Food Control 138 (2022) 109001

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Safety and quality perspective of street vended foods in

developing countries
a,** a,* a b
Allah Rakha , Mehak Fatima , Yasmeen Bano , Muhammad Asif Khan ,
c,*** a,****
Neelam Chaudhary , Rana Muhammad Aadil
a
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
c
Department of Continuing Education, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Street vendors Street vended food businesses play economic and social roles in developing countries through provision of
Hygienic conditions employment, availability of food at affordable prices, and accessibility of wide range of food choices that suits
Foodborne illness different social communities and classes. Mobile, semi-mobile or fi Xed carts are used by street food vendors
Safety training comprising of men and women of all age groups. However, due to the informal nature of street food vending
Chemical toXicity business, it is often neglected by regulatory authorities, resulting in unwholesome practices. Poor infrastructure,
lack of sanitation, and improper personal hygiene are associated with microbial hazards, environmental pollu-
tion, and chemical contamination, all which contribute to a high risk of foodborne diseases and health hazards.
In order to prevent street foods contamination, vendors require hygiene training and access to approved and
audited facilities that may ensure food safety. Government should take effective steps through legislation and
conduct food safety training programs. Active collaboration between regulatory bodies and NGOs is crucial to
support street vendors with proper enforcement of public health policies. Safe food handling practices can
improve the food safety and quality as well as improve the health of both food vendors and consumers in
developing countries.

1. Introduction
foods are comprised of different ingredients that are subjected to diverse
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), street vended processing condition such as fresh-cut fruits and vegetables, simply
foods are the ones cooked and served by vendors in streets or local cooked foods, packed beverages, and snacks (Sseguya et al., 2020). Food
public places and are consumed directly without further cooking. Street and Agriculture Organization estimated that 2.6 billion people consume
foods are popular and consumed all around the world (ImathIu, 2017). vended foods on daily basis (ImathIu, 2017). Street foods provide sub-
The presence of street food stalls is an ancient phenomenon that has stantial amount of nutrients that play important roles in food security
recently drawn increased interest, particularly in developed and and nutrition. Different types of raw materials and processing methods
developing countries. In the context of the global food system, the street affect the nutritional value of street vended foods. Limited economic,
food vending business is considered an important economic activity in food, and health resources in developing and under-developing coun-
developing countries that provide diverse employment opportunities for tries has resulted in high unemployment rate, job insecurity, and low
local workforce (Adeosun et al., 2022; Fust´e-Forn´e, 2021; income (Al-Jundi et al., 2020). Simultaneously, in urban societies home
Newman & Burnett, 2013). It attracts foreign tourists to experience the cooking has drastically decreased. This has led to significant more
unique culture that different food menus provide (Abrahale et al., attention to street vended foods owing to their easy availability, low
2019). Street price, spicy taste, and multiple options for different community groups.

* Corresponding authors.
** Corresponding author.
*** Corresponding authors.
**** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: arrehman_ft@[Link] (A. Rakha), mehak.fatima46@[Link] (M. Fatima), [Link]@[Link] (N. Chaudhary), muhammad.
aadil@[Link] (R.M. Aadil).

[Link]
Received 6 December 2021; Received in revised form 30 March 2022; Accepted 3 April 2022
Available online 6 April 2022
0956-7135/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A. Rakha et Food Control 138 (2022)

