भारतीय सूचना प्रौद्योगिकी संस्थान सेनापतत, मणिपुर

Indian Institute of Information Technology, Senapati, Manipur

(An Institute of National Importance by Act of Parliament, Govt. of India)
Mantripukhri, Imphal, India - 795002

EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory

Module-II
Introduction to Applied EM theory, Lossless Transmission line equations, Frequency-domain behaviour:
Characteristic impedance of T-line, Reflection and transmission coefficients, Complete solution for sinusoidal
propagation, Attenuation and propagation coefficients

Transmission line techniques: Standing wave ratio (SWR) and line impedance, Visual aid: Smith Chart
derivation, Smith chart applications: Impedance to admittance conversion, SWR and impedance calculation,
Impedance matching techniques, T-lines in time-domain: Reflection from mismatched loads, Case study: High-
speed digital signals on PCBs

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 1

 APPLIED ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Applied Electromagnetic (EM) Theory deals with the practical use of electromagnetic
field concepts in engineering systems such as transmission lines, antennas,
waveguides, and microwave circuits. It is based on the fundamental laws formulated by
James Clerk Maxwell, known as Maxwell’s Equations.

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 TRANSMISSION LINES

Consider the following circuit diagram:

By conventional circuit theory (under the electrically-small-system

assumption), closing the switch will instantly result in the voltage
V appearing across the resistor R.

But suppose you have electrically long transmission line. If the switch is far away from the
load, then closing the switch will not instantaneously result in the voltage V appearing at the
load. Rather, there will be a delay as the signal is transmitted down the line.

Electrically large circuits require more advanced

analysis techniques than those taught for
electrically-small systems.

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 THE TELEGRAPHER’S EQUATIONS

Let us look closely at a section of transmission line, of length Δℓ, where Δℓ is electrically small
(Δℓ<< λ). So, each piece of the long line has an inductance-per-length Land a capacitance-
per-length C, which may be modeled as shown below.

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 4

 THE TELEGRAPHER’S EQUATIONS

In the most general case, the line may also have resistive losses, which can be added to the
model as:

This system has input voltage V(z,t), input current I(z,t), output voltage V(z+Δℓ,t) and output
current I(z+Δℓ,t). Since we have assumed that Δℓis electrically small, we can analyze this
circuit using normal circuit analysis.

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THE TELEGRAPHER’S EQUATIONS
THE TELEGRAPHER’S EQUATIONS
 THE TELEGRAPHER’S EQUATIONS

These are the telegrapher’s equations, which relate voltage and current along a transmission
line.

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 THE WAVE EQUATIONS

The Telegrapher’s Equations may be used to derive the wave equations for voltage and current
along a transmission line. A wave equation relates a quantity’s second derivative in timeto
its second derivative in space. Current and voltage on a transmission line may be
described using wave equations, which can be derived from the telegrapher’s equations
as follows:
 THE WAVE EQUATIONS

This is the wave equation for voltage, which relates its second derivative in time to its second
derivative in space.

This is the wave equation for current, which relates its second derivative in time to its second
derivative in space.

Note that the wave equations for voltage and current are identical. These differential
equations will also have identical solutions.

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 LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE

For a lossless line, the telegrapher’s equations and wave equations can be simplified. On a
lossless transmission line, the series resistance vanishes (R=0), and the shunt
conductance vanishes (G=0). For this case, the telegrapher’s equations become:

Telegrapher’s Equations

Wave Equation

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 11

 SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATIONS

Current and voltage will propagate on the line according to the solutions to the wave
equations. We will assume that both voltage and current are time-harmonic (~ 𝑒𝑗𝜔𝑡). In other
words, we assume that:

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 PROPAGATION CONSTANT

The complex propagation constant 𝛾 is defined as:

We will also define the attenuation constant α and the lossless propagation constant β as
the real and imaginary parts of 𝛾, respectively.

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 SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATIONS

Using our definition of the complex propagation constant, we can rewrite the wave equations
as:

which are differential equations with solutions of either sines and cosines or complex
exponentials. We will choose to use complex exponentials.

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 14

 SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATIONS

Each of these solutions consists of two terms. The terms including 𝒆−𝜸𝒛 propagate in the +z
direction(forward propagation), and the terms including 𝒆+𝜸𝒛 propagate in the –z
direction(backward propagation).

The total voltage on the transmission line is the sum of the forward-propagating part and the
backward propagating part. The total current is similarly the sum of the forward and backward
propagating terms.

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 SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATIONS

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 CHARACTERISTICS IMPEDANCE

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CHARACTERISTICS IMPEDANCE
 WAVE PROPERTIES

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 WAVE PROPERTIES

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 WAVE PROPERTIES

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 ENERGY TRANSFER TO LOAD

From characteristic impedance relation

𝑉0+ 𝑉0−
𝑍0 = + = − −
𝐼0 𝐼0
So
+
𝑉0+ − 𝑉0−
𝐼0 = ,𝐼 = −
𝑍0 0 𝑍0

Substitute into the denominator.

Load impedance definition 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ

𝑍𝐿 =
𝑉𝐿 𝑉 ℓ 1
𝑍𝐿 = = 𝑉 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ − 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝐼𝐿 𝐼 ℓ 𝑍0 0

Voltage and current on the transmission line at 𝑧 = ℓ: 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 + −𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝑉0 𝑒 − 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝑉 ℓ = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝑉0− 𝑗𝛽ℓ
−𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝐼 ℓ = 𝐼0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ + 𝐼0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ 𝑒 + +𝑒
𝑉0
So 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0
−𝑗𝛽ℓ 𝑉0− 𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ 𝑒 − +𝑒
𝑉0
𝑍𝐿 = + −𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝐼0 𝑒 + 𝐼0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ

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 REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

If a transmission line is driven with input voltage Group Γ:

𝑉0+ the signal will travel down the line to the 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ = Γ 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ
load. Once it reaches the load, there are two
possible routes it may follow. The signal may Thus
flow into the load, or it may reflect back toward 𝑽−
𝟎 𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝟎 −𝟐𝒋𝜷ℓ
the source. The reflection coefficient gives the 𝚪= += 𝒆
𝑽𝟎 𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝟎
ratio of the reflected voltage to the input
voltage. Reflection coefficient at the load
Let
𝑉0− At the load point (ℓ = 0):
Γ= +
𝑉0 𝒁𝑳 − 𝒁𝟎
Then 𝚪𝑳 =
𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝟎
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 −𝑗𝛽ℓ
𝑒 − Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ This is the standard reflection coefficient
Now solve for Γ. formula.
𝑍𝐿 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ − Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ = 𝑍0 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ
ZL =Load impedance
Expand: Z0 =Characteristic impedance
𝑍𝐿 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ − 𝑍𝐿 Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ = 𝑍0 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽ℓ + 𝑍0 Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽ℓ

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 REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

Consider three special cases.

