HARDWARE

A computer contains many electric, electronic, and mechanical components known as hardware.

SOFTWARE
A set of instructions to solve a problem is called software / program.

DATA
Data is a collection of raw / unorganized / unprocessed facts and figures about anything. Data is
not useful in decision making because it is less meaningful.

INFORMATION
Information is data arranged / organized that is more useful and meaningful to the people .
Information helps in decision making.

COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that can accept data (input), process data, produce results
(output), and store the results for future use. A computer operates under the control of
instructions / program. A computer is also called a data processor.

DATA PROCESSING
Data processing is a series of actions or operations that converts data into information.
Processing is done by the hardware under the control of instructions / program.

EDP = Electronic Data Processing

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
1. Speed (very very high) 6. Memory / Storage (too much)
2. Accuracy (100%) 7. No I.Q (Intelligence is zero)
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 3. Automatic 8. Unbiased (No preference)
4. Versatile (many tasks) 9. Consistency (Always same result)
5. Reliability (results are dependable)

GIGO

GARBAGE IN GARBAGE OUT Computer errors due to incorrect input

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
1. Notebook computer / Laptop 2. Personal computer
3. Workstations 4. Mainframe systems
5. Super Computers 6. Embedded Computers
1. Notebook computers / Laptop
Portable computers mainly used by people who need computer wherever they go.
Weigh around 2 kg only. yet can be as powerful as the average desktop computer.
designed to use little power

2. Personal Computer
It is a computer that can perform all of its input, processing, output, and storage
activities by itself.
A personal computer contains a processor, memory, input device, output device,
storage device and a communication device.
Generally used by one person at a time, supports multitasking
CISC cpu
Two types of personal computers are ‘desktop computers’ and ‘notebook
computers

3. Workstations
Powerful desktop computer designed to meet the computing needs of engineers,
architects, and other professionals

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 Provides greater processing power, larger storage, and better graphics display
facility than PCs
RISC cpu
Commonly used for computer-aided design (CAD) , multimedia applications,
simulation of complex scientific and engineering problems

4. Mainframe Systems
Mainly used by large organizations as banks, insurance companies, hospitals etc.
Large number of users can use it at the same time
They handle large amount of data e.g to bill millions of customers, prepare payroll for
thousands of employees.
These are big in size and need a large room with air-conditioning
They run multiple applications simultaneously to serve many users

5. Supercomputers
Most powerful and most expensive computers available at a given time.
Primarily used for processing complex scientific applications that require enormous
processing power
They run one program at a time , as fast as possible
Well known supercomputing applications include:
Analysis of large volumes of data , Solving complex engineering problems
Weather forecasting , Online Banking , Nuclear Energy Research
Film making (Hollywood)

6. Embedded Computers
a special-purpose computer that functions as a component in a larger product.

small in size and have limited hardware

A variety of everyday products contain embedded computers

THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

1. Input Devices
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hardware components that allow us to enter data and instructions into a computer, e.g.
keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, and Web cam

3. System Unit
A case that contains electronic components of the computer that are used to process data. It
includes Drive bays , Power supply, Sound card, Video card, Processor, Memory etc.

2. Output Devices
hardware components that conveys information to us , e.g. printer, monitor, and speakers

4. Storage Devices
Storage holds data, instructions, and information for future use, e.g. USB flash drives, hard
disks, optical discs, and memory cards.

5. Communications Devices
A hardware component that enables a computer to send (transmit) and receive data, instructions,
and information , e.g. modem

Mothe rboard
The motherboard, ( system board ) is the main circuit board inside the system unit. Some
electronic components attach to the motherboard; and some are built into it. It acts as a
communication medium for the entire computer system. Two main components on the
motherboard are the processor and memory .

