Unit-I: Basic concept and History of Forensic Science

Definitions

Forensic science is the combination of scientific methods and techniques intended for justice in criminal
as well as civil cases.
or
Forensic science is the application of scientific methods to those criminal and civil laws that are
enforced by investigative agencies in criminal justice system.
or
Forensic science is a term used to describe the actions taken by investigators in multidisciplinary fields
for the examination of crime scenes and gathering of evidence to be used in prosecution of offenders in
a court of law.
or
The term ‘Forensic’ is derived from the Latin word ‘forensis’ which means public debate and discussion
place or market place as justice in the older times was given at market place before a gathering.
or
It is not a real science rather it has been borrowed from basic sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Biology,
Medicine and Mathematics. With technological advancement and need of Forensic science it has
developed its own field and its own branches like Questioned Document, Ballistics, Fingerprints and
Anthropometry. Although basic science techniques are applied in these fields but their domain is
Forensic centered i.e. for the purpose of investigation.

History and Development of Forensic Science at Global level

The word “forensic” derives from the Latin word “forum” meaning public. It has taken on a meaning
associated with courts of law, which are public. Thus, in our culture “forensic” really means
“pertaining to the judiciary”. Thus, forensic science is the application of the areas of science (and
particularly natural science) to both criminal and civil law.

Page 1 of 56
The use of science in enforcing tortures is relatively antique. In ancient Babylon, fingerprints in clay
tablets were used as a way of signing contracts, In 8th century China, thumbprints and fingerprints were
employed similarly. At least as early as the 14th century, a Persian doctor observed that no two
fingerprints on contracts seemed to be the same.

Forensic Science as it applies to criminal and civil law was by-and-large born in the 19th century,
following the development of chemistry as a distinct science in the mid-to-late 18th century. One of the
most famous early applications involved arsenic poisoning. Arsenic (III) oxide was first produced
commercially in the 8th century as a result of refining ore in iron and lead mining. It became the poison
of choice for many over the succeeding centuries.

In 1836 all this changed. In that year, English chemist James Marsh developed a test for the presence
of arsenic in tissues. The oxide is changed into arsenious acid, by stomach acids, and the acid is
absorbed into the tissues. Subsequent treatment of the tissues with Zn liberates arsine gas. The gas is
allowed to pass near a glass disk (or petri dish), where application of a flame causes the arsine to
decompose into its elements. The metallic As is deposited as a gray-black film on the glass.

Now, Matthieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila (1787-1853) was a Spaniard by birth, but moved to
France in 1807. Eventually, he became Dean of the Paris medical faculty. He became the father of
toxicology and was probably the first expert to provide convincing scientific evidence in a criminal
trial. Dr. Orfila was summoned by the court. He applied the Marsh test correctly and found arsenic in
Lafarge’s body. He also testified that both his lab-ware and the cemetery earth were arsenic-free. This
case stirred up so much controversy in France that the entire country was divided into pro-Marie and
anti-Marie factions. The case ended up in Marie being delivered the sentence of life imprisonment. She
served 10 years and was released by Napoleon III in 1850. She died the following year still declaring
her innocence.

In 1842, Edgar Allan Poe published The Murders in the Rue Morgue, the first fictional detective
story. In a way, the whole of the 19th century is an interesting interplay between the development of
genuine Forensic Science and the development of the fictional detective.

Page 2 of 56
The 19th century saw great strides in developing evidence that would uniquely identify Bertillonage
(or individualize) a criminal. The first such system was known as anthropometry.
Bertillonage was the brainchild of Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914), who started with the Paris police
department in 1879 as a clerk. He had absorbed some scientific knowledge from his father, an
anthropologist who had labored to prove that each human being had unique variations in physical
characteristics. Young Bertillon quickly saw that his father’s academic obsession might have practical
value in police work, where detectives had trouble seeing past the disguises and aliases affected by
criminals.

In 1903 a newly convicted prisoner named Will West arrived at Leavenworth Prison and was escorted
by guards to the office. There they measured his height and the expanse of his arms and wrapped a pair
of steel calipers around his head. After that they noted the length of his right ear, left foot, left forearm
and selected fingers. They examined the size and shape of his nose, measured the tilt of his forehead
and examined his skin for scars and blemishes. All were dutifully recorded on an index card,
establishing Will West’s identity under the Bertillon system.

The English first began using fingerprints in July of 1858, when Sir William Herschel (1792 - 1871),
Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly district in Jungipoor, India, first used fingerprints on native contracts.

During the 1870’s, Dr. Henry Faulds, the British Surgeon-Superintendent of Tsukiji Hospital in
Tokyo, Japan, took up the study of “skin-furrows” after noticing finger marks on specimens of
“prehistoric” pottery. A learned and industrious man, Dr. Faulds not only recognized the importance of
fingerprints as a means of individualization, but devised a method of classification as well.

In 1880, Faulds forwarded an explanation of his classification system and a sample of the forms he had
designed for recording inked impressions, to Sir Charles Darwin. Darwin, in advanced age and ill
health, informed Dr. Faulds that he could be of no assistance to him, but promised to pass the materials
on to his cousin, Francis Galton. Also in 1880, Dr. Faulds published an article in the Scientific Journal
Nature. He discussed fingerprints as a means of personal identification and the use of printers ink as a
method for obtaining such fingerprints. He was the first to explicitly recognize the value of latent prints
left at crime scenes.

Page 3 of 56
Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911) – a British anthropologist, a cousin of Charles Darwin and the lucky
recipient of the information forwarded to Darwin by Henry Faulds– began his observations of
fingerprints as a means of identification in the 1880’s. In 1892, he published his book, Fingerprints,
establishing the individuality and permanence of fingerprints. The book included the first broadly
accepted classification system for fingerprints.

