ASSIGNMENT - 1

ESTIMATION AND
COSTING

TOPIC- DETAILED ANALYSIS OF

BUILDING MATERIALS

SUBMITTED TO- SUBMITTED BY-

AR PRIYANKA KANYAL MOHD ARSH
GEN 2 SEM VI
AIT SAP
1. BRICK
A brick is a building material made from clay, concrete, sand, or lime that is used
to construct walls, pavements, and other structures.

Advantages of Bricks
Economical (Raw material is easily available)
Hard and durable
Compressive strength is good enough for ordinary construction
Different orientations and sizes give different surface textures
Very low maintenance cost is required
Demolishing of brick structures is very easy, less time consuming and hence
economic
Reusable and Recyclable
Highly fire resistant
Produces less environmental pollution during manufacturing process.

Disadvantages of Bricks
Time consuming construction
Cannot be used in high seismic zones
Since bricks absorb water easily, therefore, it causes fluorescence when not
exposed to air
Very Less tensile strength
Rough surfaces of bricks may cause mold growth if not properly cleaned
Cleaning brick surfaces is a hard job
Color of low quality brick changes when exposed to sun for a long period of time.

Types of Bricks
There are several types of bricks, and each type is governed by specific
requirements based on their usage:

-Common Burnt Clay Bricks (Standard Burnt Clay Bricks)

-Fly Ash Clay Bricks
-Hollow Clay Bricks
-Perforated Bricks
-Concrete Bricks
Key IS Codes for Brick Analysis:
-IS 1077:1992 – Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks
-IS 3495 (Part 1, 2, 3):1992 – Methods of Test for Burnt C-lay Building Bricks
-IS 12894:2002 – Clay Fly Ash Bricks
-IS 2180:2005 – Burnt Clay Hollow Bricks

Grades of Bricks:
Bricks are classified into different grades based on their strength and durability.
The classification is based on the compressive strength of bricks.

-Grade A: High-strength bricks (Compressive Strength: 10 MPa or more)

-Grade B: Medium-strength bricks (Compressive Strength: 5 to 10 MPa)
-Grade C: Low-strength bricks (Compressive Strength: Less than 5 MPa).

Tests for Bricks (Based on IS 3495)

-Compressive Strength Test (IS 3495 - Part 1):

Bricks are subjected to a compressive force to determine their ability to

withstand load without failure.
For standard bricks: Minimum compressive strength should be 3.5 MPa (35
kg/cm²).
Fly Ash Bricks: Generally have higher strength (more than 7 MPa).
-Water Absorption Test (IS 3495 - Part 2):

Bricks should not absorb more than 20% by weight after soaking in water for 24
hours.
-Efflorescence Test (IS 3495 - Part 3):

This test measures the presence of soluble salts in bricks.

Bricks should not have strong efflorescence. Bricks are classified based on the
amount of efflorescence:
Class 1: No visible efflorescence
Class 2: Slight efflorescence
Class 3: Moderate efflorescence
Class 4: Severe efflorescence (not acceptable)
Size and Shape Test:

The dimensions of the brick should be accurate.

The length should be about 190 mm, width 90 mm, and height 90 mm (for
standard bricks).
Breaking Strength Test:

Bricks should withstand external forces without breaking. A standard brick

should resist a minimum of 3.5 MPa.

Quality of Bricks:
-High-Quality Bricks: These should have-
-High compressive strength (above 7 MPa).
-Low water absorption (less than 15%).
-No visible efflorescence.
-Correct shape and size with minimal variation.
-Smooth and even texture, without cracks.
-Medium-Quality Bricks: These bricks have moderate strength and water
absorption. They may have slight efflorescence and minor shape irregularities.

-Low-Quality Bricks: These should not be used for load-bearing walls. They
typically have:
-Low compressive strength (less than 5 MPa).
-High water absorption (above 20%).
-Significant efflorescence and surface irregularities.

Price of Bricks:
The cost of bricks varies based on location, type, and quality. Typically, the
pricing for bricks would depend on:
-Type of brick (Standard Clay, Fly Ash, Hollow, etc.).
-Location (prices vary by region).
-Size (standard or larger bricks).
-Transport Costs.
-Common Burnt Clay Bricks: ₹5 to ₹10 per brick (depending on quality and
location).
-Fly Ash Bricks: ₹6 to ₹12 per brick (depending on strength and manufacturer).
-Hollow Bricks: ₹15 to ₹30 per brick (depending on size and quality).
 Role of Bricks in Architecture and Civil Engineering:
Aesthetic Appeal: Bricks have been used in construction for centuries due to
their warm, natural appearance. They provide a timeless aesthetic, and the color,
texture, and pattern of bricks can enhance the visual appeal of a building.
Architects often use bricks in different patterns.

Structural Integrity: Bricks are widely used in the construction of load-bearing

walls, facades, and even foundations. They provide structural stability due to
their compressive strength, particularly when used with mortar.

Thermal Insulation: Bricks are good at thermal insulation due to their ability to
absorb and retain heat. This is especially beneficial in hot climates where brick
buildings can stay cool during the day and warm at night. Fly ash bricks, in
particular, have better thermal insulation properties compared to conventional
clay bricks.

Fire Resistance: Bricks are inherently fire-resistant. This makes them an ideal
choice for building safety, especially in high-rise buildings, as they help in
preventing the spread of fire. The fire resistance of bricks is one of their major
advantages over other materials like wood.

Sound Insulation: Due to their solid mass and dense properties, bricks also
provide good sound insulation. This is useful in reducing noise pollution,
especially in urban settings or areas near highways
2. AGGREGATES-
Aggregates are raw materials that are produced from natural sources and extracted
from pits and quarries, including gravel, crushed stone, and sand.