Ce ntral Proces s ing Unit = C P U

The brain of a computer system
It interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate a computer
Two basic components are :
Control Unit (CU) & Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• The processor contains registers, that temporarily hold data and instructions
• The leading manufacturers of personal computer processor chips are Intel and AMD

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Control Unit = C U
One of the two basic components of CPU
Acts as the central nervous system of a computer system
Selects and interprets program instructions, and coordinates their execution
Has some special purpose registers and a decoder to perform these activities

Arit hmetic Logic Unit = A L U

One of the two basic components of CPU.
Actual execution of instructions takes place in ALU
Has some special purpose registers
Has necessary circuitry to carry out all the arithmetic (+ , - , × , ÷ ) and
logic (comparisons < , > , = , ≠ ) operations included in the CPU instruction set

INSTRUCTION SET
CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine instructions, called its
instruction set
Most CPUs have 200 or more instructions (such as add, subtract, compare, etc.) in their
instruction set
CPUs made by different manufacturers have different instruction sets

TYPES of PROCESSORS
1. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
1. Large instruction set
2. Variable-length instructions
3. Variety of addressing modes
4. Complex & expensive to produce
5. Mostly used in personal computers

2. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

1. Small instruction set
2. Fixed-length instructions
3. Reduced references to memory
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 4. Mostly used in work stations

RAM - Random Access Memory

Every computer has a temporary storage. This temporary storage is also known as main
memory, primary storage, or simply memory.
It is also called RAM because it has random access property. It is volatile
• Memory consists of electronic components that store instructions waiting to be executed
by the processor, data needed by those instructions, and the results of processing the data
• Stores three basic categories of items:

(1) (2) (3)

• Each location in memory has an address

• Memory size is measured in Kilobytes (KB or K = 210 bytes ), Megabytes (MB = 220
bytes), Gigabytes (GB = 230 bytes), or Terabytes (TB = 240 bytes )
• System unit contains two types of memory: Volatile memory & Non Volatile memory

Volatile memory Nonvolatile memory

• Loses its contents when power is turned

• Does not lose contents when power is
off
removed
• Examples include ROM, flash memory,
• Example includes RAM
and CMOS

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Machine Cyc le
For every instruction, a processor repeats a set of 4 basic operations, which comprise a
machine cycle: (1) fetching, (2) decoding, (3) executing, and, (4) storing (if necessary).

1. Fetching: process of obtaining a program instruction or data item from memory.

2. Decoding: process of translating the instruction into signals that computer can execute.
3. Executing: process of carrying out the commands.
4. Storing: means writing the result to memory (not to a storage medium).
Pipelining
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Processor begins fetching a second instruction before it completes the machine cycle for the first
instruction

Parallel Process ing

• Parallel processing uses multiple

processors simultaneously to
execute a single program or task

• Massively parallel processing

involves hundreds or thousands
of processors

Cache Memory
Memory cache speeds the
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 processes of the computer because it stores frequently used instructions and data

It is commonly used for minimize the memory- processor speed mismatch .

Power Supply
• The power supply converts the wall outlet AC power into DC power

Bus
A bus allows the various devices both inside and attached to the system unit to
communicate with each other.
2 Types : Data bus & Address bus
ASCII
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the most widely
used coding scheme to represent data inside the computer. For example :

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 ASCII code of letter A is : 01000001
ASCII code of letter B is : 01000010
ASCII code of letter C is : 01000011

BIT = Binary Digit 0 / 1

BYTE = a combination of 8 bits e.g 01000001 is a byte

ROM - Read Only Memory

Non-volatile memory chip

Contents in a ROM can only be read and used – they cannot be changed

ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data, which do not change and are frequently used.

For example: System Boot (startup) program

PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory

A PROM (programmable read-only memory) chip is a blank ROM chip that can be written
permanently

EEPROM – Elec tronically Eras able Programmable Read Only Memory

Also called Flash memory , that can be erased electronically and rewritten

Plug and Play

Plug and Play, means the computer can automatically configure adapter cards and other
peripherals as we install them
Storage
• Storage means to hold data, instructions, and information for future use
(i.e permanently)

• A storage device (also called secondary storage device) is the computer hardware that
records and/or retrieves items to and from storage medium

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 • Reading is the process of transferring items from a storage medium into memory
• Writing is the process of transferring items from memory to a storage medium

Following figure explains different types of (secondary) storage devices

Seque ntial Access Storage Devices

Data can only be retrieved in the same sequence in which it is stored
Example : Magnetic tape

Direct Access Storage De vices

Data can be retrieved in direct / immediate way
Example : Magnetic Disk , Optical Disk
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HARD DISK
• A hard disk contains one or more inflexible, circular platters that use magnetic particles
to store data, instructions, and information

• Hard disks can store data using longitudinal recording or perpendicular recording

• Characteristics of a hard disk include:

Capacity Platters Read/Write Heads
Sectors and Tracks Revolutions per Minute Transfer Rate

• The number of tracks : 40 to several thousands

• Each track of a disk is subdivided into sectors. There are 8 or more sectors
per track . A sector typically contains 512 bytes.

