neither b) neither hasn't c) hasn't either d) none.

2. I admire him and ____ Lalita.

a) so does b) does so c) does too d) such does.

As If / As Though

 Present
Sub +present +as if/as though + S + V2.
Eg:
She looks as if she saw a ghost.

 Past
Sub+ past +as if/as though + S+ had+v3.
Eg:
She looked as if she had seen a ghost.
Exercise:
1. She looks as if she ___ sick.
a) Is b) am c) was d) were.
Ans: c) was.
2. The man talked to him as though he ___ him.
A) Knew b) knows c) have known d) had known.
3. She talks about the contest as if she ____ the 1st prize.
a) Won b) win c) had won d) wins.
Ans: a) won.

Voice

A. Active voice
B. Passive voice
Rules:

1. Present Tense

 Active: Simple present (v1/v5)

Passive: is/am/are + v3
 Active voice: is/am/are + v4
Passive: is/am/are + being + v3
 Active: Present perfect (has/have + v3)
Passive: has/have + been + v3

2. Past Tense

 Active: Simple past (v2)

Passive: was/were + v3
 Active: Past continuous (was/were + v4)
Passive: was/were + being + v3
 Active: Past perfect (had + v3)
 Passive: had + been + v3

3. Future Tense

 Active: Simple future will/shall + v1)

Passive: will/shall + be + v3
 Active: Future perfect (will/shall + have+v3)
Passive: will/shall + have + been + v3

NOTE: Present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, future continuous and future perfect
continuous passive forms are uncommon and not in practice.

1. Interrogative case:

 Active: do/does/did+sub+v1+obj
Passive: is/am/are/was/were + obj + v3

Eg: Does she copy the answers?

Are the answers copied by her?

 While changing in the passive form, singular or plural verb should be chosen based on the obj.
 And also, present or past verb is chosen based on the verb used in the active voice (do/does/did).

 Active: can/could/have/has/had/shall/will/
Must / ought to/should + sub + v1 + obj
Passive: can/could/have/has/had/shall/will/
Should/must/ought to + be + v3
Eg: Can you carry the box?
 Can the box be carried by you?

2. Active: Sub+ can/could/may/might/shall/

Should / ought to/must + v1+obj
Passive: Sub+ can/could/may/might/shall/
Should / ought to/must + be + v3 + obj
Eg: I can write a poem.
 A poem can be written by me.

Exercise:

1. I am to write a letter.

a) A letter is to be written by me.

b) A letter is written to me.

c) A letter is being written by me.

d) None.
Ans: a) A letter is to be written by me.

2. My father gave me a book.

a) I was given a book by my father.

b) A book was given to me by my father.

c) Both a and b

d) None.

Ans: c) both a and b.

3. The active form of ' The police were given the information.' Is:

a) We give the police the information.

b) We are given the police the information.

c) We gave the police the information.

d) We were given the police the information.

And: c) We gave the police the information.

4. Close the window.

a) Let the window be closed.

b) Let the windows have been closed.

c) Will you close the window?

d) The window must be closed.

Ans: a) Let the window be closed.

Note: in the case of imperative sentence,

Active: verb + obj

Passive: Let + obj + be + v3

5. People say that he is a good guy.

a) It was said that he is a good guy.

b) It was said that he was a good guy.

c) It is said that he was a good guy.

d) It is said that he is a good guy.

Ans: d) It is said that he is a good guy.

 Speech

A. Direct speech

B. Indirect speech

Rules:

1. Direct: simple present (v1/v5)

Indirect: simple past (v2)

2. Direct: Present continuous (is/am/are + v4)

Indirect: Past continuous (was/were + v4)

3. Direct: Present perfect (has/have +v3)

Indirect: Past perfect (had + v3)

4. Direct: Present perfect continuous (has/have been + v4)

Indirect: Past perfect continuous (had been + v4)

5. Direct: Simple past (v2)

Indirect: Past perfect (had + v3)

6. Direct: Past continuous (was/were + v4)

Indirect: Past perfect continuous (had been + v4)

7. Direct: will/shall/may/can + v1

Indirect: would/should/might/could + v1

8. Direct: must

Indirect: had to

NOTE: ought to/ used/ had better/ would/ should/ could/ might in the direct speech is not changed in the
indirect speech.