1) 𝑍𝐿=𝑍𝑜 The is the perfect match scenario. In this case, Γ=0. All the signal flows into
the load.
2) 𝑍𝐿 →∞ The is the open circuit scenario. In this case, Γ=1. All the signal reflects back
toward the source.
3) 𝑍𝐿 =0 The is the short circuit scenario. In this case, Γ=−1. All the signal reflects
back toward the source, with a phase shift of 180∘.

On a lossless transmission line, the characteristic impedance 𝑍0 is a positive real

number. If the load is passive, meaning the real part of the load impedance satisfies
Re 𝑍𝐿 ≥ 0 ,then the magnitude of the reflection coefficient ∣ Γ ∣will lie between 0 and 1.

0 ≤∣ Γ ∣≤ 1

This means the reflected wave can never be larger than the incident wave for a passive
load.

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 STANDING WAVE RATIO (SWR)

SWR measures how well a transmission line is impedance matched to its load. If there is
no reflection, ∣ 𝛤 ∣= 0. SWR = 1. Larger reflections leads to higher SWR.

1 +∣ Γ ∣
SWR =
1 −∣ Γ ∣

𝛤= reflection coefficient
∣ Γ ∣= magnitude of the reflection coefficient (between 0 and 1)

Return Loss (RL)

Measured in decibels (dB). Indicates how much power is reflected back from the load.

RL = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ∣ Γ ∣ dB

∣ Γ ∣= 0.1 ⇒ 𝑅𝐿 = 20 dB

∣ Γ ∣= 0.01 ⇒ 𝑅𝐿 = 40 dB
Higher RL means better matching.
8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 25
 INPUT IMPEDANCE

Input impedance is the impedance seen at the input of the transmission line
The voltage on a transmission line is
𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉𝑜+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉𝑜− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧

At the input 𝑧 = −ℓ:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉 −ℓ = 𝑉𝑜+ 𝑒 𝛾ℓ + 𝑉𝑜− 𝑒 −𝛾ℓ

Using 𝑉𝑜− = Γ𝑉𝑜+:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜+ 𝑒 −𝛾ℓ + Γ𝑒 𝛾ℓ
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = The current equation is
𝐼𝑖𝑛
where 𝑉𝑜+ −𝛾𝑧 𝑉𝑜− 𝛾𝑧
𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝑉𝑖𝑛 =voltage at the input (𝑧 = −ℓ) 𝑍0 𝑍0
𝐼𝑖𝑛 =current at the input
At the input:
The reflection coefficient at the load is 𝑉𝑜+ −𝛾ℓ
𝑉𝑜− 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒 − Γ𝑒 𝛾ℓ
Γ= += 𝑍0
𝑉𝑜 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0

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 INPUT IMPEDANCE

Substituting 𝑉𝑖𝑛 and 𝐼𝑖𝑛 :

𝑒 𝛾ℓ + Γ𝑒 −𝛾ℓ
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 𝛾ℓ
𝑒 − Γ𝑒 −𝛾ℓ

For a lossless transmission line (𝛾 = 𝑗𝛽):

𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽ℓ
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽ℓ

where
2𝜋
𝛽 = 𝜆 =phase constant
ℓ= length of the line

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 SMITH CHART

The Smith Chart is a graphical tool used in transmission line and RF engineering to
visualize impedance, reflection coefficient, and SWR, allowing engineers to solve
matching and transmission problems without complex calculations.
Reflection coefficient Γ 𝑧+1 =𝑧−1
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Γ= Γ𝑧 + Γ = 𝑧 − 1
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
On Normalizing the impedance by Dividing Γ𝑧 − 𝑧 = −1 − Γ
the numerator and denominator by 𝑍0.
𝑧 Γ−1 =− 1+Γ
𝑍𝐿
𝑍0 − 1 𝑧 1−Γ =1+Γ
Γ=
𝑍𝐿
𝑍0 + 1 1+Γ
Let 𝑧=
1−Γ
𝑍𝐿 Since 𝑧 = 𝑍𝐿
𝑍
𝑧=
𝑍0 0

𝑧−1 𝑍𝐿 1 + Γ
Γ= =
𝑧+1 𝑍0 1 − Γ
8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 28
 SMITH CHART

Normalized Impedance and Reflection 1 − Γ𝑟2 − Γ𝑖2 + 𝑗 2Γ𝑖

Coefficient in complex form is represented 𝑟𝐿 + 𝑗𝑥𝐿 =
as: ቀ1 − Γ𝑟 )2 + Γ𝑖2

𝑍𝐿 On Separating real and imaginary parts

𝑧= = 𝑟𝐿 + 𝑗𝑥𝐿
𝑍0
Real part
Γ = Γ𝑟 + 𝑗Γ𝑖 1 − Γ𝑟2 − Γ𝑖2
𝑟𝐿 =
1 + Γ𝑟 + 𝑗Γ𝑖 ቀ1 − Γ𝑟 )2 + Γ𝑖2
𝑟𝐿 + 𝑗𝑥𝐿 =
1 − Γ𝑟 − 𝑗Γ𝑖
Imaginary part
(1 + Γ𝑟 ) + 𝑗Γ𝑖
𝑟𝐿 + 𝑗𝑥𝐿 = 2Γ𝑖
(1 − Γ𝑟 ) − 𝑗Γ𝑖 𝑥𝐿 =
ቀ1 − Γ𝑟 )2 + Γ𝑖2
Multiply numerator and denominator by the
complex conjugate
(1 + Γ𝑟 ) + 𝑗Γ𝑖 (1 − Γ𝑟 ) + 𝑗Γ𝑖
𝑟𝐿 + 𝑗𝑥𝐿 =
(1 − Γ𝑟 )2 + Γ𝑖2