• Disk drives are designed to read/write only whole sectors at a time

• Formatting is the process of dividing the disk into tracks and sectors so that the operating
system can store and locate data and information on the disk

• The hard disk arms move the read/write head, which reads items and writes items in the
drive

• A head crash occurs when a read/write head touches the surface of a platter

• RAID (redundant array of independent disks) is a group of two or more integrated hard
disks

• An external hard disk is a separate free-standing hard disk that connects to computer
with a cable or wirelessly

• A removable hard disk is a hard disk that we insert and remove from a drive

Cloud Storage
• Cloud storage is an Internet service that provides storage to computer users
• Examples: Hotmail , Yahoo , Gmail , Youtube , Facebook, Myspace etc.

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Optical Disc
• An optical disc consists of a flat, round, disc that is written and read by a laser
• Has no mechanical read/write access arm

• Optical discs commonly store items in a single track that spirals from the center of the
disc to the edge

• Track is divided into evenly sized sectors

Formula : Magnetic Dis k – Storage Capacity

Storage capacity of a disk system = Number of recording surfaces X
Number of tracks per surface X
Number of sectors per track X
Number of bytes per sector

Formula : Optical Dis k – Storage Capac ity

Storage capacity of an optical disk = Number of sectors X Number of bytes per sector

Types of Software
System software consists of the programs that control or maintain the operations of the
computer and its devices. System software serves as the interface between the user, the
application software, and the computer’s hardware. System software make the operation of a
computer system more effective and efficient. System software also help hardware
components to work together. System software provide
support for the execution of application software.

Two types of system software are the Operating System and Utility Programs.

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Application software consists of programs designed to make users more productive and/or
assist them with personal tasks. With the proper software, a computer is a valuable tool.
Examples: Web browser, Word processing software, Spreadsheet software, Database software,
and Presentation software.

Application software is available in a variety of forms:

package , custom, open source, shareware, freeware, and public domain.

Logical Sys te m Arc hitecture

Logical System Architecture shows the relationship among

(i) Hardware ,
(ii) Syatem software
(iii) Appliction software
and
(iv) Users

Operating Sys te m (OS)

Set of programs that controls the resources (the CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) and
coordinate all the activities of a computer system. Examples : Windows , Mac , Unix , Linux

Two primary objectives of an OS are:

Making a computer system convenient to use

Managing the resources of a computer system

The operating system layer hides the details of the hardware from the user and

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Provides the convenient interface for using the system. The operating system that a
computer uses sometimes is called the platform.

Main Functions of an OS

1. Start and shutdown a computer - Booting

2. Provide a user interface
3. Process Management
4. Memory Management
5. Configure devices
6. Establish an Internet connection
7. Monitor performance
8. Provide utilities
9. Automatically update
10. Control a network
11. Provide security
1. Booting
The process of starting or restarting a computer is called booting. 2 types:

Cold Boot : Turning on a computer that has been powered off completely
Warm Boot : Using the operating system to restart a computer

2. Us e r Interface
Two types of user interfaces supported by various operating systems are:

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Command-line interface: Users work on computer by typing the commands using
keyboard

Graphical User Interface (GUI): Users work on computer by selecting icons or menus
with the help of a point- and-draw device (mouse)

3. Process Management

The OS manages the processes submitted to a system in a manner to minimize idle time
Of processor (CPU) of the system

Job
A process (also called job) is a program in execution. 2 types of jobs:

CPU bound: Mostly perform computations with little I/O operations.

Examples : Scientific and engineering applications

I/O bound: Mostly perform I/O operations with little computation.

Examples : Commercial data processing applications

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Process Manage me nt in Uni Programming Sys te m

Process Manage me nt in Multiprogramming Sys tem

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Process States in Multiprogramming Sys tem

Process States in Time Sharing Sys tem

Re quirements of Multiprogramming Sys te ms

1. Large memory

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 2. Memory protection

3. Job status preservation

4. Proper job mix (CPU and I/O bound jobs)

5. CPU scheduling

4. Memory Manage me nt
Memory is important resource of a computer system that must be properly managed for the
overall system performance

The OS manages memory to optimize it.