Today, of course, the once-famous Bertillon is virtually forgotten and fingerprinting– despite the recent
advent of DNA testing and other innovations– is still the most widely recognized method of
individualization. It’s now estimated that the odds are 67 billion to one against any two different persons
producing an identical print and judges and juries throughout the world accept that two identical prints
must come from the same person.

In 1888, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published A Study in Scarlet, the first novel in which appeared the
famous fictional criminalist, Sherlock Holmes. Throughout the ensuing three novels and numerous
short stories, Holmes became well-known for both his deductive prowess and his observational abilities.
He was a master at what would today be called trace evidence analysis and crime reconstruction. Well
before real-life criminalists recognized and accepted several newly-emerging techniques, Holmes had
already solved cases by employing serology, fingerprints, firearm identification, etc. The public went
wild over the Holmes stories and there is no other character which holds such a prominent place in
fictional forensics.

Dr. Edmond Locard (1877 - 1966) was perhaps the most famous of the students taught by Bertillon.
Locard’s work formed the basis for what is widely regarded as a cornerstone of the forensic sciences,
the Locard Exchange Principle.

In 1910, Locard persuaded police in Lyons, France, to give him two attic rooms and two assistants; he
started the first forensics lab. Enthusiasm and research overcame shortages of money and materials and
Locard became internationally famous, eventually becoming the founder of the Institute of
Criminalistics at the University of Lyons. Dr. Locard, like Bertillon before him, advocated the
application of scientific methods and logic to criminal investigation and identification.

Page 4 of 56
History and development of Forensic Science in India
India is not a newcomer to the use of science and technology in the detection, investigation, and
administration of justice. Even though forensic science did not exist in its current form when our
ancestors lived, they appear to have used scientific procedures in some capacity while investigating
crimes. Kautilya's "Arthashastra," which was written around 2300 years ago, contains a thorough
reference to it. Thousands of years ago, Indians examined numerous papillary line patterns. It is
assumed that they were aware of the durability and uniqueness of fingerprints when they employed
them as signatures. The handprints, known as Tarija, were long recognised by the Indians as being
unique. Before it was experimentally shown that fingerprint recognition was unfailing, some people
thought the usage of fingerprints as signatures by illiterate people in India millennia ago was only used
ceremonially.

Chemical Examiner’s Laboratories

During the nineteenth century, when the cases of death due to poisoning posed a problem to the law
enforcement agencies, a need was felt for isolating, detecting and estimating various poisons absorbed
in the human system. The first Chemical Examiner’s Laboratory was, therefore, set up for this purpose
at the then Madras Presidency, under the Department of Health, during 1849. Later, similar laboratories
were set up at Calcutta (1853), followed by one each at Agra (1864) and Bombay (1870). These
laboratories were equipped to handle toxicological analysis of viscera, biological analysis of stains of
blood, semen, etc. and chemical analysis of food, drugs, and various excisable materials to provide
scientific support to the criminal justice delivery system within their limited means. These laboratories
also provided analytical facilities to the neighbouring States and Union Territories.
Anthropometric Bureau
While some progress was made in the identification of poisons, the identification of people, specifically
criminals, was still being done in a rather haphazard manner. Policemen would try to memorize
convict’s face so that they could recognize him if he got involved in another crime later. With the
introduction of Photography, the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) maintained records of every
known criminal including a detailed description of his appearance. With the invention of Bertillon’s
anthropometric system in 1878, India, along with the other countries of the world, adapted Bertillon’s
system of personnel identification and thus an Anthropometric Bureau, for maintaining anthropometric
records of criminals, was established in 1892 at Calcutta.

Page 5 of 56
Finger Print Bureau
William Herschel, the Collector of the District of Hooghly (Bengal) found that markings on the
fingertips of a person never changed during his lifetime. Herschel applied his knowledge and skill in
devising a system of registration of finger or thumb impressions of native contractors to safeguard the
interests of the Government against the repudiation of contracts by them. Thereafter, he extended his
registration procedure to prison regulations for identifying convicted criminals. In 1877, Herschel
sought the consent of his superior officers in putting his ideas into practice, but did not succeed. In
1891, Edward Richard Henry’s appointment, the Inspector General of Police in Bengal, introduced the
thumb impressions in the record slips, containing anthropometric data, to avoid wrong identification.
Long before 1897, he introduced maintenance of duplicate criminal records with impressions of 10
fingers separately.
Henry employed few selected Indian police officers, viz. Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq and Rai Bahadur
Hem Chandra Bose to work under his general supervision till the classification was evolved, which
remains the basic system even to-day. It was Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq who evolved a mathematical
formula to supplement Henry’s idea of sorting slips in 1024 pigeon holes, based on fingerprint patterns.
Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose made further contribution to the fingerprint science by evolving an
extended systern of sub-classification, a telegraphic code for finger impression and a system of single-
digit classification. Henry approached the Government to seek approval for replacing the
anthropometric data by fingerprints for the identification of habitual criminals. Government readily
agreed, and the first fingerprint bureau in the world was officially declared open at Calcutta in July
1897, although the collection of record slips had started a few years earlier. Thus, the personnel
identification solely on the basis of fingerprints commenced in India.