Types of Aggregates:
Aggregates are typically classified into two main categories:

[Link] Aggregates: These are smaller particles, usually sand, with sizes less than
4.75 mm.
[Link] Aggregates: These are larger particles, typically gravel or crushed
stone, with sizes greater than 4.75 mm.
Subcategories Based on Source:
[Link] Aggregates:
River Sand (Natural Fine Aggregates)
Gravel or Crushed Stone (Natural Coarse Aggregates)
Manufactured Aggregates:
Manufactured Sand (M-Sand): Processed through crushing rocks.
[Link] Aggregates: Derived from crushed concrete or masonry.

IS Codes for Aggregates:

IS 383:2016 – Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural

Sources for Concrete.
IS 2386 (Part 1 to 8) – Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete:
Part 1: Particle Size and Shape
Part 2: Estimation of Material Finer than 75 Micron
Part 3: Specific Gravity, Density, and Water Absorption
Part 4: Shape, Size, and Surface Texture
Part 5: Crushing Value
Part 6: Abrasion Value
Part 7: Alkali Aggregate Reactivity
Part 8: Soundness
IS 1542:1992 – Sand for Plastering.
IS 11000:1984 – Recycled Aggregates.
Tests for Aggregates (According to IS Codes):
Aggregates must undergo several tests to ensure they meet the standards for
strength, durability, and suitability for specific applications.

Tests for Fine Aggregates (Sand):

[Link] Analysis (IS 2386 Part 1)
Determines the particle size distribution to check if it falls within the required
range.

[Link] Absorption Test (IS 2386 Part 3)

Fine aggregates should not absorb excessive water. Water absorption should
ideally be less than 1%.

[Link] and Silt Content (IS 2386 Part 2)

Excessive clay or silt affects the strength of concrete. Clay content should ideally
be less than 3% by weight.

[Link] Impurity Test (IS 2386 Part 2)

Ensures that sand is free from harmful organic impurities that can adversely
affect the setting and strength of concrete.
Tests for Coarse Aggregates:

[Link] Analysis (IS 2386 Part 1)

Determines the particle size distribution of coarse aggregates.

[Link] Gravity and Bulk Density (IS 2386 Part 3)

Specific gravity is important for calculating the proportion of concrete mix.

Typical values for coarse aggregates are 2.6-2.8.

[Link] Value Test (IS 2386 Part 4)

Tests the ability of aggregates to resist crushing under load. The maximum
permissible value is typically 30% for non-coarse aggregates used in road works
.
[Link] Value Test (IS 2386 Part 4)
Determines the resistance of aggregates to wear due to traffic or other
mechanical movements. The maximum permissible value is 30% for aggregates
used in concrete, and 50% for road aggregates.
[Link] Value Test (IS 2386 Part 4)
Measures the toughness of aggregates. A typical permissible value
is around 25-30% for aggregates used in road works.

[Link]-Aggregate Reactivity (IS 2386 Part 7)

Tests for the potential of aggregates to react with alkalis in cement, leading to
expansion and cracking.

[Link] Test (IS 2386 Part 5)

Measures the resistance of aggregates to weathering action. Aggregates should
not deteriorate significantly when exposed to freezing and thawing cycles.

[Link] Absorption (Coarse Aggregates) (IS 2386 Part 3)

The maximum allowable water absorption should be 2% for coarse aggregates

Grades of Aggregates:
Aggregates are categorized based on their gradation, which refers to the
particle size distribution.

Fine Aggregates:
*Zone I (Coarse Sand): Particle size distribution is coarser, suitable for mortar
and concrete requiring higher strength.
*Zone II (Medium Sand): The most commonly used sand for concrete.
*Zone III (Fine Sand): Finer particles, generally used for plastering.
*Zone IV (Very Fine Sand): Too fine for concrete, mainly used for plastering.
*Coarse Aggregates:
Coarse aggregates are generally classified based on their size:
*Gravel or Crushed Stone: Aggregates with particle sizes from 4.75 mm to 80
mm.
*Graded Coarse Aggregates: Aggregates that fall within a specific range (e.g.,
10 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm).
Quality of Aggregates:
The quality of aggregates is essential for ensuring the durability, strength, and
performance of concrete. Here are key parameters related to the quality:

*Cleanliness: Aggregates must be free from harmful impurities like clay, silt, and
organic matter. This can affect the bonding between the aggregate and cement.

*Shape and Texture: Angular aggregates are preferred for concrete because
they interlock better and provide more strength. Round aggregates, while easier
to handle, are less ideal for strength applications.

*Strength: Aggregates should have adequate compressive strength to withstand

the loads applied on the structure. Higher strength aggregates improve the
overall strength of concrete.

*Durability: Aggregates should be resistant to weathering, freezing-thawing

cycles, and other environmental factors that might cause degradation.

*Size: Proper grading is important to ensure a dense and well-compacted

concrete mixture.

Price of Aggregates:
The price of aggregates varies depending on the type, size, source, location, and
market conditions. Below are approximate price ranges for different aggregates
in India:

*River Sand (Fine Aggregate): ₹40-₹80 per cubic foot.