RAM chips hold data and instructions , while the processor interprets and executes them.

The operating system allocates an area of memory to the data and instructions.

Then, it carefully monitors the contents of memory.

Finally, the operating system releases these items from memory when the processor
no longer requires them.

Virt ual Memory

Virtual memory is a memory management scheme , in which the operating system allocates a

portion of a storage medium, the hard disk, to function as additional RAM.

It does not require the entire process (running program) to be in memory for execution

Virtual memory is slower than RAM

Types Of Operating Sys te ms

1. Stand-Alone Operating System

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A stand-alone operating system is a complete operating system that works on a desktop
computer, notebook computer, or mobile computing device. Some stand-alone operating
systems are called client operating systems because they also work in conjunction with a
server operating system. Client operating systems can operate with or without a network.

Examples : Windows 7, Mac OS X, Unix, and Linux.

2. Server Operating System

A server operating system is an operating system that is designed specifically to support a
network. A server operating system typically resides on a server. The client computers on the
network rely on the server(s) for resources.

Examples : Windows Server 2008 , Unix , Linux , Sun Solaris ( a version of UNIX developed
by Sun Microsystems specifically for e-commerce applications.) , Novell’s NetWare

3. Embedded Operating Systems

The operating system on most mobile devices and many consumer electronics, called an
embedded operating system, resides on a ROM chip.

Examples : Windows Embedded CE, Windows Phone 7, Palm OS, iPhone OS, BlackBerry,
Google Android, embedded Linux, and Symbian OS.

Utilit y Program

A utility program, also called a utility, is a type of system software that allows a user to perform
maintenance-type tasks. For example : managing a computer, its devices, or its programs.
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Most operating systems include several built-in utility programs.

Examples

File compression utility : shrinks the size of a fi le.

Image viewer : displays, copies, and prints the contents of a graphics file.

Disk cleanup utility : searches and removes unnecessary files.

Disk defragmenter : reorganizes the files and unused space on a computer’s hard disk.

Screen saver : displays a moving image if no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specified

time.

File Manager : performs functions related to fi le management.

Search utility : locates a file on computer based on some criteria.

Uninstaller : removes a program and any associated entries in the system files.

Backup utility: used to copy, or back up, selected files or an entire hard disk to another storage

medium.

Restore utility : reverses the backup process and returns backed up files to their original form.

Personal firewall : detects and protects a personal computer from unauthorized intrusions.

Antivirus : protects computers against a virus, or potentially damaging computer program, by

identifying and removing any computer viruses.

Spyware Remover : detects and deletes spyware and similar programs.

Anti-spam program : removes spam (unknown emails) before it reaches inbox.

Web filtering software : restricts access to certain material on the Web.

Phishing filter : warns or blocks from potentially fraudulent or suspicious Web sites.

Disc burning software : writes on a recordable or rewritable CD, DVD, or Blu-ray Disc.
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Programming Language

Computer programs are written using a programming language. A set of words, symbols, and
codes to write computer programs is called a programming language. Its 3 types are :
(1) Machine language (2) Assembly language (3) High-level language

(1) Machine language : Also known as the first generation of programming languages
Only language that a computer directly understands without using a translation program.
Instructions are written as series of binary numbers 1s and 0s.

Advantage
Can be executed very fast

Limitations
Machine Dependent
Difficult to program
Error prone
Difficult to modify

(2) Assembly language /

Symbolic language :
Alphanumeric codes (mnemonic ) instead of numeric codes for the instructions e.g. using
ADD instead of 1110 (binary) , MUL , SUB etc.

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Assembler is a software that translates an assembly language program into an equivalent
machine language program of a computer

Advantage
Easier to understand and use
Easier to locate and correct errors
Easier to modify
Efficiency of machine language

Limitations
Knowledge of hardware required
Machine level coding
Machine Dependent

Typical Uses of Assembly Language

Mainly used today to fine-tune important parts of programs written in a high-level language to
improve the program’s execution efficiency

(3) High-Level Languages

High-level coding, so programmers can write instructions in English words and

familiar mathematical symbols

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 No need to know anything about the internal structure of computer

Compiler is a Translator program (software) that translates a high-level language program

into its equivalent machine language program

Advantages

Machine independent
Easier to learn and use
Fewer errors during program development

( A machine independent program can run on many different types of computers and
operating systems )

Limitations

Lower execution efficiency

Less flexibility to control the computer’s CPU, memory and registers

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Data Communication
Data communication is the transmission of electronic data over some media. The media may be
cables, microwaves.