Department of Explosives
When the use of explosives for subversive activities became common, it was found necessary to detect
the causes of explosion, either accidental or intentional. The foundation of the Department of
Explosives was laid when the first chief inspector of explosives was appointed in the year 1898, with
his headquarters at Nagpur. Later, five regional offices at Calcutta, Bombay, Agra, Madras and Gwalior,
and three sub-offices at Shivkashi. Gomia and Asallsol were opened. They developed competence to
provide scientific clues in respect of explosives as well as the possible causes of explosions. Their
expertise came handy in police investigations in the crimes related to explosions and for evolving
various provisions under the Explosives & Petroleum Act.

Page 6 of 56
Government Examiner of Questioned Document (GEQD), Shimla
The British Government of Bengal felt the necessity of identifying the handwritings on the secret
documents connected with the Indian independence movement and, therefore, created the post of
Government Handwriting Expert of Bengal. Mr. CR Hardless, the then Superintendent in the A.G.’s
office in Bengal, was appointed to this post in 1904. This set-up was shifted to Shimla in the year 1906
and was placed under the control of the Director, CID. A post of Handwriting Expert for the
Government of India was created and Mr. CR Hardless was appointed to this post. He was replaced by
Mr. F Brewester, a police officer from the West Bengal CID, and was designated as the Government
Examiner of Questioned Documents (GEQD). At first, the work of this office was mainly confined to
the identification of writings on secret documents. Later, as the application of this branch of science
was felt in many other cases, the services of this office were thrown open to criminal as well as civil
court cases. During the World War II, this organization took up the additional work of secret censorship,
including the detection of invisible writings and training of military personnel in this field of science.

Serologist to the Government of India

When the science of examining human blood developed in India, it became possible to examine blood
and seminal stains in criminal investigations. Realising the importance of Forensic Serology, an
institute named as Serology Department’ was established in Calcutta in 1910. The head of this institute
was designated as Imperial Serologist to the Government of India. Dr. Hankin helped in establishing
this department. Though the scientific techniques for serological examination were at the infancy stage,
this institute provided valuable scientific support by analyzing biological materials for crime
investigations. After independence, the department was renamed as ‘Office of the Serologist and
Chemical Examiner to the Government of India’.

Footprint section of Criminal Investigation Department

During the year 1915, a Footprint Section was established under the CID, Government of Bengal, which
helped the police authorities to identify criminals through the examination of footprints collected from
the scene of crime. SM Edwardes recorded the following instance in his book ‘Bombay City Police’
showing the use of the footmarks in police work. ‘On several occasions, Indian constables distinguished
themselves by acts of bravery and examples of professional acumen. The detection of a burglary in the
showroom of an English firm was entirely due to the action of a Hindu constable, who noticed on a

Page 7 of 56
piece of furniture the marks of a foot possessing certain peculiarities, which he remembered having
seen before in the foot of an ex-convict.’

Note Forgery section in Criminal Investigation Department

During 1917, a Note Forgery Section was set up under the CID, Government of Bengal, to undertake
the examination of forged currency notes. The Revenue Department also started its own laboratory for
identification of opium and narcotics, liquor analysis and estimation of purity levels of precious metals
like gold, silver, etc. Similarly, Government Mint and Security Printing Departments at Nasik also
established their own laboratories for detecting cases of counterfeit and forged currency notes.

Ballistics Laboratory
In 1930, an Arms Expert was appointed and a small ballistic laboratory was set up under the Calcutta
Police to deal with the examination of firearms. As the menace of firearms grew, other State CIDs also
established small ballistics laboratories to help them in the criminal investigation.

Scientific sections in the Criminal Investigation Department

During 1936, a Scientific Section was set up under the CID in Bengal and facilities were created for
examination of bullets, cartridge cases, firearms, etc., used in committing crime. Few other states also
started scientific sections in their CID, where investigations on fingerprints, footprints, firearms and
questioned documents were also carried out. Gradually, more and more branches of science were
embraced and the laboratories gained maturity over the years.

State Forensic Science Laboratory, Calcutta

The first state forensic science laboratory in India was established in the year 1952 at Calcutta. This
laboratory became fully operational in the year 1953. The Medico-legal Section of the Chemical
Examiner’s Laboratory was also transferred to this laboratory. During the year 1955, a small unit of
Physics was established in the West Bengal State Forensic Science Laboratory to deal with various
physical examinations of exhibits encountered in crime investigation. During the year 1957, the Physics
unit developed into a full-fledged Physics Section. In the same year, the Footprint and the Note Forgery
Sections of Criminal Investigation Department were transferred to this laboratory and in the following
year General Chemistry Section of the Chemical Examiner’s Laboratory was also transferred to this

Page 8 of 56
laboratory. Thus, the first multidisciplinary forensic science laboratory came into existence in the
country.

Central Finger Print Bureau

On the recommendations of the Royal Police Commission of 1902-03, the first Central Finger Print
Bureau (CFPB) in India was established in 1905 at Shimla. It, however, suffered a setback and was
abolished in 1922 as a result of retrenchment proposals of the Inchape Committee. The CFPB restarted
functioning from 1955 in Delhi under the administrative control of Intelligence Bureau (IB). The major
role envisaged for CFPB was to coordinate the activities of State FPBx in tracing/locating inter-state
criminals. During August 1956, the CFPB was shifted to Calcutta and remained under the
administrative control of IB. During September 1973, it was transferred to the Central Bureau of
Investigation and during July 1986, the administrative control of the CFPB was transferred to the
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) and was again shifted to New Delhi.

Central Detective Training School (CDTS) at calcutta

CDTS, Calcutta, a premier detective training school in India, was established during 1956 and was
colocated (in the same premises) with the CFPB, Calcutta. The aim of establishing such a school was
to impart training in scientific investigation of crimes like drug abuse, terrorism, explosion, crime
against women, investigation of road accidents and enforcement of traffic laws, etc.

