Number System — Master Reference
High-Level Competitive Mathematics | PGCIL • RRB JE • SSC • Bank PO/Clerk • CAT-level
1. Classification of Numbers
Type Definition Example
Natural Numbers (N) Counting numbers starting from 1 1, 2, 3, ...
Whole Numbers (W) Natural numbers + 0 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Integers (Z) Whole numbers + negatives ..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...
Rational Numbers (Q) Can be written as p/q, q ≠ 0 1/2, 0.75, -3
Irrational Numbers Non-terminating, non-repeating decimals √2, π, e
Real Numbers (R) Rational + Irrational All numbers on number line
Prime Numbers Exactly 2 factors: 1 and itself 2, 3, 5, 7, 11...
Composite Numbers More than 2 factors 4, 6, 8, 9, 10...
Co-prime Numbers HCF of the pair = 1 (8, 15), (9, 28)
Perfect Numbers Sum of proper divisors = number itself 6, 28, 496, 8128
2. Divisibility Rules (2 to 19)
Divisor Rule
2 Last digit is even (0,2,4,6,8)
3 Sum of digits divisible by 3
4 Last 2 digits divisible by 4
5 Last digit is 0 or 5
6 Divisible by both 2 and 3
7 Double the last digit, subtract from remaining number; result divisible by 7 (repeat if needed)
8 Last 3 digits divisible by 8
9 Sum of digits divisible by 9
10 Last digit is 0
11 (Sum of digits at odd places) − (Sum at even places) = 0 or multiple of 11
12 Divisible by both 3 and 4
13 Add 4×(last digit) to remaining number repeatedly; check divisibility by 13
16 Last 4 digits divisible by 16
17 Subtract 5×(last digit) from remaining number repeatedly; check divisibility by 17
19 Add 2×(last digit) to remaining number repeatedly; check divisibility by 19
3. HCF & LCM — Core Facts
• HCF × LCM = Product of two numbers (valid ONLY for exactly 2 numbers)
• HCF of two consecutive natural numbers = 1
• HCF of two consecutive even numbers = 2
• HCF of two consecutive odd numbers = 1
• If remainder when a ÷ b is 1 → HCF(a, b) = 1 (they are co-prime)
• LCM of co-prime numbers = product of the numbers
• HCF of fractions = HCF(numerators) / LCM(denominators)
• LCM of fractions = LCM(numerators) / HCF(denominators)
• Number of numbers divisible by d, up to N = floor(N/d)
• To find the greatest number that divides x, y, z leaving same remainder r: find HCF(x−r, y−r, z−r)
• To find the greatest number that divides x, y, z leaving NO remainder: HCF(x, y, z)
• To find the least number divisible by x, y, z leaving remainder r in each case: LCM(x,y,z) + r
• To find the least number which when divided by x, y, z leaves remainders a, b, c where (x−a)=(y−b)=(z−c)=k:
LCM(x,y,z) − k
4. Remainder Theorem & Cyclicity
Basic Remainder Rules
• (a + b) mod n = [(a mod n) + (b mod n)] mod n
• (a × b) mod n = [(a mod n) × (b mod n)] mod n
• (a − b) mod n = [(a mod n) − (b mod n)] mod n (add n if negative)
• A number and its digit-sum leave the SAME remainder when divided by 9 (and by 3)
• If a number leaves remainder r with both x and y, it leaves remainder r with LCM(x, y)
Cyclicity of Unit Digits (for finding last digit of a^b)
Digit Cycle of unit digits Cycle length
0, 1, 5, 6 Always same digit 1
4, 9 Two values repeat 2
2, 3, 7, 8 Four values repeat 4
Method: Find (power mod cycle length); if remainder is 0, use the cycle-length position instead.
5. Factors — Number, Sum & Product
If N = ap × bq × cr (prime factorisation):
• Total number of factors = (p+1)(q+1)(r+1)
• Sum of factors = [(a^(p+1) −1)/(a−1)] × [(b^(q+1)−1)/(b−1)] × [(c^(r+1)−1)/(c−1)]
• Product of all factors = N^(number of factors / 2)
• Number of ways to write N as a product of 2 factors = (Total factors)/2, if N is not a perfect square; (Total factors
+ 1)/2 if N is a perfect square
• Number of ways to write N as product of 2 CO-PRIME factors = 2^(n−1), where n = number of distinct prime
factors of N
• A perfect square always has an ODD number of total factors
6. Factorials — Trailing Zeros & Highest Power
• Number of trailing zeros in n! = floor(n/5) + floor(n/25) + floor(n/125) + ... (until quotient is 0)
• Highest power of a prime p dividing n! = floor(n/p) + floor(n/p²) + floor(n/p³) + ...