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 29

 FROM REAL PART OF NORMALIZED IMPEDANCE

Focusing on the 𝜞𝒓 terms:

1 − Γ𝑟2 − Γ𝑖2 2𝑟𝐿
𝑟𝐿 = Γ𝑟2 − Γ
1 + 𝑟𝐿 𝑟
ቀ1 − Γ𝑟 )2 + Γ𝑖2
Add and subtract
2
Multiply both sides by the denominator: 𝑟𝐿
1 + 𝑟𝐿
𝑟𝐿 ቀ 1 − Γ𝑟 )2 + Γ𝑖2 = 1 − Γ𝑟2 − Γ𝑖2 This gives
2
𝑟𝐿
Γ𝑟 −
1 + 𝑟𝐿
𝑟𝐿 1 − 2Γ𝑟 + Γ𝑟2 + Γ𝑖2 = 1 − Γ𝑟2 − Γ𝑖2 So the equation becomes
2 2
𝑟𝐿 1 − 𝑟𝐿 𝑟𝐿
Γ𝑟 − + Γ𝑖2 = +
1 + 𝑟𝐿 1 + 𝑟𝐿 1 + 𝑟𝐿
𝑟𝐿 − 2𝑟𝐿 Γ𝑟 + 𝑟𝐿 Γ𝑟2 + 𝑟𝐿 Γ𝑖2 = 1 − Γ𝑟2 − Γ𝑖2
Simplifying the right side
1 − 𝑟𝐿 𝑟𝐿2 1
+ =
Γ𝑟2 1 + 𝑟𝐿 + Γ𝑖2 1 + 𝑟𝐿 − 2𝑟𝐿 Γ𝑟 = 1 − 𝑟𝐿 1 + 𝑟𝐿 ቀ1 + 𝑟 )2 ቀ1 + 𝑟 )2
𝐿 𝐿
So the final form is
2𝑟𝐿 1 − 𝑟𝐿 2 2
Γ𝑟2 + Γ𝑖2 − Γ𝑟 = 𝑟𝐿 1
1 + 𝑟𝐿 1 + 𝑟𝐿 Γ𝑟 − + Γ𝑖2 =
1 + 𝑟𝐿 1 + 𝑟𝐿

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 SMITH CHART

Γ𝑖 Equation of a circle.

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑅 2

The equation represents a circle in the

complex Γ plane:

𝑟𝐿 = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Center:
Γ𝑟 𝑟𝐿
0
1 + 𝑟𝐿
Radius:
1
1 + 𝑟𝐿

This is exactly the constant-resistance

circle used in the Smith Chart.

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 FROM IMAGINARY PART OF NORMALIZED IMPEDANCE

2Γ𝑖 Substitute back.

𝑥𝐿 =
(1 − Γ𝑟 )2 + Γ𝑖2 2 2
2 1 1
2Γ𝑖 (Γ𝑟 − 1) + Γ𝑖 − =
(1 − Γ𝑟 )2 + Γ𝑖2 = 𝑥𝐿 𝑥𝐿
𝑥𝐿

2Γ𝑖 Equation of a circle.

2
(Γ𝑟 − 1) + Γ𝑖2 − =0
𝑥𝐿
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑅 2
Focusing on the 𝜞𝒊 terms:
On Comparing:
2
Γ𝑖2 − Γ
𝑥𝐿 𝑖 Center
Add and subtract 1
1
1
2 𝑥𝐿
𝑥𝐿
Radius
Then 1
2 2
2 1 1 𝑥𝐿
Γ𝑖2 − Γ𝑖 + = Γ𝑖 −
𝑥𝐿 𝑥𝐿 𝑥𝐿

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 32

 FROM IMAGINARY PART OF NORMALIZED IMPEDANCE

𝑥𝐿 = 5

𝑥𝐿 = 5
Γ𝑖 Γ𝑖
6

6
7

7
8

8
9

9
𝑥𝐿 = 0 Γ𝑟 𝑥𝐿 = 0 Γ𝑟
−8 −9

−8 −9
−6 − 7

−6 − 7
𝑥𝐿 = −5

𝑥𝐿 = −5
FROM IMAGINARY PART OF NORMALIZED IMPEDANCE

For any passive load impedance 𝑍𝐿 ,its

magnitude satisfies

∣ Γ ∣≤ 1

This means the reflection coefficient must

lie inside or on a circle of radius 1.

The magnitude formula is

∣ Γ ∣= Γ𝑟2 + Γ𝑖2

So

∣ Γ ∣= 1

Gives

Γ𝑟2 + Γ𝑖2 = 1

which is a unit circle.

 SMITH CHART

The Smith Chart is a unit circle ∣ Γ ∣= 1 filled with two intersecting families of circles
resistance circles 𝑟𝐿 and reactance circles 𝑥𝐿 These intersections allow engineers to
read impedance, reflection coefficient, VSWR, and matching conditions.

Two sets of circles inside the Smith chart

1. Constant resistance circles 2. Constant reactance circles

They correspond to They correspond to

0 ≤ 𝑟𝐿 ≤ ∞ −∞ ≤ 𝑥𝐿 ≤ ∞

Centers on horizontal axis and Represent Centers on vertical line Γ𝑟 = 1 and

constant resistance Represent constant reactance
SMITH CHART
Γ𝑖

Γ𝑟
 EXAMPLES ON SMITH CHART

Let the load impedance be 𝑍𝐿 = 100 + 𝑗50 Ωand the characteristic impedance of the transmission
line be 𝑍0 = 50 Ω. Plot the corresponding normalized load impedance on the Smith Chart.
Γ𝑖
Normalized impedance:

𝑍𝐿 100 + 𝑗50
=
𝑍0 50

𝑧 = 𝑟𝐿 + 𝑗𝑥𝐿 = 2 + 𝑗1

𝑟𝐿 = 2
𝚪
𝚪
𝑥𝐿 = 1
Γ𝑟
 DETERMINATION OF INPUT IMPEDANCE

The input impedance of a transmission line at a distance 𝑙 from the load is given by:

𝑒 𝛾ℓ + Γ𝑒 −𝛾ℓ
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 𝛾ℓ
𝑒 − Γ𝑒 −𝛾ℓ

1 + Γ𝑒 −2𝛽ℓ
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
1 − Γ𝑒 −2𝛽ℓ
Where:
𝑍𝑖𝑛 =Input impedance at distance 𝑙from the load
𝑍0 =Characteristic impedance of the transmission line
Γ= Reflection coefficient at the load
𝛽= Phase constant 𝛽 = 2𝜋/𝜆
𝑙 =Distance from the load toward the generator 𝑙 = 𝜆/2
𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽𝑙 =Phase shift of the reflected wave
If the load reflection coefficient is plotted on a Smith Chart, the normalized input
impedance at a distance 𝑙 from the load can be obtained by rotating the point clockwise
around the center by an angle 2𝛽𝑙.