Central Forensic Science Laboratories

The first Central Forensic Science Laboratory was established at Calcutta during 1957. To begin with,
this laboratory was organised into four basic disciplines viz. Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry,
Forensic Biology and Forensic Ballistics. For application of nuclear methods of analysis to criminal
investigation, the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit of CFSL, Calcutta was set up in 1970 at the Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre, Trombay. During the year 1965, the second central forensic science laboratory
was established at Hyderabad, The CFSL, Hyderabad initially established analytical facilities in the
disciplines of Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry and Forensic Biology. The Central Forensic
Science Laboratory, Chandigarh, was established, in the year 1933 at Lahore was shifted to Chandigarh
during 1961. Over the years many full-fledged forensic science laboratories were established in various
states.

Page 9 of 56
Central Forensic Institute, Calcutta
With the establishment of CDTS and CFSL, (later on GEQD also) in the same premises, under the
control of Intelligence Bureau, the whole set up was named as the Central Forensic Institute (CFI),
Calcutta. A post of Commandant was created during 1958 to look after the overall functioning of all
these establishments, which had different roles but with the common larger goal of providing
appropriate scientific inputs to the criminal investigation process and administration of criminal justice
in the country.

CDTS at Hyderabad & Chandigarh

The Central Detective Training School, Hyderabad was established in 1964, on the pattern of the CDTS,
Calcutta, followed by another one at Chandigarh, during 1973. Their main objective was to train the
operational police personnel in modern scientific techniques of crime investigation, with a view to
improve their professional standard and efficiency.

The role of central advisory committees

The Union Government, during 1959, appointed two committees for the purpose of giving a lead to all
the States in establishing new forensic science laboratories and improving the existing ones, and for
improving the study and application of Forensic Medicine. These committees were (i) Central Forensic
Science Advisory Committee and (ii) Central Medico-legal Advisory Committee. The Central Medico-
legal Advisory Committee was to advise the Central and the State Governments on matters pertaining
to medico-legal procedures and practices. The Central Advisory Committee on Forensic Science
considered the issues related to the sphere of Forensic Science (excluding forensic medicine). The
Central Medico-legal Advisory Committee was discontinued whereas the Central Forensic Science
Advisory Committee was converted into Standing Committee on Forensic Science during the year
1972, which is functional even today in BPR&D.

Indian Academy of Forensic Science

The Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) was established in the year 1960. This academy
started a biennial scientific journal, which served as a forum for the exchange of ideas in forensic
science with the other international bodies. The role of the Academy was also to hold annual scientific
meetings/seminars or assist in holding seminars in forensic science. In fact, it was at the instance of this

Page 10 of 56
Academy that the Government of India established the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit to cater for
the forensic needs in the country.

Teaching of Forensic Science in the Universities

The question of introducing criminology and forensic science as the courses of study at the university
level in India was taken up with the Vice-Chancellors of various universities during 1950, but the
progress made in this direction was not encouraging. The need for university teaching of criminology
and forensic science was also stressed in various annual meetings of the Central Advisory Committee
on Forensic Science. A deputation headed by Shri KF Rustamji met the Chairman, University Grants
Commission in August 1961 and the matter was again taken up by Shri DP Kohli, the then Director,
Central Bureau of Investigation in 1967. As a result of these discussions, Dr DS Kothari, the then
Chairman, University Grants Commission set up a high-level committee to advise the Commission on
the steps to be taken for introduction of Criminology and Forensic Sciences in university education. It
recommended that universities should be encouraged to introduce courses in Criminology at the under-
graduate level and postgraduate courses in Criminology and Forensic Science should be started only in
a central autonomous institution, which should be affiliated to a university. Consequently, three
Universities viz., University of Sagar, Madras and Patiala started undergraduate and post-graduate
courses in forensic science. It was further suggested that, as an initial step in this direction, one institute
under the Central Government should be established in Delhi.
The Committee recommended those two courses viz. Master’s Degree in Criminology and Master’s
Degree in Forensic Science should be organised in this Institute, besides Diploma courses for inservice
personnel. The institute should also be developed as a center for research in Criminology and Forensic
Science and should act as a clearinghouse of up-to-date information in these fields.

Institute of Criminology & Forensic Science at New Delhi

After a series of debates at the Government level, it was decided that initially the Institute of
Criminology and Forensic Science should be established only for training the in-service personnel and
for conducting research in the field of forensic science. It was felt that unless the State governments
and the consumer organizations agreed to participate in the scheme, it would not be wise to start courses
for granting postgraduate degrees. However, the ultimate objective of the Institute was to develop into
a full-fledged academic institution affiliated to a university. With the above aim in view, the Institute
of Criminology and Forensic Science (ICFS) was established in Delhi during 1971 with the limited

Page 11 of 56
objectives of imparting training to the in-service personnel and conducting research in Criminology and
Forensic Science. It was also envisaged that the Institute should have two distinct faculties viz. the
Faculty of Criminology and the Faculty of Forensic Science and both should have a number of eminent
teachers and researchers with adequate background and field experience.

Creation of forensic science division at BPR&D

On an invitation from the Government of India, Dr. VK Street, an eminent forensic scientist from the
Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK, visited different Indian forensic
science institutions during 1972 and submitted a report to the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government
of India. He strongly recommended for creation of a post of Chief Forensic Scientist in the Ministry of
Home Affairs to look after its forensic science activities and to pay whole time attention for the
development of this science in India. The Standing Committee on Forensic Science, during 1973, also
recommended for the creation of a post of Chief Forensic Scientist so that the activities, which needed
scientific inputs at the Union Government level, could be properly coordinated. The post of Chief
Forensic Scientist was finally sanctioned during 1983, and the Forensic Science Directorate was created
in BPR&D.

