FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

Module – 1: Fluid Properties

Pressure and its Measurements

PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENTS

1.4 INTRODUCTION

Pressure is defined as the force acting on the surface of an object per unit area. Pressure is also
called as intensity of pressure. Pressure is a scalar quantity, as the force acts perpendicular to
the surface area. The force acting perpendicular to the surface is called as thrust. Consider the
force dF is acting perpendicular to the body having surface area dA, then the pressure is given
as
force dF
p= =
area dA
Units
MKS – kgf / m2
SI units – N / m2
Other commonly used units for pressure are
i) Pascal, denoted by Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N / m2
ii) 1 bar = 100 kPa = 105 Pa = 105 N/m2

1.5 PASCAL’S LAW

Pascal’s Law states that “the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal
in all directions”.

The above statement is proved by considering an arbitrary

fluid element with wedge shape and very small dimensions
of dx, dy, dz and ds as shown in the figure. Width of the
element dz is considered to be unity and px, py and pz be the
pressures or intensity of pressure acting on the faces ADEF,
ABCD and BCEF. Let angle AFB be θ.

Forces acting on the fluid element are:

i. Pressure forces acting perpendicular to the surface.
ii. Weight of the fluid element.

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 FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

Pressure force on the face ADEF = px x dy x 1

Similarly pressure force on the face ABCD = py x dx x 1
Similarly pressure force on the face BCEF = pz x ds x 1
Weight of the fluid element = specific weight x volume
= density x acceleration due to gravity x volume
dx × dy
=ρxgx( ×1)
2

Resolving the forces along x direction,

px x dy x 1 – (pz x ds x 1 x sin (90 – θ)) = 0
px x dy – pz x ds x cosθ = 0 (from figure, cosθ = dy / ds)
dy
px x dy – pz x ds x = 0 → px x dy – pz x dy = 0 → px – pz = 0
ds
px = pz

Resolving the forces along y direction,

dx × dy
py x dx x 1 – (pz x ds x 1 x cos (90 – θ)) – ρ x g x ( ×1) = 0
2
dx × dy
py x dx – pz x ds x sinθ – ρ x g x ( )=0
2

As considered fluid element is very small, weight will be very small and is neglected.
From figure sinθ = dx / ds
dx
py x dx – pz x ds x = 0 → py x dx – pz x dx = 0 → py – pz = 0
ds
py = pz
Therefore, px = py = pz
From the above equation, it is clear that the pressure at a point in x, y and z directions are equal
and as the fluid element is considered to be arbitrary, the pressure at any point is same in all
directions.

1.6 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH

Pressure at any point in static fluid can be explained

by Hydrostatic Law, which states that “at any point
in a static fluid the vertical rate of increase of pres-
sure must be equal to the local specific weight of the
fluid”.

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 FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

Consider a small fluid element in a static fluid at depth ‘h’ from the free surface of fluid.
Let ∆a = cross sectional area of element, ∆h = height of the element and p = pressure on the
face AB.

Forces acting on the fluid element are:

i. Pressure force on the face AB = p x ∆a (acting in downward direction).
𝜕𝑝
ii. Pressure force on the face AB = (𝑝 + ∆ℎ) x ∆a (acting in upward direction).
𝜕ℎ

iii. Pressure force on the faces BC and AD are equal and opposite.
iv. Weight of the fluid element = density x acceleration due to gravity x volume
= ρ x g x (∆a x ∆h)

Resolving forces along y directions,

𝜕𝑝
p∆a – (𝑝 + 𝜕ℎ
∆ℎ)∆a + ρg (∆a x ∆h) = 0
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
p∆a – p∆a - 𝜕ℎ ∆ℎ∆a + ρg∆a∆h = 0 → ∆ℎ∆a = ρg∆a∆h
𝜕ℎ
𝜕𝑝
= ρg = w (Hydrostatic Law)
𝜕ℎ

Integrating the above equation, we get

p
∫ dp = ∫ ρgdh → p = ρgh → h= (where h is called as pressure head.)
ρg

1.7 TYPES OF PRESSURE

The pressure on a fluid can be measured in two different ways (i) measured above the absolute
zero or complete vacuum and (ii) measured above atmospheric pressure.

Absolute Zero Pressure: Point of zero pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called Atmospheric Pressure.

The pressure varies depending on the elevation of place and temperature. It is measured using
barometer and also called as barometric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at mean sea level
at 15˚C is 101.3 kN/m2 or 10.13 N/cm2 or 1.033 kgf/cm2. The atmospheric pressure head is 760
mm of mercury or 10.33 m of water.

Absolute Pressure: Pressure which is measured with the reference to absolute zero pressure.

Gauge Pressure: Pressure which is measured with the reference to atmospheric pressure. If
pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, then it is called as positive gauge pressure. If

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 FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, then it is called as negative gauge pressure or vac-
uum pressure.

Vacuum pressure: Pressure which is below the atmospheric pressure.

Mathematically,
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Vacuum Pressure

1.8 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

1.8.1 Manometers

Manometers are the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid, by balancing
the column of fluid by the same or another column of fluid.