And also, Past perfect is not changed in the indirect speech.

 Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time change:

DIRECT INDIRECT
1. Now  Then
2. Thus  so
3. Here  There
4. These  Those
5. Hence  Thence
6. Today  That day
 7. Yesterday  The previous day/ the day before

8. Ago  Before
9. Tomorrow  The next day/ the following day

10. The day before  Two days before yesterday

Interrogative sentences:

1. In the case of wh- ques, 'say' is changed to inquire, ask, want to know, wonder, etc. and the verb should
be used after the pronoun.

Eg: She said," Where is he?"

She asked where he was.

2. In the case of yes/no ques, if/whether is used.

Eg: He said," Are you hungry?"

 He asked if/whether he was hungry.

Imperative sentences:

In the case of imperative sentences, 'say' is changed to order, command, bid, request, forbid, etc.

Eg: Manoj said to me," Stay inside."

 Manoj ordered me to stay inside.

Eg: She said," Help me."

 She requested me to help her.

Exercise:

1. They said," Where is the house?"

a) They asked where the house is.

b) They asked where the house was.

c) They asked where is the house.

d) None.

Ans: b) They asked where the house was.

2. She said," Congratulations."

a) She said that congratulations.

b) She said that congratulations.

c) She congratulated me.

d) She told me that congratulation.

Ans: c) She congratulated me.

3. The teacher asked us ____.

a) What we want.

b) What did we want?

c) What we wants.

d) What we wanted.

Ans: d) What we wanted.

4. Bharat said," I am tired today."

a) Bharat said that he was tired that day.

b) Bharat said that he is tired today.

c) Bharat said that he was tired today.

d) Both a and c.

Ans: a) Bharat said that he was tired that day.

5. She says," My husband is drunk."

a) She said that her husband was drunk.

b) She says that her husband is drunk.

c) She says that her husband was drunk.

d) She said that her husband is drunk.

Ans: b) She says that her husband is drunk.

Question tag

Rules:

 If the statement is positive, the question tag is negative and vice-versa.

Eg: He is cute, isn't he?
She isn't beautiful, is she?

 If there is more than one auxiliary verb in the in the statement, the 1st auxiliary is repeated in the
tag:
 Eg: Radhika should have said so, shouldn't she?

 If there is a main verb in the statement, do/do/did is used in the tag:

Eg: She drinks tea, doesn't she?

V1\V5- do/does (plural/singular)

V2- did

 No/ not, never, seldom, rarely, barely, scarcely, hardly, nobody, no one, none, neither of, etc. in
the statement takes positive tag.
Eg: She hardly goes to shopping, does she?

 'Have to' in the statement takes 'do' in the tag:

Eg: Nobody had to work yesterday, did they?

 'this/that' in the statement takes 'it' in the tag, and 'these\those' in the statement take 'they' in
tag:
Eg: This is a house, isn't it?
These flowers are beautiful, aren't they?

 'I am' takes 'aren't I' in the tag:

Eg: I am a student, aren't I?

 'Must' showing necessity in the positive statement takes 'needn't' in the negative tag:
Eg: He must be obedient' needn't he?

 'Anybody, none, neither, everyone\body, nobody' in the statement takes ' they' in the tag:
Eg: Anybody will help you, won't they?
Neither of the girls laughs, do they?

 Statement (positive/negative) in the imperative takes positive future tags (will you)
Eg: Don't go there, will you?

 Let us go, will you?

 'Let's ' take ' shall' in the tag:
Eg: Let's go, shall we?

 'Nothing, anything ' takes 'it' in the tag:

Eg: Nothing was said, was it?

 Rather/'d + v1 in the statement - 'would' in the tag.

 Better/'d + v3 in the statement - 'had' in the tag.
Eg: You'd better tell your friends, hadn't you?
They'd climbed Mt. Everest, hadn't they?
Eg: You'd rather watch it, wouldn't you?
 She'd write to me, wouldn't she?