• For a composite divisor, break into prime factors and take the minimum after adjusting for powers
• 0! = 1! = 1
Example: Trailing zeros in 100! = floor(100/5) + floor(100/25) = 20 + 4 = 24
7. Prime Numbers — Key Facts & Tests
• 1 is neither prime nor composite
• 2 is the only even prime number; every other prime is odd
• Every prime number greater than 3 can be expressed as 6n ± 1 (not all 6n±1 numbers are prime — necessary,
not sufficient)
• To check if N is prime: test divisibility by all primes ≤ √N; if none divide N, it is prime
• Two consecutive natural numbers are always co-prime
• There are 25 prime numbers below 100 (2 to 97)
• Twin primes: pairs differing by 2, e.g. (3,5), (11,13), (17,19), (29,31)
8. Number Base System (Conversions)
• Decimal to any base: divide repeatedly by the base, read remainders bottom-to-top
• Any base to decimal: multiply each digit by (base)^(position from right, starting at 0) and sum
• Binary ↔ Octal: group binary digits in sets of 3 (from right)
• Binary ↔ Hexadecimal: group binary digits in sets of 4 (from right)
• Sum/difference of numbers in a non-decimal base follows the same carry/borrow logic, using that base's value
instead of 10
Example: (156)■■ in base 7 → 156 = 3×49 + 0×7 + 1 → (301)■
9. Euler's Totient Function φ(N)
Gives the count of numbers less than N that are co-prime to N. If N = a^p × b^q:
φ(N) = N × (1 − 1/a) × (1 − 1/b)
Used in advanced remainder problems along with Euler's Theorem: a^φ(n) mod n = 1, when HCF(a,n) = 1
10. Advanced Theorems (High-Level Competition)
Fermat's Little Theorem
If p is prime and HCF(a, p) = 1, then a^(p−1) mod p = 1. Useful for finding remainders of large powers divided by a
prime.
Wilson's Theorem
If p is prime, then (p−1)! mod p = p − 1 (equivalently, (p−1)! + 1 is divisible by p).
Chinese Remainder Theorem (concept)
Used when a number leaves different remainders with different (co-prime) divisors — solve step by step by combining
congruences.
11. Sum & Series Shortcuts
Series Formula
Sum of first n natural numbers n(n+1)/2
Sum of first n odd numbers n²
Sum of first n even numbers n(n+1)
Sum of squares of first n numbers n(n+1)(2n+1)/6
Sum of cubes of first n numbers [n(n+1)/2]²
Sum of an Arithmetic Progression (AP) n/2 × [2a + (n−1)d]
Sum of a Geometric Progression (GP) a(r■−1)/(r−1), r ≠ 1
Sum to infinity of a GP (|r| < 1) a/(1−r)
12. Digit-Sum (Vedic) Tricks
• Digital root (repeated digit sum until single digit) of a number = remainder when divided by 9 (use 9 if remainder
is 0, for non-zero numbers)
• Digital root is useful to quickly verify multiplication: digital root of (a×b) = digital root of [digital root(a) × digital
root(b)]
• A number is divisible by 9 if and only if its digital root is 9
• Squares of numbers ending in 5: (a5)² = a×(a+1) followed by 25. e.g., 35² = 3×4=12 → 1225
13. Important Special Results
• Product of n consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by n!
• The difference of two consecutive perfect squares = sum of their roots: (n+1)² − n² = 2n+1
• Sum of the first n odd numbers is always a perfect square (= n²)
• a■ − b■ is always divisible by (a − b)
• a■ − b■ is divisible by (a + b) when n is even
• a■ + b■ is divisible by (a + b) when n is odd
• A number of the form (a^n - 1) is divisible by (a-1) always
14. Quick Exam-Day Checklist
• Remainder = 1 on division ■ HCF = 1 ■ numbers are co-prime
• Perfect square ■ odd number of total factors
• Check unit-digit cyclicity before brute-forcing large powers
• For 'greatest number dividing with same remainder' problems, always subtract the remainder first, then take HCF
• For base-conversion word problems, convert to decimal first if the operation (add/subtract) feels complex in the
given base
Prepared for PGCIL DT (Civil) / RRB JE preparation — Number System quick-reference