[Link] Simple Manometers

Simple manometers consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be measure and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of Simple
Manometers are Piezometer, U-tube Manometer and Single Column Manometer.

Piezometer: Piezometers are instruments used to measure gauge

pressure. One end of manometer is connected to the point where
pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere.
The rise of liquid in tube gives the pressure head at that point. If at
a point ‘A’, the height of liquid (say water) is ‘h’ in piezometer
tube, then pressure at A is given as ρgh (Units: N/m2)

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 FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

U-tube Manometer: Manometers in which tube is bent

in ‘U’ shape. Tube generally consists of mercury or any
other liquid whose specific gravity is known and
greater than the specific gravity of liquid whose pres-
sure is to be measured. Using U-tube manometer, both
gauge pressure and vacuum pressure can be measured.

Case (i): Gauge Pressure

Pressure in left limb above datum = pA + ρ1 gh1
Pressure in right limb above datum = ρ2 gh2
Equating two pressures,
pA + ρ1 gh1 = ρ2 gh2 → pA = ρ2 gh2 – ρ1 gh1

Case (ii): Vacuum Pressure

Pressure in the left limb above datum = pA + ρ1 gh1 + ρ2 gh2
Pressure in right limb above datum = 0 (open to atmosphere)
Equating two pressures,
pA + ρ1 gh1 + ρ2 gh2 =0
pA = − (ρ1 gh1 + ρ2 gh2 )

Single Column Manometer: Modified form of U-tube manometer. This has a reservoir, having
a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times the area of a tube), which is connected to one of
the limbs (for explanation purpose consider it as left limb) of the manometer. Due to the large
cross-sectional area of a reservoir, for any variation in pressure, change in the liquid level in
the reservoir will be very small, which may be neglected and hence the pressure is given by the
height of liquid in the other limb (right limb). The other limb may be vertical or inclined. This
manometer is connected to the pipe where pressure is to be measured. Due to the pressure in
the pipe, liquid level in the reservoir falls and liquid level in other limb rises.

Let A = Cross sectional area of the reservoir

a = Cross sectional area of the tube
h1 = Height of centre of pipe above X – X
(X – X is the initial level of the liquid in the reservoir)
∆h = Fall of liquid in the reservoir
h2 = Rise of liquid in right limb

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 FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

Case (i): Vertical Single Column Manometer

Volume of liquid fall in reservoir = Volume of liquid rise in right limb

a × h2
A x ∆h = a x h2 → ∆h= A

Let, Y –Y be the liquid level in the reservoir after fall

Pressure in left limb above Y – Y = pA + ρ1 g(h1 + ∆h)
Pressure in right limb above Y – Y = ρ2 g(h2 + ∆h)

Equating two pressures,

pA + ρ1 g(h1 + ∆h) = ρ2 g(h2 + ∆h) → pA = ρ2 g(h2 + ∆h) − ρ1 g(h1 + ∆h)
pA = ∆h(ρ2 g − ρ1 g) + ρ2 gh2 − ρ2 gh1
a × h2
pA = (ρ2 g − ρ1 g) + ρ2 gh2 − ρ1 gh1
A
As ‘A’ is very large than ‘a’, a/A will be very small and hence the first term is neglected.
pA = ρ2 gh2 − ρ1 gh1

Case (ii): Inclined Single Column Manometer

Due the inclination of the right limb, rise in liquid level (movement of liquid) will be more then
it in vertical limb for same application of pressure on reservoir. Inclined Single Column Ma-
nometer is more sensitive.

Let, L = Length of liquid moved in right limb from X –X

θ = Angle of inclination of right limb with horizontal
Pressure at A, pA = ρ2 gh2 − ρ1 gh1
Because of the inclination, h2 can substituted as L x Sinθ
⸫ pA =ρ2 g(LSinθ) − ρ1 gh1

[Link] Differential Manometers

Differential monometers are the devices used to measure the difference in the pressure between
two points in a same pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer will be in ‘U’
shape, contains heavy liquid (say mercury) and is connected to two points, whose difference is
to be measured. Commonly used differential manometers are (i) U-tube differential manometer
and (ii) inverted U-tube differential manometer.

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 FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

U-tube Differential Manometer: Manometer liquid used in U-tube differential manometers

should be heavier than liquid/liquids whose pressure difference is to be determined. U-tube
differential manometers are used to calculate difference in pressure between two points in two
different cases, when (i) two points at same level and (ii) two points at different level.
Case (i): Two points at different level.
Let X – X be the datum, lower level of manometer liquid.
Pressure in left limb above X – X = pA + ρ1 g(h + x)
Pressure in right limb above X – X = ρm gh + ρ2 gy + pB
Equating two pressures,
pA + ρ1 g(h + x) = ρm gh + ρ2 gy + pB
pA − pB = ρm gh + ρ2 gy − ρ1 g(h + x)
pA − pB = gh (ρm − ρ1 ) + ρ2 gy − ρ1 gx

Case (ii): Two points at same level.