Note:

 If the statement has so, the tag should be positive.

Eg: so you are sick, are you?

 Dare/dares/dareddon't/doesn't/didn't in the tag.

 Few/little in the statement takes +ve tag whereas a few/a little takes -ve tag.

Exercise:

1. I shan't be in your way, ____?

a) Shall I b) shan't I c) will I d) won't I.

Ans: a) shall I.

2. He never watches T.V, ___?

a) Doesn't he b) do he c) does he d) don't he.

Ans: c) does he.

3. Don't play with fire, ____?

a) Won't you b) don't you? c) do you d) will you.

Ans: d) will you.

4. Let's go home, ____?

a) Shan't we? B) Will you c) will we d) shall we.

Ans: d) shall we.

5. Students have to work hard, ____?

a) Don't they b) do they c) have they d) haven't they.

Ans: a) don't they.

6. Everything is perishable, ____?

a) Is it b) isn't it c) are they d) aren't they.

Ans: b) isn't it.

They'd rather do this, ____?

a) Hadn't they b) had they c) wouldn't they d) would they.

Ans: c) wouldn't they.

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

1. Two or more singular subjects joined by 'and' usually take a verb in the plural:

Eg: Gita and Mina are here.

2. If 'the' is used before one singular noun then, singular verb is used otherwise plural:

Eg: The writer and editor has arrived.

Eg: The writer and the editor have arrived.

3. Two subjects together expressing one idea take a verb in the singular:

Eg: Rice and curry is his favorite food.

Slow and steady wins the race.

4. Singular subjects preceded by 'each' and 'every' usually take a singular verb:

Each girl and boy was present.

Every man and woman gets money.

5. Two or more singular subjects joined by or, nor, either ….. or, neither….nor take singular verbs:

Eg: Ram or his friend was there.

Either he or his brother was there.

6. In case of 'either….or' and 'neither….nor', the verb is chosen according to the second subject:

Eg: Either he or I am invited.

7. Certain nouns plural in form but singular in meaning take a singular verb:

Eg: Politics is a dirty game.

The news was true.

8. 'The number of ' and 'A number of' take singular and plural verbs respectively.

Eg: A number of students are going to the picnic.

Eg: The number of students has done the work.

9. Nobody, neither, somebody, everybody, something, anything, no one, is singular and always take
singular verb.

Eg: Nobody is there.

10. The collective nouns such as council, congress, minority, audience, committee, class, band, army,
family are singular and take singular verbs:
Eg: The family has gone somewhere. But, if we take about individual members, the collective noun takes a
plural verb.

Eg: The members of the team have won the match.

11. But, following collective nouns look singular but are plural and always take plural verb: police, cattle,
people, poultry, public, and swine.

12. 'A herd of', 'A flock of', 'A pair of', 'A class of', 'A lot of', 'A majority of', take singular verbs:

Eg: A herd of cattle is grazing.

13. As well as, together with, along with, accompanied by, besides, etc. takes verbs according to the 1st
subject.

Eg: He as well as his friends, is here.

The men, accompanied by their family members have arrived.

14. Nouns connected with quantity, amount, distance, time used as units take singular verbs, even though
they look as plural in form.

Eg: Two kilometers was covered.

15. 'Each of, neither of, either of, every one of + plural nouns' and 'Many a', it must be followed by a
singular verb.

Eg: Every one of the boys loves to ride.

Many a man has done so.

Exercise:

1. Each of the boys ____ here on time yesterday.

a) is b) are c) was d) were

Ans: a) is.

2. Two plus two ____ four.

a) are b) is c) was d) am.

Ans: b) is.

3. The novelist and the poet ____ coming here.

a) Am b) is c) are d) was

Ans: c) are.

4. Neither the man nor his friends ____ injured in the accident last week.

a) was b) were c) are d) is.

Ans: b) were.

5. No answer ____ correct.

a) was b) are c) are d) is

Ans: d) is.

Note: No + singular noun takes singular verb whereas No + plural noun takes plural verb.

6. No students ____ done the work today.

a) has b) have c) are d) were

Ans: b) have.