*Manufactured Sand (M-Sand): ₹35-₹70 per cubic foot (depending on quality).
*Coarse Aggregates (20mm): ₹500-₹1000 per tonne.
*Coarse Aggregates (10mm): ₹600-₹1200 per tonne.
*Gravel: ₹400-₹900 per tonne.
*Recycled Aggregates: ₹700-₹1500 per tonne (price depends on the source and
treatment).
ROLE PLAYED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION-
a. Strength and Load-Bearing Capacity:
Aggregates are essential for the compressive strength of concrete, which is a
critical property for load-bearing structures like foundations, columns, and
beams.
The quality of aggregates (e.g., strength, size, texture) directly affects the
strength of the final concrete mix, which is a crucial factor in civil engineering
projects.
b. Durability:
In harsh environments (exposed to moisture, salts, or extreme temperatures),
aggregates must be resistant to weathering, wear, and chemical attack.
Aggregates such as crushed stone and gravel are highly durable and are used in
foundations, highways, and high-rise buildings.
c. Aesthetics and Finish:
In architecture, aggregates not only contribute to the structural properties of
concrete but also play a role in aesthetic finishes like exposed aggregate surfaces
or decorative mosaic flooring.
Different types of aggregates, such as colored sands, pebbles, or marble chips,
are used to enhance the visual appeal of the structure, especially in modern
architectural designs

Cost of Aggregates in the Indian Market

Type Price (₹/Cubic Meter) Common Suppliers (Brands)

UltraTech, Mahavir Sand,

River Sand (Fine Aggregate) ₹1,500 - ₹2,500
Tavara

Crushed Stone (Coarse

₹1,800 - ₹3,500 RMC, Tata Aggregates
Aggregate)

M-Sand (Manufactured
₹1,000 - ₹2,000 Robo Sand, UltraTech
Sand)

Local suppliers, Demolition

Recycled Aggregate ₹800 - ₹1,500
waste units
[Link]

Cement is a binding material that hardens when mixed with water, forming a
strong matrix that holds aggregates together in concrete or mortar. It is
primarily made of limestone (CaCO₃), clay (SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃), and gypsum
(CaSO₄).

Types of Cement (According to IS Codes)

Cement is classified into several types, each suitable for specific applications -
a. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) - IS 269:2015
Grades:
*33 Grade (IS 269)
*43 Grade (IS 12269)
*53 Grade (IS 12269)
Use: General-purpose cement used for construction of buildings, pavements,
bridges, and highways.
Application: Concrete, mortar, plastering, etc.
b. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) - IS 1489 (Part 1 & 2):2015
*Grades: Available as PPC for general use and PPC with fly ash for more
specialized applications.
*Use: Suitable for structures exposed to severe environmental conditions, such
as marine environments or areas with high sulfate content.
Application: Concrete, structures in coastal areas, dams, marine works.
c. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRPC) - IS 12330:1988
Use: Used in areas with high sulfate content in the ground or water.
Application: Sewage treatment plants, foundations in sulfate-rich soil, water-
resistant structures.
d. Low Heat Portland Cement (LHPC) - IS 455:2015
Use: Suitable for large concrete pours where heat generation due to hydration
is a concern, such as in dams and foundations.
Application: Mass concrete works, large-scale infrastructure projects.
e. Rapid Hardening Cement (RHC) - IS 8041:1990
Use: Accelerates setting time and increases early strength. It is used where rapid
construction is required.
Application: High-speed construction, pavements, highways.
f. White Cement - IS 8041:1990
Use: White cement is primarily used for decorative purposes such as tiling,
plastering, and exposed finishes.
Application: Architectural projects, aesthetic applications, precast concrete.

Chemical Composition (As per IS 269:2015)

Oxide Compound Chemical Formula Function in Cement Required % in OPC

Lime CaO Strength & setting 60-67%

Silica SiO₂ Strength 17-25%
Alumina Al₂O₃ Quick setting 3-8%
Iron Oxide Fe₂O₃ Strength & color 0.5-6%

Strength but
Magnesia MgO excessive MgO <6%
causes cracks
Prevents flash
Sulfur Trioxide SO₃ <3%
setting
If excess, causes
Alkalis Na₂O, K₂O <0.6%
efflorescence
Controls setting
Gypsum CaSO₄·2H₂O 3-5%
time
Tests for Cement (According to IS Codes)
The performance and quality of cement must be tested according to specific
parameters outlined in IS codes. Common tests include:

a. Fineness Test (IS 4031 Part 1:1996)

Purpose: Determines the surface area of the cement particles.
Method: This test is done by sieving the cement through a 90-micron sieve.
Higher fineness allows faster hydration and strength gain.
b. Consistency Test (IS 4031 Part 4:1988)
Purpose: Determines the water required for a given amount of cement to form a
paste of standard consistency.
Method: The Vicats apparatus is used to measure the depth of penetration of a
needle into a cement paste.
c. Setting Time Test (IS 4031 Part 5:1988)
Purpose: Measures the initial and final setting time of cement.
Standard: Initial setting time should not be more than 30 minutes, and the final
setting time should be less than 600 minutes.
d. Compressive Strength Test (IS 4031 Part 6:1988)
Purpose: Determines the compressive strength of cement, which is a measure of
its ability to withstand loads.
Standard: The 28-day compressive strength for 33-grade cement is at least 33
MPa, for 43-grade it is 43 MPa, and for 53-grade it is 53 MPa.
e. Soundness Test (IS 4031 Part 3:1988)
Purpose: Determines the ability of cement to retain its volume after setting and
hardening, without cracking or excessive expansion.
Standard: Soundness should be within the limits specified in the IS code,
typically less than 10 mm expansion.
f. Heat of Hydration Test (IS 4031 Part 8:1988)
Purpose: Measures the amount of heat generated during the setting of cement.
This is especially important for mass concrete like dams or foundations.
Standard: Low Heat Cement is preferred for large pours

Grades of Cement (Strength-Based Classification)

Compressive
Grade IS Code Uses
Strength (MPa)

Plastering,
33 Grade OPC IS 269:2015 33 MPa
brickwork

RCC structures,
43 Grade OPC IS 8112:2013 43 MPa concrete
pavements

High-strength
53 Grade OPC IS 12269:2013 53 MPa
concrete, bridges
PRICE

Dimensions & Packaging

· Cement Bag Weight: 50 kg (As per IS 12627:1989)
· Bulk Cement: Transported in silos or tankers.
Storage Life: 3 months max in dry conditions
. Applications of Cement
Application Recommended Cement Type
Plastering & Masonry OPC 33, PPC
Concrete Slabs & Beams OPC 43, PSC
High-Rise Buildings OPC 53
Roads & Bridges PSC, SRC
Water Retaining Structures SRC, PPC
Properties of Reinforcement Steel
Test Method (IS
Property Acceptable Limit Importance
Code & Page No.)