Pressure in left limb above X – X = pA + ρ1 g(h + x)
Pressure in right limb above X – X = ρm gh + ρ2 gx + pB
Equating two pressures,
pA + ρ1 g(h + x) = ρm gh + ρ2 gx + pB
pA − pB = ρm gh + ρ2 gx − ρ1 g(h + x)
pA − pB = gh (ρm − ρ1 ) + gx(ρ2 − ρ1 )
If both pipes contain same liquid, then pressure difference is given as
pA − pB = gh (ρm − ρ1 )

Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer: U-tube manometer is inverted and connected to two
points whose pressure difference is to be determined. Manometer liquid used in Inverted U-
tube differential manometers should be lighter than liquid/liquids whose pressure difference is
to be determined. This devise is sensitive and used to determine even very less pressure differ-
ence.
Let X – X be the datum line
Pressure in the left limb above X – X = pA − ρ1 gh1
Pressure in right limb above X – X = pB − ρ2 gh2 − ρm gh
Equating two pressures,
pA − ρ1 gh1 = pB − ρ2 gh2 − ρm gh
pA − pB = ρ1 gh1 − ρ2 gh2 − ρm gh

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 FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

1.8.2 Mechanical Gauges

Mechanical gauges are the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid, by
balancing the column of fluid by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical
pressure gauges are (i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge, (ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge, (iii) Bel-
lows pressure gauge and (iv) Dead weight pressure gauge.

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge: It is the most common type of pressure gauge in use, invented
by E. Bourdon (1808-84). It consists of a steel or bronze tube, which is in elliptical cross-
section and is curved into a circular arc, acts as a pressure responsive element. One end of the
tube is closed and this end of the tube is free to move. Other end of the tube, through which
fluid enters, is rigidly fixed to the frame. When gauge is connected to gauge point, fluid under
pressure enters the tube. Due to the internal pressure, the elliptical cross-section of the tube
tends to become circular slightly, thus causing the tube straighten slightly. The small outward
movement of the free end of the tube is transmitted, through a link, quadrant and pinion, to a
pointer which by moving clockwise on the graduated circular dial indicates the pressure inten-
sity of the fluid. The dial of the gauge is so calibrated that it reads zero when the pressure inside
the tube equals the local atmospheric pressure, and the elastic deformation of the tube causes
the pointer to be displaced on the dial in proportion to the pressure intensity of the fluid. By
using tubes of appropriate stiffness, gauges for wide range of pressures may be made. Further
by suitably modifying the graduations of the dial and adjusting the pointer Bourdon tube vac-
uum gauges can also be made. When a vacuum gauge is connected to a partial vacuum, the
tube tends to close, there by moving the pointer in anti-clockwise direction, indicating the neg-
ative or vacuum pressure. The gauge dials are usually calibrated to read newton per square
meter (N/m2) or pascal (Pa) or kilogram (f) per square centimetre [kg(f)/cm2].

Diaphragm Pressure Gauge: The pressure responsive element in this gauge is an elastic steel
corrugated diaphragm. The elastic deformation of the diaphragm under pressure is transmitted
to a pointer by a similar arrangement as in the case of Bourdon tube pressure gauge. However,
this gauge is used to measure relatively low pressure intensities. The Aneroid barometer oper-
ates on a similar principle.

Bellows Pressure Gauge: In this gauge, the pressure responsive element is made up of a thin
metallic tube having deep circumferential corrugations. In response to the pressure changes

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 FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

this elastic element expands or contracts, thereby moving the pointer on a graduated circular
dial.

Dead Weight Pressure Gauge: A simple form of a dead weight pressure gauge consists of a
plunger of diameter d, which can slide within a vertical cylinder. The fluid under pressure,
entering the cylinder, exerts a force on the plunger, which is balanced by the weights loaded
on the top of the plunger. If the weight required to balance the fluid under pressure is W, then
W
the pressure intensity p of the fluid may be determined as, p= π . The only error that may
( d2 )
4

be involved is due to frictional resistance offered to motion of the plunger in the cylinder. But
this error can be avoided of the plunger is carefully ground, so as to fit with the least permissible
clearance in the cylinder. Moreover, the whole mass can be rotated by hand before final read-
ings are taken.

Dead weight gauges are generally not used so much to measure the pressure intensity at a
particular points as to serve as standards of comparison. Hence, a pressure gauge which is to
be checked or calibrated is set in parallel with the dead weight gauge. Oil under pressure is
pumped into the gauges, thereby lifting the plunger and balancing it against the oil pressure by
loading it with knowing weights. The pressure intensity of the oil being this known, the at-
tached pressure gauge can wither be tested for its accuracy or it can be calibrated.

A dead weight gauge can be used for measuring pressure at a point with more convenience. In
this gauge a lever, same as in some of the weighing machines, is provided to magnify the pull
of the weights. The load required to balance the force due to fluid pressure is first roughly
adjusted by hanging weights from the end of the main beam. Them a smaller jockey weight is
slided along to give precise balance. In more precise type of gauge the sliding motion may be
contrived automatically by an electric motor.

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FLUID MECHANICS, MODEL – 1, PART – B

Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

Bellows Pressure Gauge

Dead Weight Pressure Gauge

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