7. Most students ____ failed last year.

a) was b) are c) were d) has

Ans: c) were.

Note: Some (of) / Most (of) / All (of) / A few (of) / A lot of + plural nouns take a plural verb.

But, Some (of) / Most (of) / All (of) + uncountable nouns take a singular verb.

8. A lot of snow ____ melted.

a) has b) have c) were d) are.

Ans: a) has.

ARTICLES

A, AN and THE

- Definite > The

- Indefinite>A and An (It can be differentiated on the basis of sound (vowel or consonant)

Eg: a boy, a teacher (not defined)

The boy, the teacher (particular)

Uses of 'a' and 'an'

 'a' is used before countable singular nouns (or their qualifiers, if any) beginning with a consonant
sound.

Eg: a book, a house, a ewe, a European, a B.A., a P.H.D, a B.S.C., a CDO, etc.

 'an' is used before countable singular nouns (or their qualifiers, if any) beginning with a vowel
sound.

Eg: an ox, an honest man, an hour, an M.A., an L.I.B, an SLC, etc. ('h' isn't pronounced and thus,
starts with vowel sound.
 To draw attention:
Eg: This is a book.
This is a house.

 With some expressions denoting a large number or quantity:

Eg: a good\great deal of, a lot of, a great quantity of, a large number of, a number of, etc.
Eg: She spent a good deal of time on the project.
She has a great quantity of sugar.

 To show freq. with time, distance\weight:

Twice a week, two miles an hour, etc.

 After many, such, quite, rather and what:

Many a boy would get such an opportunity.
It's rather a pity, I think.
What a chance you've missed.
She is quite a beauty.

 Sometimes a \an comes after half:

half a mango, half an hour.

 In the form so\as\quite\too + objective + a\an +noun:

She isn't so nice a girl as you think.
This is too little a cap for me to wear.

Uses of 'the'

 With countable nouns (singular and plural) and uncountable to denote a particular person\thing
or one already mentioned.
Eg: I met a girl. The girl was beautiful.
This is a house. The house is mine

 Before nouns which have become definite from the context:

Eg: The pen that you want is lost.
There's a mat on the floor.

 When a singular countable noun represents a whole class:

Eg: The cow gives milk.
The rose is a shrub.
Exception:
 'man' and 'woman' never take any article even if they represent the whole class:
Eg: Man is mortal. (Not a/ the man is mortal)
Woman is man's mate.
 Before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of mountains, plural names
of countries, deserts:
Eg: the Atlantic, the Alps, the USA, the Netherlands, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the Ganges,
etc.

 Before the names of religious or historical books:

Eg: the Bible, the Mahabharata, etc.

 Before the names of renowned buildings, historic events, and festivals:

Eg: the Singha Durbar,
The Independence Day,
The Dashain

 Before the names of nationality, tribe, occupation, title, etc.

Eg: the Nepalese, the Judiciary, the General, and the Hindu.

 when the title is an opposition, 'the' is omitted:

Eg: Mr. Girija Pd. Koirala, PM of Nepal, was an experienced politician.

 Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular thing:
Eg: The year 2063 was lucky for me.
She was standing at the door.

 With the superlative:

This is the best film I have ever seen.
He is the tallest boy of the class.

 Before human organs, musical instruments:

Eg: Don't pull him by the ear.
She can play the guitar.

 With the ordinal:

Eg: He is the first boy to come here.
Today is the last day of the month.

 To qualify a proper noun,

Eg: Gautam Buddha, the Light of Asia.
Alexander, the great.

 As an adverb with the comparative:

Eg: the more we get, the more we want.
The sooner, the better.

OMISSION OF THE ARTICLES:

 Two exceptional cases have already been discussed.

 With the names of language.

Eg: We speak Nepali.

English is spoken everywhere.

 With the nouns school, college, hospital, church, market, prison, table, bed, court, work, sea, etc.
When they are used for primary purpose.
Eg: They went to school to study.
Rohit and his friends are at table.
She goes to bed to sleep.

 But, for the secondary purposes, 'the' is used:

Eg: She went to the school to see her friend.
The college is under repair.