Defines load-bearing
Yield Strength IS 1786:2008 (Pg. 5) 250-600 MPa
capacity

Higher than yield Prevents sudden

Tensile Strength IS 1786:2008 (Pg. 6)
strength failure

Elongation IS 1786:2008 (Pg. 7) 8-23% Ensures ductility

No cracks after Allows site

Bendability IS 1599:1985 (Pg. 3)
bending fabrication
Adequate for RCC Ensures proper load
Bond Strength IS 2770 (Part 1):1967
[Link] (Steel Bars for RCC Construction)
Reinforcement refers to steel bars or meshes embedded in concrete structures to
improve tensile strength, as concrete alone is strong in compression but weak in
tension. The combination of reinforced cement concrete (RCC) ensures structural
stability, ductility, and longevity.

Types of Reinforcement Steel

Reinforcement steel can be classified into the following categories based on the
material type, treatment process, and strength characteristics:

a. Mild Steel (MS) Reinforcement – IS 432 (Part 1)

Properties: Mild steel reinforcement has a low yield strength (approximately 250
MPa). It is easy to weld, bend, and shape but is less commonly used in modern
construction due to its relatively lower strength.
Uses: Suitable for light construction work and non-structural applications.
b. High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) Steel – IS 1786:2008
Properties: HYSD bars are deformed steel bars that have high yield strength
(typically 415 MPa or 500 MPa). They have a higher tensile strength compared to
mild steel and are used in high-strength reinforced concrete (RCC) works.
Grades: Fe 415, Fe 500, Fe 500D (D denotes ductility).
Uses: High-rise buildings, bridges, dams, and structures that require high strength.
c. Thermo-Mechanically Treated (TMT) Bars – IS 1786:2008
Properties: TMT bars are high-strength bars with a strong outer surface and a soft
core. The cooling process makes them more resistant to corrosion and gives them
high strength and ductility.
Grades: Fe 415, Fe 500, Fe 550, Fe 600.
Uses: High-strength concrete structures, seismic designs, and structures
subjected to harsh conditions.
d. Stainless Steel Reinforcement
Properties: Stainless steel bars are highly corrosion-resistant and have higher
durability, making them ideal for structures exposed to corrosive environments.
Uses: Coastal structures, water tanks, marine structures, and chemical plants.
e. Galvanized Reinforcement
Properties: Steel bars coated with a layer of zinc to protect them from corrosion. It
is commonly used in highly corrosive environments.
Uses: Coastal or chemical plant structures where corrosion is a concern.
GRADES OF REINFORCEMENT STEEL

Testing of Reinforcement Steel

The quality of reinforcement steel is determined by a series of tests, which are
governed by IS 1786:2008. The key tests include:

a. Tensile Test (IS 1608:2005)

Purpose: To determine the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of
reinforcement steel.
Procedure: A sample bar is pulled until it breaks, and the amount of force
required to break it is measured.
b. Bend Test (IS 1786:2008)
Purpose: To check the ductility of the steel and ensure it can be bent without
breaking.
Procedure: Steel bars are bent at a fixed angle to test their ability to withstand
deformation.
c. Re-bend Test (IS 1786:2008)
Purpose: To test the flexibility of the steel and its ability to retain its properties
after bending.
d. Chemical Composition Test (IS 228:2005)
Purpose: To determine the chemical composition of the steel, ensuring it meets
the required standards for carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, and other elements.
e. Corrosion Resistance Test (for TMT and Stainless Steel)
Purpose: To ensure that the reinforcement bars are resistant to corrosion,
especially for use in structures exposed to moisture or chemicals.

PRICE

IS Codes for Reinforcement Steel

The Indian Standard (IS) Codes that govern the quality, testing, and
specifications for reinforcement steel are:
IS 1786:2008 – High Strength Deformed Steel Bars and Wires for Concrete
Reinforcement: This standard covers the specifications for TMT (Thermo
Mechanically Treated) bars, HYSD (High Yield Strength Deformed) bars, and
ribbed wires for use in reinforced concrete.
IS 432 (Part 1 & 2):1982 – Mild Steel and Medium Tensile Steel Bars for
Reinforced Concrete: This standard specifies the requirements for mild steel and
medium tensile steel bars used in concrete reinforcement.
IS 1139:1982 – Weldable Reinforcing Steel Bars: This standard provides the
specifications for weldable reinforcement steel used in concrete structures.
[Link]
Timber is a natural, fibrous material derived from trees and used in construction,
furniture, and industrial applications. It possesses high strength-to-weight ratio,
thermal insulation, and aesthetic appeal.
Types of Timber (As per IS 399:1963 & IS 1708:1986)
Type IS Code Characteristics Common Uses
Hardwood Dense, durable, Flooring, furniture,
IS 399:1963
(Deciduous Trees) slow-growing heavy construction

Softwood Lightweight, fast- Doors, window

IS 399:1963
(Coniferous Trees) growing, less dense frames, roofing

Layers of wood
Wall panels,
Plywood IS 303:1989 veneers glued
furniture
together

Laminated Veneer Thin wood layers Beams, joists,

IS 14616:1999
Lumber (LVL) bonded for strength frames

Medium Density Engineered wood,

IS 12406:2003 Cabinets, partitions
Fibreboard (MDF) smooth texture

Wood chips bonded Budget-friendly

Particle Board IS 3087:2005
with resin furniture

Moisture-reduced High-quality
Seasoned Timber IS 1144:1980
for durability structural work
Grading of Timber (As per IS 12896:1990)
Timber is classified based on strength, durability, and defects.