Basic Elements of a Communication System

Data Transmission Modes

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Bandwidth: Range of frequencies available for data transmission. It means the amount

of data that can be transferred. Text data requires the least amount of bandwidth; video data
requires the most bandwidth . Higher the bandwidth, the more data it can transmit

Data Transmission Media

1. Wired , 2. Wireless
The most commonly used are:

Twisted-pair wire (UTP cable) – Wired

Coaxial cabel - Wired
Optical fibers – Wired Coaxial cable
Communications satellite -
Wireless
Microwave - Wireless

Microwave system

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Communications satellite

Optical fibers

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 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

1. Twisted Pair Wire: Also called Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable. Used in
local telephone communication, and short distance (upto 1 KM) digital data
transmission. 9600 to 1200 bps speed. Cheap , Easy to install & use BUT they
easily pick up noise signal which result in high error rates.

2. Coaxial Cable: Much higher bandwidth than UTP cables. Upto 10 Mbps. Used
in Long distance transmission of both voice and data. High noise immunity.

3. Microwave System: Use very high frequency radio signals to transmit data
through space. This is also called Wireless communication. Transmitter and receiver
must be on very high towers and they should be in Line of Sight. Signal becomes
weaker after travelling a certain distance , so it requires power amplification.
Microwave systems use repeaters after 25 – 30 km. These repeaters receive,
amplify and retransmit signals. Speed = 16 Gbps.

4. Communication Satellite: A space shuttle at 36,000 km above the equator. Its

rotates around earth at exactly same as earth’s rotational speed. So that earth and
satellite become stationary for each other. So, the satellite and a ground stations on
earth always stay in front of each other. This helps in fixing antennas. A satellite
covers slightly less than half the earth’s surface because earth is round. At least 3
satellites required to cover transmission over the globe at very less price. . . . Some
disadvantages are: High initial costs, data propagation delay, need special security,
atmospheric disturbances like thunder and lightening.

5. Optical Fibers: Hair thin threads of glass or plastic. Transmit Light signals ,
instead of electrical signals. Data transmission speed much much higher than all
others. Some advantages are: Large bandwidth, Low loss of signal over long
distances, small size and light weight , increased security, both analog and digital
transmission. Disadvantages are: Difficult installation.

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Analog Signals vs. Digital Signals

Data can be represented as either analog or digital signals.

Digital signals represented data by only two discrete states: 0s and 1s
Analog signals represent data with continuous waves of varying voltage

Computer generated data signal is digital, whereas telephone lines carry analog signals

The data to be transmitted over a networking medium must match the type of signal (analog or
digital) that the medium supports. Otherwise , then it must be converted before the data is
transmitted. The conversion of data between analog and digital form is performed by
networking hardware.

Digital transmission of data is preferred over analog transmission of data , due to lower cost,
higher transmission speeds, and lower error rate

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Modulation Techniques
Conversion of digital signal to analog form is known as modulation
Conversion of analog signal to digital form is known as demodulation
3 modulation techniques are :

(1) Amplitude Modulation (AM): Two binary values (0 and 1) of digital data are
represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier signal, keeping frequency and phase
constant

(2) Frequency Modulation (FM): Two binary values of digital data are represented by
two different frequencies, while amplitude and phase are kept constant

(3) Phase Modulation (PM): Two binary (0 and 1) values of digital data are represented
by shift in phase of carrier signal , keeping amplitude and frequency constant

Modem

Modem is short for MOdulator/DEModulator

Special device used for conversion of digital data to analog form (modulation) and vice-
versa (demodulation)

Essential hardware device where two digital devices (say two computers) want to
communicate over an analog transmission channel (say a telephone line)

A modem may be External modem or internal modem

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Multiplexing
Method of dividing physical channel into many logical channels so that a number of
independent signals may be simultaneously transmitted
Electronic device that perorms multiplexing is known as a multiplexer
Multiplexing enables a single transmission medium to concurrently transmit data between
several transmitters and receivers
Two methods of multiplexing are :
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

FDM

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TDM

Computer network

Computer network (or network) is a collection of computers and other hardware devices
(called NODES) connected together in various ways in so that users can share resources
(hardware, software, and data,) as well as communicate with each other electronically.