 With names of relatives, father, mother, uncle, aunt, and cook, nurse, etc.
Eg: Father is at home.

Exercise:

1. Who is ___ best student of your class?

a) a b) an c) the d) None.

Ans: c) the.

2. It is ___ one-rupee note.

a) a b) An c) The d) None.

Ans: a) a.

3. My sister is ___ M.A. student.

a) a b) An c) The d)None.

Ans: b) an.

4. This is ___ place I like the most.

a) a b) An c) The d) None.

Ans: c) the.

5. Twelve inches make ___ foot.

a) a b) An c) The d) None.
Ans: a) a.

6. ___ blind are unfortunate to see.

a) a b) An c) The d) None.

c) the.

7. Mr. Sharma died of ____ cancer.

a) a b) an c) the d) none.

Ans: d) none.

8. ___ teacher and ___ player is absent.

a) the, a b) the,  c) ,  d) the, the.

Ans: b) the, .

9. I go to ___ school to see my friend by ___ bus.

a) the, the b) the, a c) the, d) the, an.

Ans: c) the, .

10. ___ pairs of shoes she bought were expensive.

a) the b) an c) a d) none.

Ans: a) the.

Tense

A) Present tense

1. Simple present

Structure: S + V1/V5 + o

Uses:

 To express habitual actions and universal truths:

Eg: He drinks tea. (Habitual action)
The earth revolves round the sun. (Universal action)

 Often with adverbs and adverbial phrases like: always, frequently, sometimes, never, seldom,
barely, rarely, usually, everyday, regularly, hardly, twice a day/month/year, etc.
Eg: He usually goes to temple.

2. Present continuous

Structure: S + is/am/are + v4 + O
Uses:

 Action happening just now.

Eg: We are studying English now.

 For an action that is planned or arranged to take place on the near future.
Eg: I'm going to cinema tonight.

 Now, at present, at the moment, nowadays, these days and imperative expressions like: look! ,
listen!, don't move! Use present continuous tense.
Eg: Look! The baby is crying.
She is sleeping at the moment.

3. Present perfect

Structure: S +has/have + v3 + 0

Uses:

 Recent actions where result can be seen even now.

Eg: He has cut his finger. It's bleeding.

 With phrases like: just, ever, recently, so far, yet, already, in the last few days, etc.
Eg: She has just arrived.
She hasn't done the work yet.

 Present perfect + since + simple past.

Eg: I haven't seen her since she left our college.

 It is the first/second/third time + S + present perfect.

Eg: It is the third time I've played this game.

4. Present perfect continuous

Structure: S + has/have + been + v4 + O

Uses:

 Actions that began in the past and is still continuing in present.

Eg: I have been living here since 2012.
I have been living here for 5 yrs.
Note: since + point of time
For + period of time.

B) Past tense

1. Simple past
Structure: S + v2 + O

Uses:

 For an action completed in the past at a definite time.

Eg: I saw her yesterday.

 Yesterday, last day/year, last time, childhood, this morning, etc use simple past tense.
Eg: I saw a thief this morning.

 Used for a past habit. (S + used to + v1 + O)

Eg: He used to smoke.

2. Past continuous

Structure: S + was/were + v4 + O

Uses:

 For the past actions that continued for some time but whose exact limits aren't known.
Eg: She was getting fatter.

 Being used with a point of time, expresses an action which began before that time and probably
continued after it.
Eg: At 7am, she was cleaning the room.

 Used for two actions occurring in the past at the same time.
Eg: When she saw me, I was climbing the tree.

 Definite past.
Eg: I was watching T.V yesterday at 2 o'clock.

3. Past perfect

Structure: S + had + V3 + O

Uses:

 For an action that occurred before the action in the past.

Eg: The patient had died before the doctor came.

 Also with till/until ( v2 + till/until + had + v3)

Eg: She refused to go till she had cooked rice.

4. Past perfect continuous

Structure: S + had been + V4 + O

Uses:
  For an action which began before the time of speaking in the past, and continued up to that time.
( similar to past perfect)
Eg: We had been reading.