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 38

 EXAMPLES
A transmission line is terminated with a load impedance 𝑍𝐿 = 10 + 𝑗25 Ω. The characteristic
𝜆
impedance of the line is 𝑍0 = 50 Ω. The input impedance is to be determined at a distance 𝑙 = from
5
the load using a Smith Chart.
∘
𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽𝑙 = 𝑒 −𝑗144
Normalized Load Impedance −2400 + 625 + 𝑗 1000 + 1500 In polar form:
𝑍𝐿 Γ=
𝑧𝐿 = 4225 ∘
𝑍0 𝑒 −𝑗144 = 1∠ −144∘
Γ = −0.42 + 𝑗0.59 Reflection coefficient at distance 𝒍
10 + 𝑗25
𝑧𝐿 = Magnitude Γ 𝑙 = Γ𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽𝑙
50
𝑧𝐿 = 0.2 + 𝑗0.5 ∣ Γ ∣= ൬−0.42)2 + ቀ0.59)2 ≈ 0.72 Γ 𝑙 = 0.72∠ 125∘ − 144∘
Load Reflection Coefficient
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 0.59 Γ 𝑙 = 0.72∠ −19∘
Γ= ∠Γ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
= −54.5∘ ≈ 125∘
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 −0.42
Normalized Input Impedance
10 + 𝑗25 − 50 Γ = 0.72∠125∘ 1+Γ 𝑙
Γ= 𝑧𝑖𝑛 =
10 + 𝑗25 + 50 1−Γ 𝑙
Input Impedance at 𝐥 = 𝛌/𝟓 After substitution and simplification
−40 + 𝑗25 𝑧𝑖𝑛 ≈ 3.12 − 𝑗2.96
Γ=
60 + 𝑗25 2𝜋 Input Impedance
𝛽=
𝜆
−40 + 𝑗25 60 − 𝑗25 𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 50 × 3.12 − 𝑗2.96 =
Γ= 2𝜋 𝜆 4𝜋
602 + 252 𝟏𝟓𝟔 − 𝒋𝟏𝟒𝟖 𝛀
2𝛽𝑙 = 2 = = 144∘
𝜆 5 5
EXAMPLES
Γ𝑖

Γ𝑟
 EXAMPLES

A lossless transmission line has a characteristic impedance 𝑍0 = 1. The transmission line is terminated with
a load impedance 𝑍𝐿 = 1.6 + 𝑗2.6 .The length of the transmission line is ℓ = 0.37𝜆 . At the input of the
transmission line, a shunt element with normalized impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 1.7 − 𝑗1.7 is connected across the
line. Using a Smith Chart, determine the overall normalized input admittance 𝑌𝑖𝑛 of the network.

Normalized load admittance From the chart, you read approximately

1
𝑌𝐿 = ′
𝑦in ≈ 0.7 + 𝑗1.7
𝑍𝐿
1
𝑌𝐿 = Convert Shunt Impedance to Admittance
1.6 + 𝑗2.6 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 1.7 − 𝑗1.7
1.6 − 𝑗2.6 ′′ 1
𝑌𝐿 = 𝑦in =
1.62 + 2.62 1.7 − 𝑗1.7

1.6 − 𝑗2.6 ′′ 1.7 + 𝑗1.7

= 𝑦in =
9.32 1.72 + 1.72

𝑌𝐿 ≈ 0.172 − 𝑗0.279 1.7 + 𝑗1.7

=
5.78
Move Toward Generator On the Smith chart ′′
𝑦in ≈ 0.294 + 𝑗0.294
(clockwise) for a distance ℓ = 0.37𝜆
Since they are in parallel, admittances add.
2𝛽𝑙 = 4𝜋 0.37 ′
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑖𝑛 ′′
+ 𝑦in
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 0.7 + 𝑗1.7 + 0.294 + 𝑗0.294
≈ 266.4∘
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 0.994 + 𝑗1.994
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
 EXAMPLES

A lossless transmission line has a characteristic impedance of 𝑍0 = 50 Ω The line is terminated with a load
impedance 𝑍𝐿 = 30 + 𝑗40 Ω.
[Link] the reflection coefficient Γat the load.
[Link] the magnitude of the reflection coefficient.
[Link] the normalized load impedance.
[Link] the Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) on the transmission line.
[Link] what the calculated SWR indicates about the quality of impedance matching between the
transmission line and the load.
𝑍
The reflection coefficient at the load is given by The normalized load impedance is obtained 𝑧𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑍0
ZL − Z0
Γ= 30 + 𝑗40
ZL + Z0 𝑧𝐿 =
50
30 + j40 − 50 𝑧𝐿 = 0.6 + 𝑗0.8
Γ=
30 + j40 + 50 Thus, the normalized load impedance is 0.6 + 𝑗0.8.
−20 + j40
Γ= The SWR on the transmission line is
80 + j40 1 +∣ Γ ∣
−20 + j40 80 − j40 𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
1 −∣ Γ ∣
Γ= Substituting the value of ∣ Γ ∣:
80 + j40 80 − j40
1 + 0.8
j6400 𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
= 1 − 0.8
8000
1.8
Γ = j0.8 𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =9
0.2
Magnitude of the reflection coefficient:
∣ Γ ∣= 0.8 Therefore, the Standing Wave Ratio is 9:1, which indicates a
large mismatch between the transmission line and the load.
 IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Impedance matching is the process of making the load impedance equal to the source or transmission line
impedance so that maximum power is transferred and signal reflections are minimized. In transmission
lines and RF systems, impedance mismatch causes reflected waves, which produce standing waves and
reduce system efficiency.