Despite positive aspects of street foods on the economy and culinary

diversity, street food vending business has attracted serious doubts foods is also associated with various adverse health effects. To overcome
concerning their position in food safety management, overall food this growing menace, Government, health policymakers, and
quality, and safe environmental practices especially (Albuquerque et al., educators should join hands to devise plans to educate the vendors,
2020). Moreover, in most developing countries street food vending thereby leading to production and sale of healthy and safe food (Nago
business is being carried outside of Government regulations and pro- et al., 2010).
tection (Basu & Nagendra, 2020). Thus, the present review is aimed to
highlight the handling practices, hygiene status, and food safety risks 3. Hazards associated with street foods
pertaining to street vended foods. Furthermore, this review will also
assist policymakers to monitor and regulating the whole food chain Several direct and indirect factors affect the healthiness of street
business. vended foods. Hazards reported in this review are classified into three
main categories: environmental, chemical, and microbiological. These
2. Attributes of street vendors in the developing countries hazards affect the whole chain of street food business and may result in
poor food safety and quality.
Increased levels of poverty are having deleterious effects on different
parts of the world population. An uneven economic growth has 3.1. Environmental hazards
contributed to poverty in many parts of the world (Si et al., 2020).
Economic instability, political conflicts, abrupt increase in population, Street vended foods raise serious concerns about food safety as they
foodborne illnesses, unemployment, and low wages have given rise to are exposed to different environmental conditions. Street vendors
street vended foods sold either on carts or at fiXed places (Njaya, 2014). display uncovered food to enhance the sale and attract customers in busy
In different regions of the world, millions of people are employed as areas. Common food vending sites are near schools, bus stops, parking
street vendors, a business worth billions of US dollars annually. Every areas, construction sites, public places, and nearby hospitals. Pushcarts,
day, millions of people are being fed street foods by semi-skilled and display wooden tables, aluminum trays, bowls, or chop bars are the
unskilled workers. In underdeveloped countries, people have limited examples of mobile or stationary vending that employ open or protected
resources for clothing, shelter, education, and other necessities hence primitive constructions (Akinbode et al., 2011).
are unable to pay an extra amount on quality food. Therefore, street food Street foods are prepared, served, and consumed in open places
is seen by the middle and lower class of the community as cheap and without having proper shelter hence the food is exposed to environ-
affordable alternate. It gives physical and social convenience of food mental pollutants. Airborne chemicals, vehicles smoke, burning indus-
with a diverse menu (Hilmi, 2020). trial fumes, insects, rodents, and offensive smells from accumulated
Mobile, semi-mobile or fiXed carts are being used by the street food waste can contaminate the exposed food. Meanwhile, pathogenic mi-
enterprises commonly run by men and women of different age groups. crobes also settle on fresh-cut fruits and vegetables (Proietti et al., 2014).
Limited capital investments, basic food-handling skills, and fewer fa- The accumulation of garbage heaps, harbored flies, and rodents in
cilities are enough to run a small-scale street food vending business. proXimity of street vending places is also common. Likewise, littering
Meanwhile, a suitable location and word-of-mouth for promotion- with food waste and other non-food items is also a common practice
specific foods also contribute to the success of street vended foods by food vendors (Mensah et al., 2002; Saad et al., 2013). In addition,
(Hoffmann et al., 2019). Street vendors create hurdles and disturbances potable tap water is frequently unavailable at the vending location,
for traffic flow due to their unorganized vending patterns. Since the except for one or more buckets of water for washing hands and utensils,
street vendors are unable to meet safety standards and attain legal sometimes without soap. Apart, workers are rarely provided with sani-
business status, they suffer from harassment by enforcement agencies or tation and hygiene facilities (Bhuiyan & Noor, 2020). Unfortunately,
nearby shopkeepers. It is often observed that local authorities confiscate in most developing countries street vendors have no access to necessities
vended foods and arrest vendors while inflicting heavy fines (Dipeolu such as toilets, drainage, waste disposal, gas, and electricity (Kundu
et al., 2007; Selvi & Veilatchi, 2020). Lack of literacy and numeracy et al., 2021; Rheinla¨nder et al., 2008). All these factors contribute to
skills in street vendors leads to instability and short-term business, as an increased risk of food-borne illnesses and disease transmission among
they often feel helpless to change the business situation. Furthermore, an large numbers of people who eat street food.
increasing number of street vendors neglect basic cleanliness and sell
low quality food items. It is difficult for Government agencies to inves- 3.2. Chemical hazards
tigate and implement plans for the food safety practices of street vendors
as they lack proper facilities (Si et al., 2020). Rapid urbanization and population growth in developing countries
Street vended foods all over the world offer wide range of cuisines to has not only led to environmental but food security and safety issues
meet the daily nutrient requirements of the body at affordable prices (Fig. 1). Massive amounts of food products are wasted due to pest
(Rane, 2011; Steyn et al., 2014). Owing to the diverse nature of street infestation in agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture, and household
foods, different types of raw material are used, and the number of spe- foodstuff (Parameswari et al., 2020). An array of insecticides, fungi-
cific ingredients utilized can vary widely as well as the cooking methods. cides, and rodenticides are being used to overcome this issue (Yang
All these variables can affect the nutritional composition of the food. et al., 2020). Resultantly, these pesticides have improved crop produc-
People from all communities consume vended foods but children and tion and controlled potential pest attacks. In developing countries,
adults spend more than 75% of their pocket money to buy street foods particularly in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, these
because they are cheap and quick source of nutrition as compared to pesticides are used in large amounts without considering safe limits,
processed packaged foods (Tigari & Shalini, 2020). For example, various contaminating the environment and food (Dar et al., 2020).
studies from Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh reported that Though street foods provide undisputed benefits such as feeding low-
many people fulfill their nutritional needs of protein, fats, minerals, and income people, small-scale business opportunities, and source of
vitamins from street foods (Al Mamun et al., 2013; Pappeswari & employment for jobless (Proietti et al., 2014), they are heavily
Rajalakshmi, 2014). Based on the nutritional composition and con- contaminated with high levels of antibiotics, pesticides, and aflatoXins
sumption pattern it is essential to analyze the quality of street-foods for (Table 1). These contaminants are present throughout the street food
consumer safety. It is well known that various vended foods are loaded chain and are often higher than the maximum allowable limits set by
with additional saturated fats, low-quality oil, extra sugar, salt, and Codex Alimentarius (Badraoui et al., 2020a). Numerous natural toXins
synthetic colors. Meanwhile, intake of extra hot spices present in vended are present in raw materials such as nitrate in vegetables and fruits,
nicotine in mushrooms, marine biotoXins, and mycotoXins in spoiled

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 A. Rakha et Food Control 138 (2022)

Fig. 1. Sources of chemical hazards in street vended foods.