C) Future tense

1. Simple future

Structure: S + will/shall + v1 + O

Uses:

 Future actions/ likely to happen in future.

Eg: She will wait for us.

2. Future continuous

Structure: S + will/shall + be + v4 + O

Uses:

 Action that will be going on at a certain time in future.

Eg: She will be watching a movie at 3pm the day after tomorrow.

3. Future perfect

Structure: S + will/shall + have + V3 + O

Uses:

 Used with expression beginning or ending with 'by/within'.

Eg: I'll have completed this work within 10 days.
Note:
It often occurs with 'before + future time (tomorrow, next week/month/year, at the end of the
month/year, etc.) or time clause.

4. Future perfect continuous

Structure: S + will/shall + haven been + v4 + O

Uses:

 Used for an action that at a given time will be continuing.

Eg: They will have been living in this village for three years.
Note:
It often occurs with 'by/before + future time' and 'for + period of time'
OR,
With 'In + period of time' and 'for + period of time'.

Exercise:
1. A lazy man seldom ____ well.

a) work b) worked c) works d) is working

Ans: c) works.

2. When I last saw you, you ____ of moving to your village.

a) are thinking b) were thinking c) have thought d) none.

Ans: b) were thinking.

3. Wait! The bus ____.

a) was coming b) came c) will come d) is coming.

Ans: d) is coming.

4. By 2010, he ____ in this flat for a decade.

a) was living b) has lived c) will have been living d) none.

Ans: c) will have been living.

5. Manoj ____ most of the work before I asked.

a) Had finished b) has finished c) will have finished d) finished.

Ans: a) had finished.

Prepositions

1. Uses of 'on'

 Before days and dates:

On Sundays, on Christmas day, on birthday, on ashar 19, etc.
Eg: Buy me a present on my birthday.

 To denote position (attached to sth/sb):

On the ceiling, on the wall, on the lap, on a map.
Eg: A book is on her lap.

 With means of transportation:

On a bus, on foot, on a place, on a horse, on a train, etc.
Eg: He goes to office on foot.
She travelled on a bus.
But, in a car, in a taxi, etc. because the floor space of a car or a taxi is comparatively closed or
smaller than of a bus or train. This is in case of vehicles.

 To mean concerning:
 Eg: We are discussing on 'peace'.

 With verbs like: keep on, move on, pass on, live on, rely on, depend on, put on, insist on, turn on,
depend on, switch on.
Eg: Keep on going.
She is putting on her sweater.

 Indicating member:
Eg: He is on the committee.
She is on the jury.

2. Uses of 'in'

 Before month, season, year, century, and period of history:

In January, in summer, in 1990, in the 20th century, in the Rana regime, etc.

 Before parts of the day:

In the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening.
But,
At noon, at night, at dawn, at dusk, at midnight.

 To denote place (comparatively larger):

In Nepal, in Asia, in the world, etc.

 Before period of time:

In five minutes, in three weeks, in twenty years.

 With things worn on the body:

In a green tie, in a red sari, in a black coat.

 To make prepositional phrases:

In addition, in front of, in spite of, in a hurry, in search of.

 To make phrasal verbs:

Deal in, believe in, and succeed in.
Eg: I believed in your words.
You succeeded in this one.

3. Uses of 'by'

 Before point of time;

By 2009, by March, by tomorrow, by 12pm.
Eg: Please complete this work by tomorrow.

 In passive voice:
Eg: Apples were eaten by him.
  To denote position (near/beside/at the side of):
Eg: The cat is by the bed.
 To indicate a means of transport or a route taken:
By boat/bus/car/plane/train/land/sea/ air.
Note:
If 'a' is used before vehicles then, 'on' or 'in' is used. But, if 'a' is not there, by is used.
Eg: he travelled by bus.
But, he travelled on a bus.

 To pass through sth/a place (along/across)

Eg: he entered by the back door.
We came by country roads, not by motorways.

 With means of doing sth through:

Eg: May I pay by cheque?