The connections between computers in a network may be physical (using wires or cables) ,
and/or wireless (using radio waves or infrared signals to convey data

Computer networks contain devices other than computers such as printers , photocopier machine
etc, so that anyone on the network (network users) can use them .

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USES FOR COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Sharing an Internet connection among several users.

2. Sharing application software, printers, and other resources.

3. Facilitating Voice over IP (VoIP) / internet telephony , e-mail, video conferencing etc.

4. workgroup computing or collaborative computing on projects

5. Exchanging files among network users and over the Internet.

6. Connecting the computers and the entertainment devices (such as TVs, gaming consoles,
and stereo systems) located within a home.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY: The way in which nodes of a network are linked together. In other
words , network topology is the layout/shape of the network. There are 4 topologies:

1. Star Topology : Multiple nodes connected to a host node. The host node
performs routing function and centrally controls communication between
any two other nodes by establishing a logical path between them.

Advantages:
(1) Minimum line cost because only n – 1 lines required for connecting n
nodes
(2) Adding more nodes does not
increase transmission delays
(3) If any node ( other than Host
node ) or its link fails , network
remains working

Disadvantages : If Host node or its

link fails , Entire network fails.

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 2. Ring Topology : No master / controlling node. Each node connected with 2
adjacent nodes. A node can receive data from any of 2 nodes. It keeps data if
its address matches otherwise it sends data to next node.

Advantages:
(1) Communication is not dependent
on a single node.
(2) More reliable than Star topology.
(3) if a node or its link fails , alternate
routing is possible.

Disadvantages : (1) Adding new nodes

increases communication delay
(2) It requires more complicated control software than star topology
network.

3. Completely Connected Network Topology :

Each node in the network has a direct link (point to point link) with others.

Advantages: (1) Very much reliable communication

(2) Very fast
communication (3) A node does not need routing capability.

Disadvantages : (1) Higher link costs

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 4. Bus Topology: All nodes are connected to a single / shared communication
line / channel. Sender puts its message , with the address of receiving node,
on the channel. All other nodes can receive it and check the address. A node
keeps message if its address matches otherwise it sends data to next node.

Advantages:
(1) reduced number of
lines
(2) Failure of a node does
not fail the communication
between other nodes
(3) New nodes can be
added easily

Disadvantages :
(1) If the shared communication line fails , entire network fails
(2) Adding new nodes increases communication delay

5. Hybrid Network: As different network topologies have their own advantages

and disadvantages. Hybrid is combination of two or more different network
topologies.

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 Network Types

(1) LAN, (2) WAN , (3) MAN

Comparison between LAN & WAN

LAN WAN

Limited to a small area coverage opposite

Examples : Internet caffe , Office, Home, Hosital, University Internet

Connects limited number of comuters/devices (nodes) opposite

much higher data transmission rate opposite

fewer data transmission errors opposite

lower data communication cost Opposite

owned by a single organization Opposite

LANs connected , over a distance , to create a WAN

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MAN
Networks that share characteristics of both LANs and WANs are referred to as Metropolitan
Area Network (MAN)

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)

Hardware device that allows a computer to be connected to a network
Circuit board installed on to one of the expansion slots of computer
Provides a port on the back to which network cable is attached

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL
Communication protocol describes rules that govern transmission of data over
communication networks
Example: TCP / IP = Transmission control protocol / Internet protocol.
http = hypertext transfer protocol
FTP = File Transfer Protocol

ROLES OF COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS :

1. Data sequencing ,
2. Data routing ,
3. Data formatting ,
4. Data Security
5. Flow Control ,
6. Error Control ,
7. Connection establishment & termination

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 OSI MODEL : Open System Interconnection – OSI definesg standards for
linking heterogeneous computers. It made possible for any tow heterogeneous computers
, located anywhere in the world , to communicate easily with each other. OSI is a 7 layer
model. Each layer defines a different set of protocols. These 7 layers are : (bottom to up )