Impedance Matching Techniques

1. L-Section Matching Network

2. Single Stub Matching
3. Double Stub Matching
4. Quarter-Wave Transformer

Impedance matching ensures that all the power from the source reaches the load without reflection,
improving the efficiency of communication and microwave systems.

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 47

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK

An L-section matching network is a simple impedance matching technique that uses two reactive
components—an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C)—arranged in an L-shaped configuration to match the
load impedance with the source or transmission line impedance. It is widely used in RF circuits, antenna
systems, and communication transmitters to achieve maximum power transfer and reduce reflections.

ZL Z
Used when
Z0
is inside the 1 + 𝑗𝑥 circle in Used when ZL is outside the 1 + 𝑗𝑥 circle in
0
the smith chart the smith chart

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 48

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK

When the load resistance 𝐑 𝐋 > 𝐙𝟎 Real Part

𝑍0 1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐵𝑅𝐿

Imaginary Part

𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿 = 𝑋 1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿 + 𝑋𝐿

1 From the previous step, the derivation

𝑍0 = 𝑗𝑋 + gives the two equations:
1
𝑗𝐵 + 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝐿 𝐿
𝐵 𝑋𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
𝑍0 = 𝑗𝑋 +
𝑗𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿 + 1 𝑋 1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿 = 𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐿

𝑍0 𝑗𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿 + 1 = 𝑗𝑋 𝑗𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿 + 1 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 49

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK

On Solving Equation for 𝑋 in (2)

𝑋 1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿 = 𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐿

𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐿
𝑋=
1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿
Substitute 𝑋 into Equation (1)
𝐵 𝑋𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0

𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐿
𝐵 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0
1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿

𝑍0 𝐵2 𝑅𝐿2 − 𝐵𝑅𝐿 𝑋𝐿 − 𝐵𝑍0 𝑋𝐿 + 𝐵2 𝑍0 𝑋𝐿2 = 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0 − 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝐵𝑋𝐿

𝐵2 𝑍0 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2 − 2𝐵𝑍0 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0 = 0

Using the Quadratic Formula

2𝑍0 𝑋𝐿 ± ൫2𝑍0 𝑋𝐿 )2 + 4𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2
𝐵=
2𝑍0 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2
 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK

Simplifying:
𝑍0 𝑋𝐿 ± 𝑍02 𝑋𝐿2 + 𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2
𝐵=
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2

𝑅𝐿
𝑋𝐿 ± 𝑋𝐿2 + 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2 −1
𝑍0
𝐵=
𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2

𝑅𝐿
𝑋𝐿 ± 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2 − 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0
𝑍0
𝐵=
𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2

Substitute 𝐵 into

𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐿
𝑋=
1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿

to get the required series reactance 𝑋.

 EXAMPLE

A load impedance 𝑍𝐿 = 100 − 𝑗50 Ω is connected to a 50 Ω transmission line. Design an

L-section matching network at an operating frequency of 500 MHz. Determine The
susceptance 𝐵 of the shunt element, The series reactance 𝑋 and The required inductor
or capacitor values

𝑅 Series Reactance 𝑋
𝑋𝐿 ± 𝑍𝐿 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2 − 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐿
𝐵=
0 𝑋=
𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2 1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿

For 𝐵 = 0.0058
100
−50 ± 1002 + 502 − 100 × 50
50
𝐵= 50 0.0058 100 − −50
1002 + 502 𝑋=
1 − 0.0058 −50
𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟖 𝛀−𝟏 𝒐𝒓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝜴−𝟏
𝑿 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟐𝟒 𝛀

For 𝐵 = −0.0138

𝑿 = −𝟔𝟏. 𝟐𝟒 𝛀

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 52

 EXAMPLE

Component Values at 500 MHz

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔 = 2𝜋 500 × 106
𝜔 = 3.142 × 109
Solution 1
Series Inductor
𝑋
𝐿=
𝜔
61.24
𝐿=
3.142 × 109

𝐿 = 19.5 nH
Shunt Capacitor
𝐵
𝐶=
𝜔
0.0058
𝐶=
3.142 × 109
𝐶 = 1.85 pF

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 53

 EXAMPLE

Solution 2

Series element = Capacitor

Shunt element = Inductor

Capacitor
−1
𝐶=
2𝜋𝑓𝑋
−1
𝐶=
2𝜋 500 × 106 −61.24

𝐶 = 5.2 𝑝𝐹
Inductor
−1
𝐿=
2𝜋𝑓𝐵
−1
𝐿=
2𝜋 500 × 106 −0.0138

𝐿 = 23.1 𝑛𝐻
8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 54
 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK
1 𝑅𝐿 𝑋𝑇
When the load resistance 𝐑 𝐋 < 𝐙𝟎 = 𝑗𝐵 + 2 − 𝑗
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝑇2 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝑇2

Real part:
1 𝑅𝐿
= 2
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝑇2
Imaginary part:
𝑋𝑇
0=𝐵−
𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝑇2

On Solving the real-part equation for 𝑋𝑇

1 𝑅𝐿
From the circuit, = 2
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝑇2
1 1
= 𝑗𝐵 +
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗 𝑋 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝑇2 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0
where
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝑇2 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 − 𝑅𝐿
So
On defining
𝑋𝑇 = ± 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 − 𝑅𝐿
𝑋𝑇 = 𝑋 + 𝑋𝐿
Since 𝑋𝑇 = 𝑋 + 𝑋𝐿 ,
So the equation becomes
1 1
= 𝑗𝐵 + 𝐗 = ± 𝐑 𝐋 𝐙𝟎 − 𝐑 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐋
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 55

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK
Solving the imaginary-part equation for 𝐵 If 𝑋 < 0
𝑋𝑇 Use a capacitor
𝐵= 2
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝑇2 −1
𝐶=
2𝜋𝑓𝑋
Using 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝑇2 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0:
Susceptance relationships:
𝑋𝑇
𝐵=
𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
and
Substitute 𝑋𝑇 = ± 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 − 𝑅𝐿 1
𝐵=−
2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝐑 𝐋 𝐙𝟎 − 𝐑 𝐋 If 𝐵 > 0
𝐁=± Use a capacitor
𝐑 𝐋 𝐙𝟎 𝐵
𝐶=
Reactance is related to inductance and capacitance by: 2𝜋𝑓
If 𝐵 < 0
𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
Use an inductor
and
−1
1 𝐿=
𝑋=− 2𝜋𝑓𝐵
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
If 𝑋 > 0
Use an inductor
𝑋
𝐿=
2𝜋𝑓