4. Uses of 'at'

 Before clock time:

At 4 o'clock, at 10.30

 Before names of festivals:

At Dashain, at tihar, at teej.
Not, on Dashain/tihar.

 To denote place (comparatively smaller)

At the hotel, at the airport.

 To make time adverbials:

At the present, at the moment, at the same time, at weekends, at lunch time, at sunrise, at sunset.
Eg: He is watching a film at the moment.

 To make phrasal verbs:

Laugh at, grin at, smile at, and stare at.

 To indicate the age at which sb does sth:

Eg: He left school at 17.

 To indicate a rate, price, speed, etc.

Eg: he is driving at 80 mph.

5. Uses of 'with'

 Having or carrying sth:

Eg: a girl with brown hair, a man with an umbrella, a coat with a belt.
  Indicating instruments used:
Eg: Write with a pencil, hit with a hammer, cut with a knife.

 Indicating material used:

Eg: fill a glass with water.
The bag was stuffed with food.

 In the company of sb:

Eg: discuss the problem with an expert.

 Indicating the manner, circumstances, condition, sth is done or takes place:

Eg: I will do it with pleasure.

 With some adjectives like: angry with, disappointed with, satisfied with, bored with, furious with,
furious with, and delighted with.
Eg: I was satisfied with the decision.
But, 'with' isn't used with 'married'.
Eg: Sarita is married to Hari. (Not married with)

5. Uses of 'of'

 Belonging to sb/sth
A friend of mine, the lid of the box, the role of teacher.

 Indicating age:
A man of 60, a woman of forties.

 Indicating unit of quantity:

A kilo of sugar, a sheet of paper, a cup of tea.

 With verbs like: die of, deprive of, accused of, afraid of, get rid of, take care of, dream of, consist
of, sort of, lack of.
Eg: he died of cancer.

6. Uses of 'about'

 On the subject of sth/sb, in connection with; concerning or regarding:

Eg: tell me about it.
The book is about flowers.

 At a time near to; at approximately:

Eg: It costs about 15 rs.
She arrived at about 10 o'clock.

7. Uses of 'off'
  Down or away from a position of sth:
Eg: Keep off the grass.
She fell off a ladder/tree/wall/

 With verbs like: put off, keep off, get off, switch off, turn off, finish off, doze off, take off, and fall
of.

8. Uses of 'since'

 Before point of time with present or past perfect tense;

Eg: I haven't eaten since breakfast.

9. Uses of 'into'

 Moving to a point within an enclosed space or volume:

Eg: Come into the house.
Throw it into the fire.

 Indicating a change in from as a result of an action:

Eg: Cut the paper into strips.
Fold the napkin into strangle.

10. Uses of 'onto'

 Moving to a position on a surface:

Eg: Move the book onto second self.
The crowd ran onto the pitch.

11. Uses of 'through'

 Moving or passing from one side to the other:

Eg: The dog rushed straight through the flower-bed.
A river flows through my village.

12. Uses of 'for'

 Indicating purpose or function:

Eg: Go for a walk.
It's a machine for cutting onions.

 Indicating destination, aim or reason:

Eg: a book for the children.
Depart for home.
Cycles for sale.

 Before period of time:

Eg: He was in jail for two years.

 As the price, reward or penalty of sth:

 Eg: She got a medal for bravery.
I bought a book for 150 rs.

 With some verbs like: apply for, look for, pay for, apologize for, wait for, search for, leave for, and
care for.
Eg: Wait for me.

13. Uses of 'from'

 Indicating the place or direction from which sb/sth starts:

Eg: Has the train from London arrived?

 Indicating the time at which sth starts:

Eg: He was deaf from birth.
I'm on holiday from 1 June.

 Indicating who sent or gave sth:

Eg: A letter from my sister.

 Indicating where sb/sth originates:

Eg: I'm from Nepal.

 Indicating the material from which sth is made:

Eg: Steel is made from iron.

 Indicating protection or prevention:

Eg: Protect children from violence.
Save the baby from drowning.

 To make a distinction between two places, people or things:

Eg: How would you know an army from a civilian?

 Indicating a cause:
Eg: She is suffering from cold.