Table 1
Chemical hazards and potential risks.
Foods MycotoXins Pesticides Heavy Ranges Health effects References
metals

Animal and plant sources, raw AflatoXins – – 0.024–0.20 mg/ Cancers, kidney failures, Onyeke (2020)
and cooked, processed and
unprocessed food products kg immunosuppression
OchratoXin 0.18–6.02 mg/
kg
Fumonisins 0.70–11.69 mg/
kg
Citrus fruits – Chlorpyrifos – 0.020–0.90 mg/
Skin allergies and breathing issues Li et al. (2020)
kg
Fruits, vegetables, pulses, and – Chlorinated – – Effect on lungs Parameswari et al.
milk products hydrocarbon) (2020)
Corn, millet and rice AflatoXins – – 0.021–2.48 mg/ Digestive problems Onyedum et al. (2020)
kg
Roasted fish, corn, meat, meat – Lead 0.14–2.80 mg/ Cardiovascular, kidney, nervous as well Oyet and Samuel
pie, egg roll and doughnuts kg as bone diseases (2020)
Zinc 0.08–0.27 mg/
kg
Plant origin foods – HCHs – 13.20–148.71 Headache, fatigue, sweating, slow pulse, Meftaul et al. (2020)
mg/kg nausea, diarrhea, central nervous
DDXs 3.02–67.43 mg/
system depression
kg
Scraped cooking ware – – Nickel 59.83–220.2
mg/kg Kidney failure, bone, and liver tissue Okunola and Yetunde
damage (2020)
Meat and vegetable noodles – – Copper 0.004–1.93 mg/ Digestive problems Damastuti et al. (2021)
kg
Mercury 0.01–5.86 mg/ Liver toXicity
kg
Baked fish and chicken – – Copper 49.34–0.44 mg/
Digestive problems (Dordevic et al., 2019;
kg
Duwe & Niedzwiecki,
2018)
Fresh cut vegetables – Acetamiprid – 0.05–0.12 mg/
kg Fatty liver Arienzo et al. (2013)
Bifenthrin 0.02–0.16 mg/
kg
Milk, honey, and fruit juice – Tetradifon – – Liver, thyroid, and metabolic disorders Badraoui et al. (2020b)
Vegetables, fruits, milk, and tea – Organophosphorus – – Headache, skin allergy, and vomiting (Chawla et al., 2018;
pesticides Chen et al., 2015)
Milk and milk products – Melamine – Kindy stones formation (Proietti et al., 2014;
Wu & Zhang, 2013)

nuts (Akande et al., 2010). Indeed, street foods chain is vulnerable to

recycled food deemed unfit for human consumption. Peanuts, an 68% of the Nigerian street vended snacks based on corn, wheat, and
ingredient widely used in Indonesian cuisine are heavily contaminated groundnut reported presence of aflatoXins in concentrations exceeding
with aflatoXins and was found in 17% of the street vended foods (Proietti the maximum limits set by the Codex Alimentarius (Onyeke, 2020). The
et al., 2014). Likewise, 19% of aflatoXins contaminated corn, peanut, use of substandard and cheap cleaning agents, insecticides, and roden-
wheat, and rice, which were detected in Nepal street foods. Similarly, ticides are common practices of street vendors to protect food from flies,
mosquitoes, and pests (Bullerman & Bianchini, 2007; Ma et al., 2019).