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 56

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK

Design an L-section matching network to match a load 𝑍𝐿 = 25 + 𝑗10 Ω to a transmission

line of characteristic impedance 𝑍0 = 50 Ω at a frequency 𝑓 = 1 GHz Find The required
series reactance 𝑋 The required shunt susceptance 𝐵 and The corresponding inductor and
capacitor values
Series Reactance Convert 𝐗 into L or C
𝑋 = ± 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 − 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐿 𝑋
𝐿=
2𝜋𝑓
𝑋 = ± 25 50 − 25 − 10 For 𝑋 = 15 Ω:
15
𝐿= = 2.39 nH
𝑋 = ± 625 − 10 2𝜋 109
For 𝑋 = −35 Ω:
1
𝑋 = ±25 − 10 𝐶= = 4.55 pF
So 2𝜋 109 35
𝑋1 = 15 Ω, 𝑋2 = −35 Ω
Convert 𝐁 into L or C
Shunt susceptance 𝐵
𝐶=
𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 − 𝑅𝐿 2𝜋𝑓
𝐵=± For 𝐵 = 0.02:
𝑅𝐿 𝑍0
𝐶 = 3.18 pF
25 For 𝐵 = −0.02:
𝐵=± 𝐿 = 7.96 nH
25 × 50

𝐵 = ±0.02 S

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 57

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK

A load of 𝑍𝐿 = 100 Ω is to be matched to a transmission line of characteristic impedance

𝑍0 = 50 Ω at a frequency 𝑓 = 100 MHz Design an L-section matching network
Normalize the load 0 ± 1.414 70.71
𝐵=
10000
𝑍𝐿 100
𝑧𝐿 = = = 2 + 𝑗0 100
𝑍0 50 𝐵=±
10000
Since 𝑅𝐿 > 𝑍0 ,we use
𝐵 = ±0.01

Use the formula for 𝑋

𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿 − 𝑋𝐿
𝑋=
1 − 𝐵𝑋𝐿
Since 𝑋𝐿 = 0,
𝑋 = 𝑍0 𝐵𝑅𝐿
Use the formula for 𝐵
𝑅𝐿 𝑋 = 50 × 0.01 × 100
𝑋𝐿 ± 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2 − 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0
𝑍0
𝐵=
𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2 𝑋 = 50 Ω
So
100 𝑋 = ±50 Ω
0± 1002 + 0 − 100 × 50
50
𝐵=
𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿2

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 58

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK

Convert to L and C Same problem solved using the Smith Chart

Using Series reactance
𝑋
𝐿= Normalize the load
2𝜋𝑓
𝑍𝐿 100
50 𝑧𝐿 = = = 2 + 𝑗0
𝐿= 𝑍0 50
2𝜋 100 × 106
So on the Smith chart, start at:
𝐿 = 79.6 nH
𝑧 = 2 + 𝑗0
Using Shunt susceptance
This point lies on the real axis and inside the 1 + 𝑗x circle.
𝐵
𝐶=
2𝜋𝑓

0.01
𝐶=
2𝜋 100 × 106

𝐶 = 15.9 pF

Using Series reactance Series capacitor = 15.9 pF and

Using Shunt susceptance Shunt inductor = 79.6 nH

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 59

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK
Convert to admittance by Rotating 180°
1
𝑦= = 0.5
2

To get actual susceptance:

B
𝐵=
𝑍0
chart:
Draw a conductance circle labelled as rotated r = 1 B = 0.5
circle. Move along constant conductance (g = 0.5) until
you hit the rotated r = 1 circle That intersection point 𝑍0 = 50 Ω
gives normalized susceptance
0.5
𝑦 = 0.5 − 𝑗0.5 𝐵= = 0.01
50

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 60

 L-SECTION MATCHING NETWORK

𝐵 0.01 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑗1
𝐶= = ≈ 16 pF Convert to inductor
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 ⋅ 100 × 106
𝑋 = 1 × 50 = 50 Ω
Convert back to impedance
50
From: 𝐿= ≈ 80 nH
𝑦 = 0.5 + 𝑗0.5 2𝜋 ⋅ 100 × 106

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 61

 SINGLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK

A stub (short/open-circuited line) is a short piece of transmission line used to add

reactance or susceptance. Stub is connected in series adds reactance 𝑗𝑋 equation
becomes 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑋. Stub is connected in parallel adds susceptance 𝑗𝐵 and equation
becomes 𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌𝐿 + 𝑗𝐵 When we move along the transmission line
(towards generator), the impedance
changes periodically. At some distance 𝑑,
we reach a point where 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑋 Here
Real part becomes equal to 𝑍0 and Only
imaginary part 𝑗𝑋 remains This is the
design condition for single stub matching.
Now we add a stub which provides −𝑗𝑋 So
total becomes 𝑍𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑋 − 𝑗𝑋 = 𝑍0
Series Stub Matching Input Impedance Formula of a Transmission
Line
We want 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 That means perfect
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝑑
matching → No reflection → Maximum power 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
transfer But load is 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 So it is 𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑑
not equal to 𝑍0 →mismatch exists. We equate Re(𝑍in )to 𝑍0 and find solution for 𝑑