Recommendations of scientific advisory committee to the cabinet

During 1983, the then Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SAC-C) under the overall
guidance of an Expert Committee chaired by Prof. M. M. Sharma, FRS, recommended that the
laboratories in Delhi, Calcutta and Hyderabad must be developed as S & T institutions, functioning in
an autonomous fashion, with complete modernization of equipment and manpower capabilities. In
pursuance of these recommendations, the Government of India declared the forensic science
institutions, at the central Government level as Science and Technology institutions. Based on the
observations of the Expert Group of the SAC-C, BPR&D evolved a master plan for restructuring each
CFSL of the BPR&D into fifteen scientific divisions. In the first phase, the three Central Forensic
Science Laboratories at Calcutta, Hyderabad, and Chandigarh were restructured into six scientific
division viz. Biology, Ballistics, Chemistry, Explosive, Physics, and Toxicology. Similarly, the offices
of the Government Examiners of Questioned Documents at Shimia, Calcutta, and Hyderabad were
strengthened in terms of manpower. Besides augmentation of staff, all the BPR&D laboratories
registered significant progress in the acquisition of sophisticated analytical equipment and
updating/modernizing the laboratory and library facilities for smooth working of these institutions.

Page 12 of 56
A new mandate to the CFSLs of BPR&D
During mid 1990’s, it was realised that most of the States have established their own forensic science
laboratories and hence the role of CFSLs to provide forensic analytical support to different states has
got diluted. Hence the utility of three CFSLs at the national level was questioned. justification for the
existence of the three Central Forensic Science Laboratories under the BPR&D was thought to be two
folds. One, they should act as epitomes of quality and high standards for the State Laboratories to
emulate. They should not only set visibly higher standards in quality of analytical processes and
reporting accuracy, but also should be the repository of Standards and benchmarks against which the
performance of all the State FSLs can be judged. BPR&D should, therefore, have a decisive say in the
process of accreditation, not only of its own CFSLs/GEsQD, but also of all the State FSLs. Secondly,
since forensic science is one of the most dynamic sciences, CFSLs should provide R&D support to this
field of science. Every new research, development and invention in any discipline of science should
have a potential of application in forensic science. Newer, better and more reliable technologies
developed in all the disciplines need to be harnessed for the fight against crime. The BPR&D CFSLs
should scout around for new developments outside the realm of forensic science and adapt them for use
in Ms, standardize the processes and disseminate them to the State FSLs. In order to perform this
yeomen service, the CFSLs need to maintain very high standards and specialization, way beyond what
is possible in the State FSLs.
Strategy was evolved to bring about a complete paradigm change in the structure of the three BPR&D
CFSLs and provide them a new focussed mandate of R&D and specialized training. It emerged that
while preserving their composite structure, the three laboratories should have subject-specific
exclusiveness and be developed as the ‘Centers of Excellence’ for research and development and
specialized training in the designated fields. Consequently, during 1998, the three CFSLs were
reorganized with an aim to generate synergy and focus attention on research and development activities
in the thrust areas of forensic science. This was possible only if all the available resources are pooled
in the designated Centers of Excellence, rather than spread them very thin on the whole ground. Besides
focussing on their core activity of R&D and specialized training in the designated field of forensic
science, these laboratories also undertake crime case examination in all the fields of forensic science.
However, the routine forensic analysis case work has now been restricted to those received from the
Central Government organizations and State Governments/Union Territories, which have not yet
established their own forensic science facilities. These laboratories also act as the referral centers for

Page 13 of 56
handling forensic analysis of crime cases requiring extensive investigation and high expertise, received
from the courts of law, state and central forensic science institutions and other crime investigating
agencies in India.

Establishment of DNA typing laboratory at CFSL Calcutta

In response to the rising demands of providing high technology to the crime investigation process,
BPR&D established the first Forensic DNA Typing facility at CFSL, Calcutta, during 1998. The
implementation of this state-of-the-art technique represents significant advancements in the forensic
biology in the country. The DNA Typing Unit at CFSL Calcutta is equipped with the most
contemporary techniques of DNA typing, namely, Polymerize Chain Reaction (PCR) based method,
HLADQ alpha and Polymarker technique, and Locus Specific Restricted Fragment Length
Polymorphism technique. This laboratory, after being functional, has been referred many crime cases
pertaining to murder, rape, rape and murder, paternity disputes, organ transplant, exchange of babies in
hospitals etc. DNA Typing facility has further been upgraded to conduct ‘Short Tandem Repeats
Sequence based DNA Typing.

Remarkable Contributions in Forensics

1248 A Chinese book, Hsi Duan Yu(the washing away of wrongs), contains a description of how to
distinguish drowning from strangulation. This was the first recorded application of medical knowledge
to the solution of crime.

1784 In Lancaster, England, John Toms was convicted of murder on the basis of the torn edge of wad
of newspaper in a pistol matching a remaining piece in his pocket. This was one of the first documented
uses of physical matching.

Forensic Science in 18s

1810 The first recorded use of question document analysis occurred in Germany. A chemical test for a
particular ink dye was applied to a document known as the Konigin Hanschritt.