3
 A. Rakha et Food Control 138 (2022)

Street vendors often spray fresh-cut fruits and vegetable salad with
different chemical solutions including formalin and water to keep them Sukumaran, 2015). The abundance of street food vendors makes it
fresh. It has already been reported that street foods available at schools difficult for Government organizations in developing countries to sus-
of Indonesia were contaminated with formalin (Proietti et al., 2014). tain effective food safety regulations. Lack of enforcement, education,
Likewise, in the Bangkok weekend food market street vendors used and availability of necessities lead to food adulteration, mislabeling, and
irritant borax and salicylic acid in different food items to keep them food safety issues in street vended foods.
fresh for a longer time (Arienzo et al., 2013).
Poor food handling practices, as well as the use of incompatible 3.4. Microbiological hazards
cookware, utensils, and food containers, can release unwanted chem-
icals such as metals into the meal, posing a chemical danger (Okunola & According to WHO, 600 million people fall sick due to foodborne
Yetunde, 2020). These cooking pots are normally manufactured from disease resulting in 400,000 deaths worldwide. Foodborne diseases are
scraps and industrial machinery waste. A study conducted in Accra caused due to bacterial contamination in food such as Salmonella,
indicated that utensils used for cooking meals were purchased from enteropathogenic, Escherichia coli, Shigella, Campylobacter, and Aeromonas
informal retailers and had high levels of copper, lead, and mercury (WHO, 2022). In developing countries, rate of foodborne illness is high
(Karbouj et al., 2009). Further studies revealed that upon heating such as compared to developed nations. Non-existence of good
utensils release toXic metals such as lead and cadmium into the food manufacturing practices, unhygienic conditions, and lack of awareness
(Oyet & Samuel, 2020). For example, cooking in low-quality pots can about food safety has resulted in many outbreaks (Cunningham et al.,
leads to the accumulation of lead into acidic foods (Saxena et al., 2021; 2011; Saha et al., 2009).
Semwal et al., 2006). Aluminum-based cooking ware may cause serious Street vending plays important roles both economically and socially
health hazards to toddlers and older people including impaired brain in meeting the food demands of the urban population. Street food
activity, stone formation in the kidney, and digestive problems. In contamination with microbes is considered a global problem, which is a
Sudan, aluminum concentrations in street foods were higher than the significant contributor to the transmission of food-borne diseases
WHO recommended levels (Shareef et al., 2017). (Amare et al., 2019). Nowadays in urban societies, ready-made foods
Certain cooking methods e.g., grilling, repeated frying in the same have replaced homemade meals to sustain nutritional value among
oil, or overcooking of protein-based foods result in the production of low-income people (Nguendo Yongsi, 2018). In street foods lacking
acrylamide and heterocyclic aromatic amines (Adekunle & Akinyemi, basic hygienic practices, microbiological standards are affected during
2004; Giri et al., 2021). Additionally, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons production and serving (Fig. 2). School-going children are at higher risk
(PAHs) have dioXin-like characteristics which raise the carcinogenic of foodborne illness as they are regular customers of vended foods. A
threat for human beings. Assessed in Bangkok people were consuming a considerable number of street food vendors are selling various attractive
significant amount of acrylamide from grilled meat products (Street and colorful food items in close proXimity to schools, thereby
et al., 2018). Hussain et al. (2010) conducted a study in Nigeria, in targeting children (Abera et al., 2021; Hanashiro et al., 2005).
which they concluded that 72% of street vendors do not change frying Consumption of cheap and easily available street foods and bever-
oil regularly which leads to the production of carcinogenic compounds ages can give rise to various health issues as they are exposed to a variety
that gives off flavor. of pathogens as summarized in Table 2 (Das et al., 2010). Pathogenic
microbial contaminants such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Campylo-
3.3. Adulterants in street foods bacter, and S. aureus may be present in raw material, food preparation
areas, and on the hands of food handlers (Tassew et al., 2010). Different
An adulterant is a substandard material added into food to deceive studies conducted in Ethiopia, India, and Mexico reported that
the consumer, sell inferior quality food, and gain undue profit. More- contaminated food consumption elevates the chances of foodborne
over, intentional adulteration includes the incorporation of cheap and diseases (Eromo et al., 2016). Foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella
lower quality items, such as the addition of water in milk being used for and Shigella were also present in various street vended foods in
financial benefits (Grundy et al., 2012). Foreign materials, such as stone, Bangladesh (Ejeta et al., 2004; Eromo et al., 2016). Another experi-
glass, metal, rubber, wood, human hair, and clothing materials, are mental study conducted in Hawassa reported outbreaks due to con-
often present in the street vended foods due to inappropriate care. Such sumption of street foods involving bread, salad, and roasted meat
cases are being dealt under general food law. However, there have been (Eromo et al., 2016). Furthermore, tourists from different counties also
cases of deliberate addition of foreign materials to food, usually by complaint about acute diarrhea due to the consumption of ready-to-eat
tampering with food on display. These actions are intended, either for street foods (Sina et al., 2011).
personal gain or as a threat against the manufacturer or trade. Such A wide variety of food items are served in streets such as different
actions are being handled under criminal law to overcome food adul- kinds of breakfast, snacks, lunch, and dinner at low prices with quick
teration issues (Van der Meulen et al., 2015). services (Ruby et al., 2019). A significant proportion of main dishes e.g.,
Street foods and snacks have become a significant source of energy tofu, rice, and wheat-based foods carry a high load of bacterial
for many people in underdeveloped countries as people migrate from contamination because they are not properly handled after cooking. A
rural to urban areas for jobs and other facilities. Low-income pop- common practice observed by street vendors is the packing of foods
ulations often depend almost exclusively on food prepared by street items such as rice, noodles, snacks, and beverages in polythene bags that
vendors. Unfortunately, many vendors sell food of suboptimal quality leads to microbial contamination (Salleh et al., 2017). Previously,
(Gupta et al., 2016; Shukla et al., 2014). For example, a study conducted reduced microbial contamination has been reported when food is
in Bangladesh pointed out that various street food vendors purchased directly served from cooking utensils (Al Mamun et al., 2013). Soups are
adulterated milk, cooking oil, vegetable fat, and spices due to less price usually prepared from chicken and beef stock a day before consumption,
and affordability. Puffed rice has been adulterated with urea fertilizer to inappropriate storage and reheating leads to higher load of bacterial
make it whiter and larger (Ali, 2013). Another research conducted in pathogen (Mirzaei et al., 2018). Meanwhile, sauces such as mustard and
Taiwan outlined that to overcome losses during food production, it is red pepper are prepared from vegetables and are served raw. Since no
difficult for vendors to purchase new packed ingredients, so they adul- further processing is done before serving them with other food, they are
terate cooking oil with reused oil, processed soymilk with yellow dye, more susceptible to microbial growth. Prepared sauces are kept at room
and starch products with maleic anhydride (Peng et al., 2017). The milk temperature for several hours, resulting in a high E. coli load. In previous
used in various vended drinks was adulterated with urea, detergent, and studies, it was found that fresh vegetable salads and macaroni con-
formalin. Powder milk for tea was adulterated with sucrose (Hemanth & sumption transmitted diarrhea-causing pathogens like Shigella and
E. coli in children and older people (Yafetto et al., 2019). Slippery and