8-Apr-26 EC2014 – Electromagnetic Theory 62

 SINGLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK
Put From Real Part
𝑡 = tan 𝛽𝑑
For matching 𝑅 = 𝑍0
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 In normalized admittance form this becomes:
1
1 𝑅 = 𝑍0 =
𝑌𝐿 = = 𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗𝐵𝐿 𝑌0
𝑍𝐿 So we equate:
So equation becomes 𝐺𝐿 1 + 𝑡 2 1
=
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌0
𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗𝐵𝐿 + 𝑗𝑌0 𝑡 𝐺 2 + ቀ𝐵 + 𝑌 𝑡)2 𝑌0
𝐿 𝐿 0
𝑌0 + 𝑗 𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗𝐵𝐿 𝑡
𝑌0 𝐺𝐿 − 𝑌0 𝑡 2 − 2𝐵𝐿 𝑌0 𝑡 + 𝐺𝐿 𝑌0 − 𝐺𝐿2 − 𝐵𝐿2 = 0
1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = If 𝐺𝐿 = 𝑌0
𝑌𝑖𝑛
After simplifying complex fraction, we get: 𝐵𝐿
𝑡=−
Real Part 2𝑌0
𝐺𝐿 1 + 𝑡 2
𝑅= 𝐵𝐿 ± 𝐺𝐿 ൣ 𝑌0 − 𝐺𝐿 )2 + 𝐵𝐿2 /𝑌0
𝐺𝐿2 + ቀ𝐵𝐿 + 𝑌0 𝑡)2 𝑡=
𝐺𝐿 − 𝑌0
Imaginary Part
After finding 𝑡:
𝐺𝐿2 𝑡 − 𝑌0 − 𝑡𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿 + 𝑡𝑌0
𝑋= 1
𝑌0 ൫𝐺𝐿2 + 𝐵𝐿 + 𝑌0 𝑡)2 𝑑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡
𝛽
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1 Open-circuited stub:
𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 , 𝑡≥0 𝑙𝑜 1 𝑍0
= 2𝜋 = tan−1
𝜆 1 𝜆 2𝜋 𝑋
𝜋 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 , 𝑡<0
2𝜋
If any calculated length becomes negative, we
This comes from the inverse tangent function Add 𝜆 Because transmission lines are periodic
𝜋 𝜋 2
tan−1 𝑡 only gives values in the range(− 𝑡𝑜 ) But with 𝜆/2
2 2
physically, the solution for distance can lie in a
wider range So we adjust: If 𝑡 ≥ 0: direct use of
tan−1 𝑡 . If 𝑡 < 0: add 𝜋 to move to the correct Summary :
quadrant 1. Solve for 𝑡
2. Use piecewise formula → get distance 𝑑
After finding 𝑡, we compute: 3. Compute reactance → 𝑋𝑠 = −𝑋
Required reactance: 4. Convert reactance → stub length
𝑋𝑠 = −𝑋 5. Fix negative lengths using 𝜆/2
Then lengths of stubs:

Short-circuited stub:
𝑙𝑠 1 𝑋
= tan−1
𝜆 2𝜋 𝑍0

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 SINGLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK

A lossless transmission line of characteristic impedance 𝑍0 = 50 Ω is terminated with a

load impedance 𝑍𝐿 = 100 + 𝑗50 Ω. Design a single short-circuited series stub to achieve
impedance matching.
For t1 = −0.333
Normalize Load Impedance
𝑍𝐿 𝑑1 1 2.82
𝑧𝐿 = = 2 + 𝑗1 = 𝜋 − 0.322 = ≈ 0.45
𝑍0 𝜆 2𝜋 2𝜋
Convert to Admittance
1 For t 2 = 1
𝑦𝐿 = = 0.4 − 𝑗0.2 𝑑2 1 𝜋
𝑧𝐿 = ⋅ = 0.125
𝜆 2𝜋 4

𝐵𝐿 ± 𝐺𝐿 ൣ 𝑌0 − 𝐺𝐿 )2 + 𝐵𝐿2 /𝑌0 Admittance at distance 𝑑:

𝑡=
𝐺𝐿 − 𝑌0
𝑦𝐿 + 𝑗tan 𝛽𝑑
𝑦 𝑑 =
𝑡 = −0.333 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 1 1 + 𝑗𝑦𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑑

1 Find reactance X
𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 , 𝑡≥0
= 2𝜋
𝜆 1 From solution:
𝜋 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 , 𝑡 < 0 𝑋1 = 50 Ω, 𝑋2 = −50 Ω
2𝜋

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For open stub: For Short stub:

1 𝑍0 1 𝑋
tan−1 , 𝑋>0 tan−1 , 𝑋>0
𝑙𝑜 2𝜋 𝑋 𝑙𝑠 2𝜋 𝑍0
= =
𝜆 1 𝑍0 𝜆 1 𝑋
0.5 + tan−1 , 𝑋<0 0.5 + tan−1 , 𝑋<0
2𝜋 𝑋 2𝜋 𝑍0

Case 1: 𝑋1 = 50 𝑙𝑠1
= 0.125𝜆
𝑍0 𝜆
=1
𝑋1
𝑙𝑜1 1 1 𝜋 𝑙𝑠2
= tan−1 1 = ⋅ = 0.125 = 0.375𝜆
𝜆 2𝜋 2𝜋 4 𝜆

Case 2: 𝑋2 = −50
𝑍0
= −1
𝑋2
𝑙𝑜2 1
= 0.5 + tan−1 −1
𝜆 2𝜋

= 0.5 − 0.125 = 0.375

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 SINGLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK

Shunt Stub Matching Move a distance 𝑑 from the load toward the
generator. At that point, the admittance becomes
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵. We force 𝐺 = 𝑌0 So 𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌0 + 𝑗𝐵

Stub length 𝑙is chosen so that input susceptance

is −𝑗𝐵 Now we connect a stub in parallel that
Stub provides 𝑌𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑏 = −𝑗𝐵 So total admittance
becomes 𝑌𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑌0 + 𝑗𝐵 + −𝑗𝐵 = 𝑌0

We have:
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 𝑡
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑗 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝑡
where:
𝑡 = tan 𝛽𝑑
We want to match a load 𝑍𝐿 to the line so that
1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 (perfect matching). Instead of working 𝑌𝑖𝑛 = = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵
𝑍𝑖𝑛
with impedance, it's easier to use admittance
𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝑡 2
1 𝐺=
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 𝑌0 = 𝑍0 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑡 2
𝑍0

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𝑅𝐿2 𝑡 − 𝑍0 − 𝑡𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑡 1
𝐵= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 , 𝑡≥0
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑡 2 𝑑 2𝜋
=
𝜆 1
𝜋 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 , 𝑡 < 0
From 2𝜋

𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝑡 2 After finding the required susceptance 𝐵, the

𝐺= 2 2
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑋𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑡 stub must provide 𝐵𝑠 = −𝐵 This cancels the
unwanted susceptance and achieves matching.
𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝑡 2 1
= Open-circuited stub
𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑡 2 𝑍0
𝑙𝑜 1 𝐵
=− tan−1
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 1 + 𝑡 2 = 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑡 2 𝜆 2𝜋 𝑌0
Short-circuited stub
𝑙𝑠 1 𝑌0
𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍02 𝑡 2 − 2𝑋𝐿 𝑍0 𝑡 + 𝑍0 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑅𝐿2 − 𝑋𝐿2 = 0 = tan−1
𝜆 2𝜋 𝐵