Page 14 of 56
1813 Mathiew Orfila, a Spaniard who became professor of medicinal/forensic chemistry at University
of Paris, published Traite des Poisons Tires des Regnes Mineral, Vegetal et Animal, ou Toxicologie
General. Orfila is considered the Father of Modern Toxicology. He also made significant
contributions to the development of tests for the presence of blood in a forensic context and is credited
as the first to attempt the use of a microscope in the assessment of blood and semen stains.
1823 John Evangelist Purkinji, a professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau, Czecheslovakia,
published the first paper on the nature of fingerprints and suggested a classification system based on
nine major types. However, he failed to recognize their individualizing potential.

1835 Henry Goddard, one of Scotland Yard’s original Bow Street Runners, first used bullet
comparison to catch a murderer. His comparison was based on a visible flaw in the bullet which was
traced back to a mold.

1839 H. Bayard published the first reliable procedures for the microscopic detection of sperm. He also
noted the different microscopic characteristics of various different substrate fabrics.

1853 Ludwig Teichmann, in Kracow, Poland, developed the first microscopic crystal test for
hemoglobin using hemin crystals.

1863 The German scientist Schön first discovered the ability of hemoglobin to oxidize hydrogen
peroxide making it foam. This resulted in first presumptive test for blood.

1877 Thomas Taylor, microscopist to U.S. Department of Agriculture suggested that markings of the
palms of the hands and the tips of the fingers could be used for identification in criminal cases. Although
reported in the American Journal of Microscopy and Popular Science and Scientific American, the idea
was apparently never pursued from this source.

1880 Henry Faulds, a Scottish physician working in Tokyo, published a paper in the Journal Nature
suggesting that fingerprints at the scene of a crime could identify the offender. In one of the first
recorded uses of fingerprints to solve a crime, Faulds used fingerprints to eliminate an innocent suspect
and indicate a perpetrator in a Tokyo burglary.

Page 15 of 56
1883 Alphonse Bertillon, a French police employee, identified the first recidivist based on his
invention of anthropometry.

1887 Arthur Conan Doyle published the first Sherlock Holmes story in Beeton’s Christmas Annual
of London.

1889 Alexandre Lacassagne, professor of forensic medicine at the University of Lyons, France, was
the first to try to individualize bullets to a gun barrel. His comparisons at the time were based simply
on the number of lands and grooves.
1891 Hans Gross, examining magistrate and professor of criminal law at the University of Graz,
Austria, published Criminal Investigation, the first comprehensive description of uses of physical
evidence in solving crime. Gross is also sometimes credited with coining the word criminalistics.
1892 (Sir) Francis Galton published Fingerprints, the first comprehensive book on the nature of
fingerprints and their use in solving crime.
1892 Juan Vucetich, an Argentinean police researcher, developed the fingerprint classification system
that would come to be used in Latin America. After Vucetich implicated a mother in the murder of her
own children using her bloody fingerprints, Argentina was the first country to replace anthropometry
with fingerprints.

1896 Sir Edward Richard Henry developed the print classification system that would come to be used
in Europe and North America. He published Classification and Uses of Finger Prints.
1898 Paul Jesrich, a forensic chemist working in Berlin, Germany took photomicrographs of two
bullets to compare and subsequently individualize, the minutiae.

Forensic Science in 19s

1900 Karl Landsteiner first discovered human blood groups and was awarded the Nobel prize for his
work in 1930.

1901 Paul Uhlenhuth, a German immunologist, developed the precipiten test for species. He was also
one of the first to institute standards, controls and QA procedures.

Page 16 of 56
1903 At Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary, Kansas, Will West, a new inmate, was initially confused
with a resident convict William West using anthropometry. They were later (1905) found to be easily
differentiated by their fingerprints.
1904 Oskar and Rudolf Adler developed a presumptive test for blood based on benzidine.
1905 American President Theodore Roosevelt established Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
1910 Victor Balthazard, professor of forensic medicine at the Sorbonne, with Marcelle Lambert,
published the first comprehensive hair study, Le poil de l'homme et des animaux. In one of the first
cases involving hairs, Rosella Rousseau was convinced to confess to murder of Germaine Bichon.
1910 Edmund Locard, successor to Lacassagneas professor of forensic medicine at the University of
Lyons, France, established the first police crime laboratory.
1910 Albert S. Osborne, an American and arguably the most influential document examiner, published
Questioned Documents.
1912 Masaeo Takayama developed another microscopic crystal test for hemoglobin using
hemochromogen crystals.
1915 Leone Lattes, professor at the Institute of Forensic Medicine in Turin Italy, developed the first
antibody test for ABO blood groups.
1916 Albert Schneider of Berkeley, California first used a vacuum apparatus to collect trace evidence.
1920 Calvin Goddard with Charles Waite, Phillip O. Gravelle and John H Fisher perfected the
comparison microscope for use in bullet comparison.
1923 Vittorio Siracusa, working at the Institute of Legal Medicine of the R. University of Messina,
Italy, developed the absorption-elution test for ABO blood typing of stains.
1925 Saburo Sirai, a Japanese scientist, is credited with the first recognition of secretion of group-
specific antigens into body fluids other than blood.
1927 Landsteiner and Levine first detected the M, N, and P blood factors leading to development of
the MNSs and P typing systems.
1929 K. I. Yosida, a Japanese scientist, conducted the first comprehensive investigation establishing
the existence of serological iso-antibodies in body fluids other than blood.
1935 Frits Zernike, a Dutch physicist, invented the first interference contrast microscope, a phase
contrast microscope, an achievement for which he won the Nobel prize in 1953.
1938 M. Polonovski and M. Jayle first identified haptoglobin.
1940 Landsteiner and A.S. Wiener first described Rh blood groups.