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 A. Rakha et Food Control 138 (2022)

Fig. 2. Sources of microbial hazards in street vended foods.

Table 2
Microbiological risk of street vended foods.
Preparation Food items Bacterial strains Contamination sources References
location
Roadside Chickpea salad Coliform Water, utensils (Al Mamun et al., 2013)
Car parking area Pickle Coliform Spoon, hands, old pieces of paper Faruque et al. (2010)
Roadside Sweet drinks E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella Insects, dust, water (Al Mamun et al., 2013)
Street corner Vegetable salad Salmonella and Shigella Water, spoons, and spices Chauhan et al. (2015)
Street hawkers Panipuri Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas Water, utensils, and unwashed Das et al. (2010)
spp. and Streptococcus faecalis hands
Roadside shops Roasted fish E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas species, S. Used old newspapers, insects, and Eromo et al. (2016)
aureus dust
Bus station Pizza Proteus spp., Cotrobacter spp. and coliform Contaminated hands and utensils Eromo et al. (2016)
Roadside shops Minced meat and sausages Salmonella, S. anatum, S. infantis and S. dublin Cutting board and knives (Ejeta et al., 2004; Giri et al.,
2021)
Leisure parks Chicken and beef kabab Enterobacteriaceae, E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, S. Inadequate clean utensils Shiningeni et al. (2019)
aureus, and Shigella
Construction sites Grilled ready to meat Salmonella and E. coli Uncleaned surfaces, water, and Niyonzima et al. (2015)
hands
School parking Cold sand witches and Fecal coliforms, S. aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Dirty aprons, uncleaned cutting (Camellini et al., 2021;
hamburgers and Bacillus cereus boards Hanashiro et al., 2005)
Subway station Hot sandwiches, shawarma, S. aureus and Bacillus cereus Improperly washed vegetables, (Camellini et al., 2021; Raza
and hot dogs spices, and utensils et al., 2021)
Open markets Chicken samosa, potato E. coli, Enterobacter sakazaki, and Citrobacter Poor handling practices Yafetto et al. (2019)
fries, freundii
and egg chop
Street pavements Mashed sweets and rice Total coliforms and Shigella Used old newspapers, spoons, and Das et al. (2013)
cookies hands
Near schools and Fresh fruit juices Total plate counts and E. coli Water, bruised fruits, and storage Simforian et al. (2015)
colleges containers
Roadsides Sweet drinks Total coliforms Water, ice, and glass Abrahale et al. (2019)
Open markets Smoked fish Listeria spp., Staphylococcus spp., and Shigella Poor refrigeration and improper El-Shenawy et al. (2011)
storage
School site Sandwiches Bacillus cereus, S. aureus and Salmonella Cross-contamination and (Cossu et al., 2016; Jang et al.,
improper cooking 2013)
Food truck vendors Pasta and pizza Coliforms Lack of hygienic condition and Auad et al. (2018)
dirty water

gel-based foods are often served with bare hands owing to the
difficulty in handling such foods with spoon or fork. In Manila, street water is also used by street vendors to prepare a wide variety of hot and
vending is famous for seafood and rice noodles with vegetables, but it cold beverages, thus transmitting microbial toXins such as Endotoxins,
was associ- ated with cholera due to unsafe food handling practices Shiga toxins, pyrogens into ready to serve beverages (Whang et al., 2018).
(Mat Zin et al., 2017). The contaminated drinks may transfer enteric pathogens to consumers
In developing counties, many communities are still lacking the upon consumption (Kregiel, 2015). Different types of fresh fruit juices
availability of safe water. Unsafe potable water is an alarming issue since are being sold by street vendors who are ignorant about water safety,
it transmits various diseases. Lack of a basic purification in water supply lack personal hygiene, and are unaware of appropriately preserving food
system leads to contaminated water delivery for cooking and drinking items. Irrational use of color additives in fruits leads to various health
purposes (Noor, 2019). Such contaminated and microbiologically unsafe issues in human beings (Bosch et al., 2008; Sanda & Dibal, 2014). In
Bangladesh, it was reported that improper sanitary conditions during