Grade Description Common Applications

High strength, minimal Structural beams, premium

Grade I (Superior Grade)
knots, fully seasoned furniture

Moderate strength, minor

Grade II (Standard Grade) General construction, doors
knots
 Low strength, defects like
Grade III (Utility Grade) Temporary structures, crates
warping
4. Properties of Timber (As per IS 1708:1986 & IS 883:2016)
Test Method (IS
Property Acceptable Limits Importance
Code & Page No.)

Affects shrinkage &

Moisture Content IS 1708:1986 (Pg. 7) 10-20%
durability

Determines strength
Density IS 1708:1986 (Pg. 9) 450-900 kg/m³
& weight

Compressive Essential for load-

IS 1708:1986 (Pg. 12)5-50 MPa
Strength bearing applications

Used in beams &

Bending Strength IS 1708:1986 (Pg. 14)40-100 MPa
rafters
Janka Hardness Resistance to
Hardness IS 883:2016 (Pg. 8)
500-3000 N indentation

Requires fireproof
Fire Resistance IS 1734:1986 (Pg. 5) Medium to Low
treatment

Chemical-treated
Termite Resistance IS 401:2001 (Pg. 3) Increases lifespan
wood preferred
Testing of Timber (As per IS 1708:1986 & IS 2380:1977)
Timber is subjected to various mechanical and physical tests to
ensure quality and suitability for construction.
IS Code & Page Acceptable
Test Name Purpose Procedure
No. Limits

Moisture Determines Oven drying IS 1708:1986

10-20%
Content Test seasoning level method (Pg. 7)

Determines Weighing &

IS 1708:1986
Density Test strength-to- volume 450-900 kg/m³
(Pg. 9)
weight ratio calculation
Measures
Compressive Compression IS 1708:1986
ability to bear 5-50 MPa
Strength Test test machine (Pg. 12)
loads
Compressive Measures ability Compression IS 1708:1986
5-50 MPa
Strength Test to bear loads test machine (Pg. 12)
Determines
Bending UTM bending IS 1708:1986
flexibility under 40-100 MPa
Strength Test test (Pg. 14)
load
Evaluates
Shear Strength Shear testing IS 1708:1986
resistance to 5-15 MPa
Test setup (Pg. 18)
shearing forces

Impact Strength Assesses shock IS 2380:1977

Izod/Charpy test 2-15 J
Test absorption (Pg. 8)

Measures
Janka Hardness Steel ball IS 883:2016 (Pg.
resistance to 500-3000 N
Test penetration test 8)
indentation
Standard Timber Sizes (As per IS 883:2016 & IS 1200:1982)
Timber is available in standard dimensions for various purpose-
Type Standard Sizes (mm) Application
Planks 19x125, 25x150, 50x200 Flooring, furniture

Beams 100x100, 150x150, 200x200 Load-bearing structures

12x1200x2400,
Boards Plywood, MDF sheets
18x1200x2400
Battens 25x50, 50x75 Roofing, doors, frames
Cost Analysis of Timber (March 2025)
Timber prices vary based on type, quality, and region.
Timber Type Price (₹ per CFT) Common Usage

Teak (Sagwan) ₹4500-8000 Premium furniture, doors

Sal Wood ₹1500-3000 Structural work, doors

Pine Wood ₹800-1800 Packaging, furniture

MDF Board ₹50-120 per sqft Budget furniture
Plywood (Commercial
₹60-150 per sqft Wall panels, partitions
Grade)
 Factors Affecting Price:
· Moisture content & seasoning
· Availability & transportation
· Quality grading & treatment
· Market demand & bulk purchase
Applications of Timber

Application Recommended Timber Type

House Construction (Roofing, Beams,

Sal, Teak, Pine
Columns)

Furniture (Chairs, Tables, Cabinets) Teak, Mahogany, Plywood

Flooring & Decking Oak, Bamboo, Engineered Wood
Window Frames & Doors Sal, Deodar, MDF
Shuttering & Formwork Pine, Plywood, LVL

Preservation & Seasoning of Timber (As per IS 401:2001 & IS

1141:1993)
Timber needs seasoning & treatment to improve durability.
· Air Seasoning: 6-12 months drying (IS 1141:1993, Pg. 4)
· Kiln Seasoning: Accelerated drying in chambers (IS 1141:1993, Pg. 6)
· Chemical Treatment: Borax, CCA, or creosote oil for termite
protection (IS 401:2001, Pg. 3)
[Link]
Glass is a non-crystalline, transparent material made primarily of silica (SiO₂), soda
ash (Na₂CO₃), and limestone (CaCO₃). It is widely used in windows, doors, facades,
interiors, and structural glazing due to its transparency, strength, and aesthetic
appeal.
Types of Glass (As per IS 14900:2000 & IS 2553:2018)
Type IS Code Characteristics Common Uses
Smooth, distortion-free,
Float Glass IS 14900:2000 Windows, facades
transparent
Heat-treated, high
Safety glass, shower
Tempered Glass IS 2553:2018 (Part 1) strength, breaks into
doors
small pieces
Two glass layers with
Bulletproof glass,
Laminated Glass IS 2553:2018 (Part 2) PVB interlayer, high
windshields
safety