Exercise:

1. He was an ambulance driver ___ Italy.

a) In b) on c) at d) of.

Ans: a) in.

2. He could grow a lot of grain ___ his family.

a) of b) from c) for d) in

Ans: c) for.
3. He cut a tree ___ an axe.

a) from b) with c) by d) in

Ans: b) with.

4. My school starts ___ 10 am in the morning.

a) at b) in c) on d) none.

Ans: a) at.

5. You can see three people ___ the mist glass.

a) from b) in c) by d) through

Ans: d) through.

Placement of pronouns

 Singular pronoun  2>3>1 (person)

Eg: You (2nd person), he (3rd person) and I (1st person) are friends.

 Plural pronoun 1>2>3 (person)

Eg: We, you and they are friends.

 Noun + pronoun 3>2>1 (person)

Eg: Sudip, you and I will play there.

 For confession of guilty 1>2>3 (person)

Eg: I and you are guilty.

Exercise:

1. ____ have made up our mind.

a) They, we and you b) we, you and they

c) You, we and they d) they, you and we.

Ans: b) we, you and they.

2. ____ are going out.

a) You, I and she b) your sister, I and she

c) I, you and she d) you, she and I.

Ans: d) You, she and I.

Notes to be remembered:
  'Though' is followed by 'yet'.
 'Such' is followed by 'as'
 'So' is followed by 'that'
 'No sooner' is followed by 'than'
 'scarcely' and 'hardly' is followed by 'when'

Exercise:

1. Though he is poor, ___ he is honest.

a) yet b) but c) and d) both 'a' and 'b'.

Ans: yet.

2. No sooner had we started out for Pokhara ____ it started to rain.

a) then b) than c) while d) both 'a' and 'b'

Ans: b) than.

3. I had scarcely entered the room ____ the phone rang.

a) while b) but c) when d) than.

Ans: c) when.

Word-Power

A) Manias (excessive desire/craze)

1. Bibliomania  passion for reading books.

2. Kleptomania  passion for stealing.

3. Logo mania  passion for talking.

4. Pseudo mania  passion for telling lies.

5. Graph mania  passion for writing.

6. Pyromania  A compulsion to set fire for thrill.

B) Phobias (fear)

1. Acrophobia  fear of heights.

2. Agoraphobia  fear of open places.

3. Claustrophobia  fear of closed place.

4. Cynophobia  fear of dogs.

5. Gynophobia/Gynaephobia  fear of girls.

6. Nyctophobia fear of darkness.

7. Pan phobia  fear of everything in general.

8. Xenophobia  fear of strangers.

9. Pyrophobia fear of fire.

10. Ochlophobia fear of crowds.

11. Monophobia  fear of being alone.

12. Pedophobia  fear of children.

13. Sitophobia  fear of food.

14. Triskaidekaphobia  fear of number 13.

15. Ballistophobia  fear of missiles.

16. Bibliophobia fear of books.

17. Anthropophobia/Anthrophobia  fear of mankind.

18. Trichophobia  fear of hair.

C) Killing Words

1. Felicide  killing of cats.

2. Filicide  killing of one's children.

3. Homicide  killing of human beings.

4. Patricide  killing of one's father.

5. Regicide  killing of the king.

6. Matricide  killing of one's mother.

7. Fratricide  killing of one's brother.

8. Apicide  killing of bees.

D) Beliefs

1. Monotheism  belief in one god.

2. Atheism  disbelief in a god.

3. Pantheism  belief that nature is a god.

E) Haters
1. Misogamist  hater of marriage.

2. Pacifist  hater of war.

3. Misogynist  hater of woman.

4. Misologist  hater of knowledge.

5. Misanthropist  hater of mankind.

F) Lovers

1. Bibliophile  book lover.

2. Canophilia  lover of dogs.

3. Warmongers  lover of war.

4. Philanthropist  lover of mankind.

5. Narcissistic  lover of own self.

G) Forms of government

1. Anarchy/acracy  govnt by none.

2. Plutocracy  govnt by wealthy people.
3. Thearchy  rule of gods.
4. Autocracy  govnt by one individual.