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 A. Rakha et Food Control 138 (2022)

processing and storage of fresh vegetables leads to bacterial contami-

nation such as [Link], Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Bacillus 2010).
spp., (Noor et al., 2015). Higher level of contaminants were also
detected in street vended salads prepared by using vegetables grown in 5. Consumer and food vendors behavior
contaminated water (Cl´ement et al., 2019).
Globally, the threat of foodborne illness and food poisoning arises
4. Poor food handling practices of street vendors from contaminated foods which affect millions of people (Luo et al.,
2019; Stratev et al., 2017). In both developed and under-developed
The high prevalence of foodborne diseases in developing countries is countries, people do not have basic awareness about food safety. The
attributed to poor hygiene and lack of recommended food handling developing countries are badly affected by food infections due to
practices (Rabori et al., 2020). Food poisoning outbreaks in Wales and compromised living standards, vulnerable personal hygienic conditions,
England have significantly affected lower-income group due to the high and insufficient health facilities (Odeyemi & Bamidele, 2016). Since
consumption of street foods (Fung et al., 2018). These foods were either consumers have the final interaction with food products in the food
half cooked, stored without a refrigerator, inadequately cooled, or supply chain, proper knowledge and food safety practices play an
reheated multiple times. The temperature employed during cooking and important role in controlling food-borne illnesses outbreaks (Ovca et al.,
frying of street foods is high enough to destroy vegetative cells, but spore 2018). Numerous studies conducted in different regions of the world
forming microorganisms can survive in such conditions. However, the regarding food safety awareness, attitude, and hygienic practices have
ways and manners in which street foods are being prepared, handled, reported that more than 35% of foodborne illnesses arise from home. In
and vended predispose them to recontamination, cross-contamination, developing countries, a low level of food safety awareness is a chal-
and transmission of pathogens or food borne illnesses (Thaivalappil lenging issue. For instance, a lack of monitoring and the absence of food
et al., 2018). In addition, it is observed that street foods are prepared safety knowledge has been observed in Pakistan (Akhtar, 2015). Ac-
several hours before consumption. They are placed on carts without cording to Saad et al. (2018), people frequently ignore the reported
appropriate temperature control, leading to microbial contamination. In outbreaks because it is only a fraction of the population who get sick.
streets of Africa, raw meat cuts are placed openly since vendors do not The provision of food safety knowledge and trainings on food handling
have adequate washing and storage facilities, that leads to the accu- practices are not the focus of Government agencies or regulatory bodies.
mulation of airborne microbial contamination (Auad et al., 2018). In Yaounde, Cameroon, food adulteration, poor enforcement of food
Assessed in a microbial study that processed meat was contaminated safety regulations, and lack of safe hygienic practices were the leading
through the dirty hands of vendors, filthy utensils, and poor vending causes of food-borne illnesses (Nguendo Yongsi, 2018). This results in a
environment (Lues et al., 2006; Shiningeni et al., 2019). high number of disease outbreaks in developing countries as compared
Other inappropriate handling practices of street vendors include the to developed nations. In Malaysia for example, more than 50% of
use of a charcoal stove for keeping cooked food items hot for a longer foodborne illness cases reported are due to improper personal hygiene
time which is not enough to control the proliferation of to Xic microbes. It and malpractices in food handling (Soon et al., 2020). EXamples of high-
is believed that continuous reheating of cooked meals below 40 ◦C may risk foods include inadequately cooked meat, beef or chicken, fruits and
enhance Salmonella contamination (Mosupye & Von Holy, 2000; Pakbin vegetables contaminated with soil or toXins. In many experimental
et al., 2021). Meanwhile, reheating, and high heating temperature at the studies, it has been observed that the incidences of salmonella infection
same time can result in a loss of flavor and essential nutrients of vended were increased when vegetables were not washed properly during meal
food items. In some cases, it has been noticed that street vended foods preparation. Government interventions are often required to counteract
are held at ground level without proper covering, linking it to diarrhea such disease outbreaks (Sneyd, 2014). Moreover, customers should be
and cholera via contamination through dust, flies, and mosquitoes advised not to consume undercooked foods of animal origin and
(Palupi et al., 2020). Tessema et al. (2014) have observed that cross- contaminated vegetables (Cardinale et al., 2005; Olobatoke et al., 2015;
contamination in street vended foods also occur while cutting or Oyedele et al., 2020). A positive correlation between education level,
chopping fruits, vegetables, and meat products on the same cutting awareness of hygienic practices, and food safety is well established.
board. Moreover, raw chicken and gravy salad sold in South Africa are Educated consumers pay more attention to food safety practices such as
occasionally chopped with the same knife and on the same surface washing hands before and after a meal and avoiding stale foods offered
without cleaning or changing the cutting board (Chopra & Seth, 2021; by some street vendors (Akabanda et al., 2017b; Carbas et al., 2013).
Mosupye & Von Holy, 2000). Furthermore, the vendors prepare meals Besides local customers, tourists are also attracted to street vended
without gloves and often exchange knives with each other, thereby foods since they explore traditional dishes and drinks. As compared to
increasing the incidence of cross-contamination (Birgen et al., 2020; expensive hotels and restaurants, street foods are available at affordable
Omemu & Aderoju, 2008). prices with diverse and variable choices. Nevertheless, tourists also
Limited resources and low socio-economic status of street vendors suffer from food poisoning due to the consumption of contaminated food
generate these food safety issues. The majority of street vendors often and beverages.
use non-disposable utensils and cutleries for serving food items. Apart, In developing countries, street vending has become a lucrative
they often wash plates and cups with the detergent solution and rinse business due to high profit with limited compliance to food safety and
them in stored cold water, while in some cases they clean utensils with hygiene (McKay et al., 2016). Small financial investment and easy
towels (Akabanda et al., 2017a). While some vendors may change the availability of jobs have engaged many unskilled and uneducated people
washing or rinsing liquids few times, others use the same for the whole in the street food vending business (Biswas et al., 2010). Simultaneously,
day. These practices observed by the vendors create a favorable envi- food handlers play significant role in food safety and transmission of
ronment for contamination of street vended foods. The use of the same disease, since they can transmit pathogens into food during preparation,
set of cutleries (not properly cleaned after each use) leads to cross- distribution, and serving (Lalit et al., 2015; Omemu & Aderoju, 2008). It
contamination and transmission of infectious diseases among un- has been observed that the level of food safety standards and hygiene
suspecting consumers. A comparative study on the risks involved in the practices of food handlers is lower than the recommended standards
use of hands and cutleries to serve street foods in Ghana indicated that (Ababio & Lovatt, 2015; Ansari-Lari et al., 2010). Improper food
bare hands during food preparation enhance the food contamination handling practices such as insanitary conditions, inappropriate food
incidence (Kwol et al., 2020). In the street vending business, serving storage, unhygienic environment, insufficient facilities of washing,
food items without gloves is crucial in the spread of Salmonella typhi that and lack of food safety knowledge in street vendors play an important
can survive on human hands for more than 3 h (Sharif & Al-Malki, role in contamination of food and foodborne illnesses (Oranusi et al.,
2007; Rajaseharan, 2021; Sani & Siow, 2014).