1. Physical Layer : Transmits raw bit streams between 2 nodes

2. Data Link Layer : Detects & Corrects errors in transmitted data

3. Network Layer : Sets a logical path between 2 nodes

4. Transport Layer : Deals with packets of the entire message

5. Session Layer : Establishes , maintains , terminates session between 2 end users.

6. Presentation Layer: performs these operations on data: Encoding/decoding ,

Compression/decompression, Encryption / decryption

7. Application Layer : Provides services that directly support end users

Internetwork/ internetworking

Interconnecting two or more networks to form a single network is called internetworking,

and the resulting network is called an internetwork.
Tools such as bridges, routers, brouters, and gateways are used for internetworking.
The Internet is the best example of an internetwork

1. BRIDGE :
Operate at bottom two layers of the OSI model
Connect networks that use the same communication protocols above data-link layer
but may use different protocols at physical and data-link layers

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 2. ROUTER :
Operates at the network layer of the OSI model
Used to interconnect those networks that use the same high-level protocols above
network layer
Intelligent than bridges as they not only copy data from one network segment to
another, but also choose the best route for the data by using routing table

3. Gateway
Operates at the top three layers of the OSI model (session, presentation and
application)

Used for interconnecting dissimilar networks that use different communication

protocols

Since gateways interconnect dissimilar networks, protocol conversion is the major

job performed by them

E-COMMERCE

 Electronic commerce, is a business transaction that occurs over Internet.

 Anyone with access to a computer or mobile device, an Internet connection, and a

means to pay can participate in e-commerce.

 Three types of e-commerce are :

1. Business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce : consists of the sale of goods and services

to the general public. For example, Apple has a B2C Web site. Instead of visiting a
retail store to purchase an iPod, for example, customers can order directly from
Apple’s Web site.

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 2. Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) e-commerce : occurs when one consumer sells directly
to another, such as in an online auction. ‘eBay’ is a popular online auction Web
sites.

3. Business-to-Business (B2B) e-commerce: Many businesses provide goods and

services to other businesses. Most e-commerce actually takes place between
businesses.

ONLINE BANKING

 Users access account balances and can transfer of money electronically from one
account to a payee’s account

 Users can use it to pay their utility bills from their computer or mobile device , such as
the electric company or telephone company bills

 Security is the main concern over the internet

Software Ownership :

 The author of a software program is the real owner of that software program.
 Purchasing a software means to get a license to use that software.
 A license agreement is the right to use the software. That is, you do not own the
software. The license agreement provides specific conditions for use of the software,
which a user must accept before using the software.

 EULA = end user license agreement

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INFORMATION PRIVACY
 Today, huge databases store peoples’ data online. Much of the data is personal and
confidential and should be accessible only to authorized users.

 Information privacy means Peoples’ right to deny or restrict the collection and use of
data/information about them. An individual has right to see data collected about him.
He also has right to stop the processing of his data by an organization.

 Threats to Privacy :

1. Snooping is a privacy threat, and it means monitoring the activities of a user on

computer. Key logger software may be used for this purpose, which records
keystrokes and mouse clicks.

2. Spyware is another privacy threat. It is a program placed on a computer that

secretly collects information about the user.

3. Phishing is a scam (threat) in which a perpetrator sends an offi cial looking e-mail
message that attempts to obtain a user’s personal and financial information.

4. A Cookie is a file that a Web server stores on a visitor’s computer to collect data
about the visitor / user.

5. Wireless Communication Devices : The data in air can be easily intercepted by

someone

IMPACTS (USES) OF COMPUTERS ON SOCIETY

The computer has changed our society today. People interact directly with computers in fields
such as education, finance, government, health care, science, publishing, travel, and
manufacturing.

1. Education: students use computers to assist with learning or take distance learning
classes.

2. Finance: people use computers for online banking to access their accounts and online
investing to buy and sell stocks and bonds.

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 3. Government: Government has Web sites to provide citizens with up-to-date
information, and government employees use computers as part of their daily routines.

4. Health Care : computers are used to maintain patient records, assist doctors with
medical tests and research, file insurance claims, provide greater precision during
operations, and as implants.

5. Science: all branches of science use computers to assist with collecting, analyzing, and
modeling data and to communicate with scientists around the world.

6. Publishing : Publishers use computers to assist in developing pages and make their works
available online. For example many news papers are available on internet

7. Travel : Many vehicles use online navigation system to help people travel more quickly
and safely.

8. Manufacturing : Manufacturers use computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) to assist with

manufacturing processes.

“END”

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