Page 17 of 56
1945 Frank Lundquist, working at the Legal Medicine Unit at the University of Copenhagen,
developed the acid phosphatase test for semen.
1946 Mourant first described the Lewis blood group system.
1946 R.R. Race first described the Kell blood group system
1950 M. Cutbush, and colleagues first described the Duffy blood group system.
1958 A. S. Weiner et all introduced the use of H-lectin to determine positively O blood type.
1960 Maurice Muller, a Swiss scientist, adapted the Ouchterlony antibody-antigen diffusion test for
precipitin testing to determine species.
1963 D.A. Hopkinson et all first identified the polymorphic nature of Erythrocyte Acid Phosphatase
(EAP).
1964 N. Spencer et all first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell Phosphoglucomutase (PGM).
1966 R. A. Fildesand H. Harris first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell Adenylate cyclase
(AK).
1966 Brian J. Culliford and Brian Wraxall developed the immune electrophoretic technique for
haptoglobin typing in bloodstains.
1967 Culliford, of the British Metropolitan Police Laboratory, initiated the development of gel-based
methods to test for iso-enzymes in dried bloodstains. He was also instrumental in the development and
dissemination of methods for testing proteins and iso-enzymes in both blood and other body fluids and
secretions.
1968 Spencer and colleagues first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell Adenosine deaminase
(ADA).
1971 Culliford published The Examination and Typing of Bloodstains in the Crime Laboratory.
1973 Hopkinsonet all first identified the polymorphic nature of Esterase D (ESD).
1974 The detection of gunshot residue (GSR) using scanning electron microscopy with electron
dispersive X-rays (SEM-EDX) technology was developed by J. E. Wessel, P. F. Jones, Q. Y. Kwan,
R. S. Nesbitt and E. J. Rattinat Aerospace Corporation.
1975 J. Kompf et all working in Germany, first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell
Glyoxylase (GLO).
1977 The FBI introduced the beginnings of its Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
with the first computerized scans of fingerprints.

Page 18 of 56
1978 Brian Wraxall and Mark Stolorow developed the “multisystem” method for testing the PGM,
ESD, and GLO iso-enzyme systems simultaneously. They also developed methods for typing blood
serum proteins such as haptoglobin and Gc.
1983 The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was first conceived by Kerry Mullis, while he was working
at Cetus Corporation. The first paper on the technique was not published until 1985.
1984 Sir Alec Jeffreys developed the first DNA profiling test. It involved detection of a multi-locus
RFLP pattern.
1986 The human genetics group at Cetus Corporation led by Henry Erlich, developed the PCR
technique for a number of clinical and forensic applications. This resulted in development of the first
commercial PCR typing kit specifically for forensic use, HLA DQ α(DQA1), about 2 years later.
1986 In People v. Pestinikas, Edward Blake first used PCR-based DNA testing (HLA DQ α) , to
confirm different autopsy samples to be from the same person. The evidence was accepted by a civil
court. This was also the first use of any kind of DNA testing in the United States.

Page 19 of 56
Father of Different Forensic Branches

Page 20 of 56
 Need of Forensic Science
The necessity for the application of science in criminal investigation has arisen from the following
factors:

Social Change
Society is subject to change and the social structure changes with the changing time. India has developed
from colonial rules to the democratic republic. (Sharma, 2011) Causes of social change include economic
changes, modernization, industrialization, bureaucratization, conflict and competition, ideology,
diffusion, acculturation and evolution. Due to such changes the crime investigation techniques have also
reformed. During the British governance the role of police was quite awful. The third degree torturous
methods was the supreme technique for making the suspect confess. This techniques were creating huge
pressure and fear in the mind of suspect. Contradictory to this, many forensic psychological techniques
are developed which can substitute such torturous investigations.

Increased Escaping Ease

In present time, with the advancement of transport facilities and due to overpopulation, the crime
probabilities have been increased. Criminals are getting more chances to hide themselves and escape
from apprehension.

Technological Awareness
In this era of advanced scientific techniques; criminals are turning cleverer and more scientific. The
methods of committing crime are getting modernized, “white collar” crimes are increasing day by day.
Consequently, there is a need for more innovative and scientific techniques of investigation to combat
the advanced criminals.

Wide Field

With the passage of time, the crime arena is expanding. In the previous era, generally the criminals were
indigenous in their city or area. But with the modernization, even the conventional crimes like theft,
robbery etc. are also turning into national and international through cyber-crimes. Some of the other
escalating crime areas are financial frauds, Smuggling, Drug trafficking and crimes related to social
media.

Page 21 of 56
Better Evidence

Eyewitness testimony has been accepted as a reliable form of evidence in criminal cases for centuries.
Now, the validity of testimonial evidence is being questioned because of the facts on its reliability.
Ordinarily the physical evidence arbitrated by an expert is relatively unbiased in nature. For instance,
Fingerprints at a scene indicate that a particular person was present. Hence, such evidence prove better
than testimonial evidences at times. However, such evidences can be corroborative evidences, but
always verifiable. (Duara, 2014).

Scope of Forensic Science

Forensic science covers a wide array of areas such as serology, fingerprints, documents, forensic
chemistry, DNA, Forensic Psychology, ballistics, toxicology etc. Answers of the following questions
may be given with the help of these areas: Who was present at crime scene? Which incidence happened
and who was responsible for it? Why did it happen? When did it occur?