Stronger than float glass,

Toughened Glass IS 2553:2018 (Part 1) Car windows, glass doors
withstands impact

Embedded metal wire,

Wired Glass IS 5437:1996 Fire doors, skylights
fire-resistant
Reflects sunlight, energy-
Reflective Glass IS 16084:2018 Green buildings, facades
efficient
Translucent, diffuses
Frosted Glass IS 2553:2018 Partitions, bathrooms
light

Colored glass, reduces

Tinted Glass IS 14900:2000 Office windows, facades
glare and heat

Two glass layers with

High-rise buildings,
Insulated Glass (DGU) IS 16904:2018 air/vacuum gap for
energy-efficient windows
insulation
. Properties of Glass (As per IS 14900:2000 & IS 2553:2018)
Test Method (IS Code
Property Standard Value Importance
& Page No.)
Density IS 14900:2000 (Pg. 4) 2500-2600 kg/m³ Structural calculations

Thermal Conductivity IS 16904:2018 (Pg. 6) 0.8-1.0 W/mK Insulation efficiency

Light Transmission IS 16084:2018 (Pg. 7) 80-92% Energy efficiency

Tempered: 5-7 times
Impact Resistance IS 2553:2018 (Pg. 9) stronger than normal Safety applications
glass
Wired glass
Fire Resistance IS 5437:1996 (Pg. 5) Fire safety
withstands 60 minutes
 . Testing of Glass (As per IS 14900:2000 & IS 2553:2018)
Test Name Purpose Procedure IS Code & Page No. Standard Limits

Measures
Impact Strength IS 2553:2018 (Pg. 5-7 times stronger
resistance to Drop ball test
Test 9) for tempered glass
impact

Determines
IS 2553:2018 (Pg. 3-5 times stronger
Toughness Test strength under Flexural test
8) than regular glass
stress

Checks resistance
Thermal Shock Heating & rapid IS 14900:2000 (Pg. Withstands
to temperature
Test cooling 10) 250°C variation
change

Scratch Hardness Measures surface Mohs hardness IS 14900:2000 (Pg. Mohs hardness ≥
Test hardness scale 7) 5

Scratch Hardness Measures surface Mohs hardness IS 14900:2000 (Pg. Mohs hardness ≥
Test hardness scale 7) 5
Determines
Light Transmission Spectrophotomete IS 16084:2018 (Pg. 80-92%
visibility through
Test r 12) transmission
glass
Sound Insulation Evaluates noise Decibel IS 16904:2018 (Pg. DGU reduces
Test reduction measurement 6) noise by 35-45 dB

Standard Glass Thickness (As per IS 14900:2000 & IS 2553:2018)

Glass Type Standard Thickness (mm) Common Applications
Float Glass 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 Windows, partitions
Tempered Glass 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 Safety doors, car windows
Laminated Glass 6.38, 8.76, 12.76 Bulletproof glass, bridges
Facades, energy-efficient
DGU (Double Glazing Unit) 12, 24, 32
windows
Cost Analysis of Glass (March 2025)
Glass Type Price (₹ per sqft) Common Usage
Float Glass (5mm) ₹90-150 Windows, facades
Tempered Glass (6mm) ₹180-250 Safety partitions, doors

Laminated Glass (8.76mm) ₹350-600 Bulletproof applications

Reflective Glass (6mm) ₹250-400 Green buildings

Insulated Glass (DGU, 24mm) ₹500-900 Energy-efficient facades

 factors affecting cost
· Thickness & treatment
· Tempering or lamination process
· Type of coating (UV, reflective)
· Installation charges
Applications of Glass
Application Recommended Glass Type
Windows & Facades Float Glass, Reflective Glass
Safety Glass (Shower Doors, Railings) Tempered Glass, Laminated Glass
Bulletproof Glass Multi-layer Laminated Glass
Soundproofing Insulated Glass (DGU)
Fireproofing Wired Glass
Safety & Sustainability in Glass Usage
· Recyclability: Glass is 100% recyclable.
· Energy Efficiency: Low-E (Low Emissivity) glass improves thermal insulation.
· Safety Standards: Tempered and laminated glass prevent injuries upon
breakage.
Types of Glass, Their Specifications, and Applications
Type of Manufacturi Thickness
IS Code Properties Applications
Glass ng Process Range

High
Molten glass
transparency Windows,
floated on
IS 2mm to (85-92%), mirrors,
Float Glass tin bath for
14900:2000 19mm smooth facades,
uniform
surface, table tops
thickness
brittle

5-7 times
Float glass
stronger than Car windows,
Tempered heated to
IS 2553:2018 4mm to normal glass, shower
(Toughened) 650°C,
(Part 1) 19mm safe doors, safety
Glass then rapidly
breakage into partitions
cooled
small pieces

Two or more Holds Bulletproof

glass sheets 6.38mm, together on glass,
Laminated IS 2553:2018
bonded with 8.76mm, impact, windshields,
Glass (Part 2)
PVB/EVA 12.76mm soundproof, skylights,
interlayer UV resistant bridges
 Molten glass Fire doors,
Fire-resistant,
poured over emergency
Wired Glass IS 5437:1996 6mm to 12mm holds together
embedded exits, industrial
after breakage
wire mesh windows

Float glass Reduces heat Energy-

Reflective coated with gain (30-60%), efficient
IS 16084:2018 4mm to 12mm
Glass metal oxide for UV protection, buildings,
solar control glare control skyscrapers