𝑋𝐿 ± 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 − 𝑅𝐿 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 /𝑍0
𝑡=
𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0

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 SINGLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK

A load impedance of 𝑍𝐿 = 100 + 𝑗60 Ω is connected to a lossless transmission line of characteristic

impedance 𝑍0 = 50 Ω. Design a single open circuited shunt stub matching network to achieve
impedance matching.
𝑍𝐿 100 + 𝑗60 For 𝑡1 = 3.4091:
𝑧𝐿 = = = 2 + 𝑗1.2 𝐵1 = +0.221
𝑍0 50
1 1 For 𝑡2 = −1.0091:
𝑦𝐿 = = 𝐵2 = −0.221
𝑧𝐿 2 + 𝑗1.2

𝑦𝐿 = 0.3676 − 𝑗0.2206
Open-circuited stub:
𝑙𝑜 1 B
𝑋𝐿 ± 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0 − 𝑅𝐿 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 /𝑍0 = tan−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 > 0
𝜆 2𝜋 𝑌0
𝑡=
𝑅𝐿 − 𝑍0
𝑙𝑜 1 B
= 0.5 + tan−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0
𝜆 2𝜋 𝑌0
𝑡1 = 3.4091, 𝑡2 = −1.0091

𝜆 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = +0.221
𝑑1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3.4091 = 0.204𝜆 𝑙𝑠 = 0.1329 𝜆
2𝜋
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = −0.221
𝜆 𝑙𝑠 = 0.3671𝜆
𝑑2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −1.0091 = 0.375𝜆
2𝜋
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 SINGLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK

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 DOUBLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK

Admittance at the load

𝑌1 = 𝑌𝐿 + 𝑗𝐵1

𝑌1 = 𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗 𝐵𝐿 + 𝐵1
𝑌1 + 𝑗𝑌0 tan 𝛽𝑑
𝑌2 = 𝑌0 ⋅
𝑌0 + 𝑗𝑌1 tan 𝛽𝑑
We equate Re(𝑌2 ) to 𝑌0 and find solution for 𝑑 This
is the key design step:
Substitute:
𝑡 = tan 𝛽𝑑

𝑌1 = 𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗 𝐵𝐿 + 𝐵1

𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗 𝐵𝐿 + 𝐵1 + 𝑗𝑌0 𝑡
𝑌2 = 𝑌0 ⋅
𝑌0 + 𝑗 𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗 𝐵𝐿 + 𝐵1 𝑡

𝐺𝐿 + 𝑗 𝐵𝐿 + 𝐵1 + 𝑌0 𝑡
𝑌2 = 𝑌0 ⋅
𝑌0 − 𝐵𝐿 + 𝐵1 𝑡 + 𝑗𝐺𝐿 𝑡

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 DOUBLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK

a) Short-circuited stub
1 + 𝑡2 4𝑡 2 𝑌0 − 𝐵𝐿 𝑡 − 𝐵1 𝑡 2
𝐺𝐿 = 𝑌0 1± 1− 𝑙𝑠 1 𝐵
𝑡2 𝑌02 1 + 𝑡 2 2 =− tan−1
𝜆 2𝜋 𝑌0

Since 𝐺𝐿 is real, the square root must be real:

b) Open-circuited stub
4𝑡 2 𝑌0 − 𝐵𝐿 𝑡 − 𝐵1 𝑡 2 𝑙𝑜 1 𝑌0
0≤ ≤1 = tan−1
𝑌02 1 + 𝑡 2 2 𝜆 2𝜋 𝐵

1
𝑑= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡
𝛽

Stub susceptance's:
𝑌0 ± 1 + 𝑡 2 𝐺𝐿 𝑌0 − 𝐺𝐿2 𝑡 2
𝐵1 = −𝐵𝐿 +
𝑡

𝑌0 1 + 𝑡 2 𝐺𝐿 𝑌0 − 𝐺𝐿2 𝑡 2 + 𝐺𝐿 𝑌0
𝐵2 = ±
𝐺𝐿 𝑡

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 DOUBLE STUB MATCHING NETWORK

Stub is Purely Reactive

Since the stub is lossless, it contributes only
imaginary admittance:
𝑦𝑠𝐵 = −𝑗𝑏𝐵
So:
𝑦𝐵 = 1 + 𝑗𝑏𝐵

On the Smith Chart:

𝑦𝐵 = 1 + 𝑗𝑏𝐵 lies on the conductance circle 𝑔 = 1
So point B must lie on the 𝑔 = 1circle

Moving from Load to Point A corresponds to a

Total Admittance Condition 4𝜋𝑑
rotation on Smith Chart Rotation angle = This
𝜆
𝑌𝑖 = 𝑌𝐵 + 𝑌𝑠𝐵 = 𝑌0 gives point 𝑦𝐴
𝑌𝑖 :input admittance (what we want)
𝑌0 :characteristic admittance
Stub lengths 𝑙𝐴 and 𝑙𝐵 are found from 𝑦𝐴 and 𝑦𝐵
𝑌𝐵 :admittance at point B
𝑌𝑠𝐵 :stub admittance at B

In normalized form:
1 = 𝑦𝐵 + 𝑦𝑠𝐵
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 QUARTER WAVE TRANSFORMER MATCHING NETWORK

𝜆
A transmission line of length 𝑙 = 4 is used to match a real load 𝑅𝐿 to a line of
characteristic impedance 𝑍0 using another line of impedance 𝑍1.
2𝜋 𝜆 𝜋
So: 𝛽𝑙 = ⋅ =
𝜆 4 2

𝜋
w. k. t: tan
→∞
2
So the formula simplifies by dividing numerator
and denominator by tan 𝛽𝑙

𝑍12
𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍1 tan 𝛽𝑙 For perfect matching:
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍1
𝑍1 + 𝑗𝑅𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
at 𝑙 = 𝜆/4 So:
𝑍12
𝑍0 =
We know: 𝑅𝐿
2𝜋
𝛽=
𝜆 𝑍1 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑍0

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