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 A. Rakha et Food Control 138 (2022)

Many food handlers are unaware of the risks of undercooked foods

and prolonged improper storage at room temperature. Furthermore, food safety regulations, street vendors must be instructed to clean the
they do not read the label or check the quality of raw material due to surroundings and all their equipment. Municipal authorities should also
illiteracy and lack of basic food handling knowledge (Bavorova et al., inspect food handling and disposal practices to prohibit vendors from
2017). In street vending food business, errors made by food vendors spreading diseases and ensure food safety laws (Malasan, 2019).
have resulted in significant number of outbreaks. Chances of cross-
contamination are high as infected personnel are engaged in food 6.3. Permits and fees
preparation and service operation (Mullan et al., 2013; Todd et al.,
2007). A survey conducted by Pichler et al. (2014) had also outlined the Street vendors are involved in the self-employed business on the
lack of knowledge in food handlers regarding appropriate cooking temporary static structure or a mobile cart. To run this small-scale food
temperature, holding time, and storage conditions. The provision of business, a street vendor needs a license or certificate. These permits are
basic education among food handlers has a positive impact in control- provided and inspected by the health department of Government with
ling foodborne illness. In another study, it was reported that lack of food some fee (Setiaji et al., 2019).
safety training and knowledge gaps among food vendors contribute to
many outbreaks (Meysenburg et al., 2014).
Contrarily, the street vendors who attend food safety training had 6.4. Location
improved food handling practices, storage, and service (Al-Shabib et al.,
2016). Other scientists have also reported significant improvement in Street vendors are often deemed as illegal operators owing to lack of
the quality of food served by the street vendors who received food safety specific rule or policy regarding their legal status. Street vendors are
training as compared to those who did not attend any food handling frequently fined or exploited by Local Government officers due to
training (Webb & Morancie, 2015). In India, a remarkable difference non- compliance of food safety regulations, lack of allocated vending
was observed in food safety practices after food safety and hygiene zones, and littering of public places (Isaac & Sanusi, 2020). Some
training sessions to selected food vendors (Choudhury et al., 2011). countries or states have restrictive food safety laws for street vendors.
Furthermore, it was observed that many street vendors were unable to For example, in Malaysia, Philadelphia, and Pennsylvania, street
attend the trainings due to lack of awareness and inadequate informa- vendors are restricted to conduct business in specified areas. Other
tion. Some vendors had attended training a long time ago and had areas for vending are near parks, schools, offices at specific hours,
forgotten the knowledge received (Smigic et al., 2016). To increase the whereas in developed countries vendors are not allowed to settle near
food safety knowledge among consumers and food handlers, the use of the schools as it disturbs normal traffic flow and endangers pedestrians
radio, television, newspaper, and social media need to be effectively (Linares, 2018). In some areas, street and mobile vendors are bound to
explored. Despite food safety training, food vendors’ characteristics, have a permission letter from nearby buildings. In addition, vendors are
such as educational level, age, financial conditions, and work experi- required to maintain the hygienic environment in their vicinity.
ence, may affect the quality of knowledge received (Martins et al., Conclusively, the Government should facilitate vendors for easy
2012). provision of certificates, conduct programs for basic food handling
practices, food safety awareness, educate them for rights and rules,
6. Role of regulatory bodies in the safety of street vended food and allocate proper sites for food vendors (Palupi et al., 2020).