Office
Translucent,
Float glass is partitions,
diffuses light,
Frosted Glass IS 2553:2018 acid-etched or 4mm to 10mm bathrooms,
enhances
sandblasted decorative
privacy
glass

Metal oxides
Reduces glare Commercial
(iron, cobalt,
& heat, buildings,
Tinted Glass IS 14900:2000 selenium) 4mm to 12mm
aesthetic luxury hotels,
added during
appearance facades
manufacturing

Thermal &
Insulated Two glass Airports, high-
12mm to sound
Glass (DGU - panes sealed rise buildings,
IS 16904:2018 48mm (with insulation,
Double Glazed with air or gas- noise-proof
spacer) energy-
Unit) filled spacer rooms
efficient
[Link]
Paint is a liquid, paste, or powder that, when applied to a surface, forms a solid
protective, decorative, or functional coating after drying. It consists of pigments,
binders, solvents, and additives.
Composition of Paint
Component Function Examples
Titanium Dioxide (TiO₂), Zinc
Pigments Provides color & opacity
Oxide, Iron Oxides
Acrylic, Alkyd, Epoxy,
Binder (Resin) Forms film & binds pigment
Polyurethane
Controls viscosity, aids Water, Mineral Spirits,
Solvent (Thinner)
application Turpentine
Anti-fungal agents, UV
Additives Enhances properties
stabilizers, Flow agents
IS Code: IS 101:1987 (Methods of Testing Paints) – Page No. 12-18
Types of Paints & Specifications

Type of Paint IS Code Base Material Properties Applications

Linseed oil, Durable, slow Metal, wood,
Oil-Based Paint IS 137:1965
synthetic resins drying, glossy doors, furniture

Water-Based Quick drying, low Interior & exterior

IS 5411:1993 Acrylic resin, water
(Acrylic/Latex) VOC, flexible walls

Cement-Based White cement + Water-resistant, Exterior walls,

IS 5410:1992
Paint pigments breathable rough surfaces

Alkyd resin + Glossy, tough, Metal, wood,

Enamel Paint IS 2932:2019
solvents chemical resistant automobiles

Chemical & Industrial floors,

Epoxy Paint IS 12944:1990 Epoxy resin
corrosion resistant tanks, pipes

Polyurethane Polyurethane High durability, Aircraft, marine,

IS 13213:1991
Paint resin UV resistant automotive

Withstands high Furnaces,

Heat Resistant
IS 13183:1991 Silicone-based temperatures chimneys,
Paint
(up to 600°C) engines
Paint Properties & Performance Standards
IS Code Reference
Property Test Method Importance
(Page No.)
Touch-dry, hard-dry, IS 101 (Part 1):1987 (Pg.
Drying Time Ensures quick usability
full cure 22)
IS 101 (Part 4):1988 (Pg. Determines coverage
Opacity (Hiding Power) Contrast Ratio
43) per coat
60° & 85° IS 101 (Part 3):1986 (Pg. Affects aesthetic
Gloss & Sheen
Glossmeter 30) appeal
Adhesion Strength Pull-off test IS 158:2013 (Pg. 19) Ensures durability
IS 101 (Part 8):1987 (Pg. Prevents peeling in
Water Resistance Water immersion test
12) moisture
For industrial & marine
Chemical Resistance Acid/Alkali test IS 2932:2019 (Pg. 27)
use
Abrasion Resistance Taber Abrasion Test IS 567:2005 (Pg. 34) Measures wear & tear

Testing of Paints (As per IS 101:1987 & Other Codes)

Test Name IS Code Procedure Purpose
Touch-dry, surface-dry
Drying Time Test IS 101 (Part 1):1987 & hard-dry times Ensures fast drying
recorded
Paint is scratched,
Adhesion Test IS 158:2013 tape-peeled, pull-off Tests bonding strength
measured

Abrasion Resistance Rotating abrasive Checks durability for

IS 567:2005
Test wheel tests wear high-traffic areas

Paint panels soaked in

Determines
Water Absorption Test IS 101 (Part 8):1987 water & weight
waterproofing ability
difference noted

Gloss Measurement Glossmeter used at

IS 101 (Part 3):1986 Measures shine level
Test 60° & 85° angles
Paint exposed to
Evaluates exterior
Weathering Test IS 115:1991 artificial sunlight &
durability
humidity
Paint samples Checks corrosion
Salt Spray Test IS 2074:1992
subjected to saline fog resistance
 Paint Cost in Indian Market (2025)
(Estimated as per brand & quality level in ₹/Litre)
Brand Type Price (₹/Litre) Features
Washable, anti-
Asian Paints Royale Acrylic Emulsion 500-800
fungal, durable
Stain-resistant,
Berger Silk Luxury Interior Paint 450-750
smooth finish
UV protection,
Nerolac Excel Exterior Emulsion 400-650
weatherproof
Indigo PU Enamel PU Enamel 350-600 High gloss, long life
Dulux Crack-bridging, anti-
Weatherproof 450-700
Weathershield algae
Shalimar Synthetic Glossy, tough, metal-
Enamel 250-500
Enamel friendly

Selection Criteria for Paints

✅ Surface Type: Metal, wood, concrete, interior, exterior
✅ Durability Needs: High-traffic vs. decorative use
✅ Environmental Considerations: Low VOC, lead-free
✅ Weather Resistance: Waterproof, heatproof, UV-resistant
Selection Criteria for Paints-
✅ 1. Surface Type (Metal, Wood, Concrete, Interior, Exterior)

Recommended IS Code
Surface Brand & Product Reasoning
Paint Type Reference

Nerolac Synthetic Prevents

Epoxy Enamel, Enamel, Berger corrosion,
IS 2932:2019
Metal Synthetic Enamel, Luxol PU Enamel, provides a
(Page 27)
PU-based Asian Paints PU smooth glossy
Enamel finish