6.1. Mobile vending regulations 6.5. Challenges and recommendations

Various regulations regarding permits, fees, vending location, hy- In developing countries regulations and policies for street vended
giene practices, as well as traffic safety are being implemented in street foods are poorly implemented while they are non-existent in
vending business. A street vendor must pay some fee to get a license or underde- veloped countries. Everyday street vendors face numerous
permit to start a food business. Street foods are typically modulated by challenges such as lack of access to safe water, proper vending zone,
the local Government with rules and regulations found in municipal electricity, storage places, as well as harassment by local officers,
codes (Hanser, 2020). Vendors with basic food safety certification have leading to un- stable business (Manickavasagam, 2018). To overcome
better food handling practices as compared to those who are unable to these issues policymakers and Government should define easy-to-
attain food safety certificates. Furthermore, municipal codes can follow rules for street vendors. New policies should be drafted for the
authorize city agencies to regulate mobile vending with a limited provision of appropriate infrastructure and easy-to-access permits for
context, ranging from restrictive to permissive, which would be facili- running a business. Additionally, personal hygiene, safe food handling
tated by documenting mobile food vendors (Burt et al., 2003). practices, awareness about food preservation, and food storage need to
be focused to ensure provision of healthy food (Chekol et al., 2019;
6.2. Health and safety regulations Gizaw, 2019). The implementation of effective policies has a
significant impact in reducing street food consumption hazards.
In street foods, bacterial contamination is often associated with poor Improvement in the street food vending business can be done through
food handling, storage, and serving practices as well as poor personal the pro-active participation of local Government authorities, street
hygiene (Rodríguez et al., 2011). These problems can be averted by vendors, civil society, and con- sumers. Focus need to be on safe food
following the good manufacturing practices supervised by the Govern- handling practices and self-hygiene among street vendors along with
ment and public health authorities to avoid cross-contamination. To Xins dissemination of infor- mation through programs and mass media
can be prevented by cooking food at high enough temperatures. (Yahaya et al., 2018). It must be ensured that food safety and
Maximum advantage from these strategies can only be attained if street sanitation practices are being strictly
vendors have food safety awareness (Alimi, 2016). followed. Since street vended foods entertain a variety of customers with
Local Government organizations are responsible for regulating the a wide menu, stricter implementation of the food sanitation code,
health and safety of vended foods to ensure consumer health and pre- licensing, and health screening of vendors must be ensured (Al-Kandari
vent disease outbreaks. Food safety laws designed by municipal au- et al., 2019). Food experts and health professionals must be engaged to
thorities should focus on preventing foodborne illness, cross- develop new policies aiming for the implementation of Hazard Analysis
contamination, and promoting good hygiene practices throughout the Critical Control Programs, Good Manufacturing Practices, and Good
processing chain (Alamo-Tonelada et al., 2018). To promote uniform Handling Practices throughout the street food chain. This involves the
provision of a common platform to street vendors for meeting and ex-

7
 A. Rakha et Food Control 138 (2022)
change of food safety information (Bedrnî ek, 2020).

8
 A. Rakha et Food Control 138 (2022)

7. Conclusion and future recommendations unemployment. Sustainable Cities and Society, 62, Article 102316.

From this review, it is concluded, effective coordination of Govern-

ment with clearly defined responsibilities must be ensured to control,
monitor, and evaluate food vendors. In addition, the education level of
street food vendors plays a crucial role in the transmission of foodborne
illness. Therefore, engaging food handlers with good attitude, work
experience, and education will improve the safety and quality standards
of street vended foods. Poor food safety knowledge, lack of basic facil-
ities, fear of harassment, and instability in business may lead to serious
consequences. Several risk factors are associated with the consumption
of vended foods including microbial hazards, chemical contamination,
environmental toXins, and the threat of food adulteration. Government
and NGOs should facilitate the whole street vendor food chain with
effective, safe, and easy-to-follow food practices. Furthermore, food
safety trainers must convey vital notions of safe food handling practices
in favorable social manner. Relationship of credibility and trust between
Government, NGOs and street vendors will secure a positive change in
food hygiene behavior. Street vendors must follow the essential food
safety handling practices such as avoiding cross-contamination,
replacing damaged equipment, maintaining proper storage, and appro-
priate waste disposal. Meanwhile, management must use training aids e.
g., posters and flash cards to educate vendors and aware consumers for
selecting safe foods to reduce disease outbreaks. If regulated appropri-
ately, street vending business has tremendous potential to cater large
segment of population through provision of quality food and employ-
ment opportunities.

Declaration of competing interest

None.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to the Higher Education Commission,

Pakistan for provision of funds to carry out the work.

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