Dulux PU Polish, Enhances

Berger Wood aesthetics,
Oil-Based Paint, IS 5410:1992
Wood Keeper, Asian protects from
PU Polish, Enamel (Page 12)
Paints termites and
Touchwood moisture
 Asian Paints
Acrylic Emulsion, Royale, Berger Provides smooth
Distemper, Bison Acrylic IS 5411:1993 finish, easy to
Concrete (Interior)
Cement-Based Distemper, (Page 20) clean, prevents
Paint Nerolac Beauty dampness
Smooth

Dulux
Weatherproof Weathershield, UV-resistant,
IS 15489:2004
Concrete (Exterior) Emulsion, Silicone Berger protects from rain
(Page 34)
Paint WeatherCoat, and pollution
Nerolac Excel

Asian Paints Prevents fungal

Acrylic Distemper, IS 5411:1993
Ceiling Tractor Emulsion, growth, provides
Emulsion (Page 20)
Dulux SuperClean matte finish

Indigo Cement
Breathable,
Cement Paint, Paint, Berger IS 5410:1992
Plaster Walls prevents
Acrylic Emulsion WeatherCoat (Page 15)
dampness
Smooth
✅ 2. Durability Needs (High-Traffic vs Decorative Use)
Recommended Paint
Application Brand & Product Durability Rating
Type

Residential Interior Berger Easy Clean,

Acrylic Emulsion ���
(Low Traffic) Nerolac Beauty Gold

Asian Paints Royale

Residential Interior Washable Acrylic
Shyne, Dulux Velvet �����
(High Traffic) Emulsion
Touch

Berger PU Enamel,
Commercial Buildings
PU Enamel, Epoxy Paint Nerolac Excel Mica �����
(High Traffic)
Marble
Industrial Areas Indigo Epoxy Guard,
(Factories, Epoxy Paint Berger Industrial �����
Warehouses) Guard
�High-traffic areas require tough, washable, and impact-resistant
paints like PU enamel or epoxy-based coatings.
 ✅ 3. Environmental Considerations (Low VOC, Lead-Free)
Recommended
Feature Brand & Product IS Code Reference Why It Matters?
Paint
Asian Paints
Royale Aspira, Reduces indoor air
Low VOC (Eco- IS 101:1987 (Page
Acrylic Emulsion Nerolac pollution, safer for
Friendly) 10)
Impressions Eco health
Clean
Berger Breathe Prevents lead
Acrylic Emulsion, IS 15489:2004
Lead-Free Paint Easy, Dulux Pure poisoning, safe for
Distemper (Page 42)
Air children

Anti-Fungal & Weatherproof Berger Anti-Fungal, IS 15489:2004 Prevents mold and

Anti-Bacterial Emulsion Dulux BioCare (Page 36) bacteria growth

Asian Paints
Water-Based Royale Atmos, IS 5411:1993 (Page Eliminates strong
Odor-Free Paint
Emulsion Nerolac Excel 19) paint fumes
Odor-Free
�Eco-friendly paints help maintain indoor air quality and reduce health
risks.

✅ 4. Weather Resistance (Waterproof, Heatproof, UV-

Resistant)
Recommended
Condition Brand & Product IS Code Reference Properties
Paint Type
Dulux
Weathershield,
Weatherproof IS 5410:1992 Waterproof, anti-
Rain-Prone Areas Berger
Acrylic Emulsion (Page 30) damp
WeatherCoat
Anti-Dirt
Nerolac Heat Heat-reflective,
Extreme Heat Silicone-Based IS 13183:1991
Guard, Indigo reduces cooling
Areas Paint (Page 18)
Heat Reflective cost

Berger Epoxy
Coastal Areas IS 12944:1990 Protects against
Epoxy Paint Guard, Nerolac
(Saline Exposure) (Page 26) corrosion
Industrial Epoxy

Dulux
Weathershield
Cold & Humid IS 5411:1993 Prevents algae
Anti-Fungal Paint PowerFlexx, Asian
Regions (Page 24) and fungi growth
Paints Apex
Ultima
Paint Preparation & Application (Before & After Paint)
(Based on IS 2395:1994 & IS 1477:1971)
Before Painting (Surface Preparation)
Step Process IS Code Reference Reasoning
Remove dust, oil, old Ensures better
1. Cleaning IS 2395 (Page 10)
paint adhesion

Smoothens surface Provides uniform

2. Sanding IS 1477 (Page 14)
using sandpaper texture

Apply primer coat Seals pores, enhances

3. Priming IS 3536 (Page 8)
based on surface adhesion

Fill cracks with putty or Ensures an even

4. Filling IS 13183 (Page 20)
filler surface
Allow primer to dry
5. Drying IS 1477 (Page 12) Prevents paint defects
completely

After Painting (Finishing & Maintenance)

Step Process IS Code Reference Why It’s Important?

1. Sanding Between Smoothens the surface

IS 3536 (Page 16) Provides a fine finish
Coats before the next coat

Apply additional coats Ensures opacity &

2. Second/Third Coat IS 1477 (Page 22)
for full coverage durability

Allow paint to dry Prevents smudging &

3. Curing & Drying IS 2395 (Page 14)
completely peeling

4. Polishing (For Apply wax/polish to Protects against

IS 5410 (Page 19)
Wood/Metal) enhance durability moisture

Use mild detergents for

5. Regular Cleaning IS 15489 (Page 26) Increases paint life
maintenance

�Proper surface preparation and finishing improve paint longevity

and aesthetics.