With the use of forensic science, the accused can be linked with the scene of crime, by the means of
evidences like fingerprint, blood grouping or DNA fingerprinting. It is also possible to link the object
to a source, for example linking the fired bullet with the firearm, shoeprint with the shoe, tool marks
with the tool etc. Other chemical and physical analysis can be used to recognize the unknown substances
found suspicious from scene of crime, e.g. whether the unknown liquid or powdery material found from
scene is prohibited drug or illicit substance. (Schiffer, 2009) The unidentified material recovered from
crime scene is compared with the standard and control sample (for example, blooded soil compared
with control soil) or with the information retrieved from data base (for example, finger print database)
for the purpose of recognition. (Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2017) The ultimate aim of the recognition
process in forensic

science is individualization, specifically to say that a particular piece of evidence originates from a
precise scene or person.

Fingerprint and DNA are few of the evidences which can be individualized distinctly. For the
identification of other type of evidences, appropriate techniques and skills are obligatory to relate them

Page 22 of 56
with the specific source. For the purpose, many standard databases and advanced technologies have
been created after the contribution of several years.

During the investigations of criminal cases like murder, rape, kidnapping, assault, theft, robbery and
civil cases such as forgeries, forensic science is practiced. Forensic science also regulates the laws and
policies related to food items, petroleum products, drug manufacturing and automobile discharge
observance etc. It is used to determine whether any such laws and policies have been violated. It also
deals with forensic medicine and toxicology, personal identification, ballistic and firearm identification,
soil examination, identification and association of human hair, blood, serum, hair, saliva etc.

Even though forensic science has been identified intimately with the criminal justice system in the past,
now the forensic scientist plays a gradually more active role in civil proceedings and in regulatory
issues. There is no curb to the scope of physical evidences found during investigation by forensic expert.
Physical evidences can be various types. It can be ranging in size from microscopic (for example, diatoms
in water) to macroscopic (for example, car used in committing crime). It may be as outrageous as the
unconscious body of an abused child, as intangible as the transient vapors of kerosene resulting from
suspected arson fire, or as obscure as the composition of dyes in the ink of a disputed document.
(Thornton, 1983)
There are various fields relating with forensic science like Criminalistics, Chemistry, Biology,
Entomology, Odontology, Medicine & Toxicology, Anthropology, Engineering Sciences, Cyber
Forensics, Questioned Documents and Psychiatry & Behavioral Science.

Criminalistics

Criminalistics is a discipline that operates under forensic science. The American Board of Criminalistics
defines criminalistics as the science and profession dealing with the recognition, collection,
identification, individualization, and interpretation of physical evidence, and the application of the
natural sciences to law-science matters. It is the application of scientific techniques in collecting and
analyzing physical evidence in criminal cases. Criminalistics is often termed as an applied science.
(Forensic Law, 2017)

The quote of Mr. Paul L. Kirk is important to mention, "Wherever he steps, whatever he touches,
whatever he leaves, even without thinking, will serve as silent evidence against him. Not only his

Page 23 of 56
fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from his clothes, the glass he breaks, the tool mark
he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen that he deposits or collects - all these bear mute
testimony against him. This is evidence that does not recall. It is not confused by the stimulation of the
moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are rather is a factual evidence. Physical evidence
cannot be wrong it cannot perjure itself; it cannot be wholly absent. Only its explanation can make a
mistake. Only human failure to find it, study and understand it can diminish its value." (Kirk, 1974)

Criminalists use techniques learned in chemistry, molecular biology, geology, and other scientific
disciplines to investigate and solve crimes. For the criminalist, crime scene investigation involves the
recognition, documentation, collection, preservation, and interpretation of physical evidence which
may be as big as a truck or as small as a diatom or pollen grain. Recognition of items out of place,
articles improperly located or items added to the crime scene are an important part of crime scene
processing. The criminalist collects, preserves, and makes interpretations about the evidence and their
relation to the series of events resulting at the crime scene.

The criminalist brings evidence back to the laboratory where examinations will be conducted.
Interpretations are made about the relevance of a particular item from the crime scene by associating
particular items of evidence to specific sources and reconstructing the crime scene. This means not only
associating a suspect with a scene but also the telling of a story about what transpired before, during
and after the crime.

Chemistry
Forensic chemistry encompasses organic and inorganic analysis of unknown substances, arson
investigation, analysis of petroleum products like petrol, diesel, kerosene; alcohol, Narcotic and
psychotropic substances, synthetic fibers, explosives, paint, and any unidentified material found at
scene of crime. They are analyzed chemically to establish its composition. Incidents of mass death due
to consumption of illicit liquors are very common in our country, such liquors are examined in forensic
chemistry division for its content analysis. Illicit manufacturing, possession, trafficking and
consumption of Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances are considered as economic terrorism.
Such illicit drugs are also examined by analytical techniques like micro chemical tests, Thin Layer
Chromatography (TLC), Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC), High Performance Thin Layer
Chromatography (HPTLC), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), UV and IR
Spectrometry for complete drug profiling and quantification. Explosive materials, partly burnt cloth

Page 24 of 56
pieces of victim in bride burning cases, kerosene containers, matchsticks, adulterated fuel samples,
adulterated food items etc. are some other evidences pertaining to forensic chemistry.

Biology

Blood and biological material analysis proves important in the investigation of cases of murder, assault,
dacoit, rape, accident etc. The normal crime articles encountered in the above crime are body fluids
such as blood, semen, saliva, urine, hair, nails, etc. the analysis of above articles are carried out in
Forensic Biology and Serology division of Forensic Science Laboratory. Broadly, Forensic Biology
and Serology deals with the examination of biological materials encountered in a crime against persons
or property. In addition to the articles mentioned above, fibers, diatoms, plant materials like wood,
leaves, seeds, pollens, wild animal remnants in shooting, poaching etc. are also examined in this sector.
DNA profiling for the individualization is also one of the biological techniques.

Ballistics
The use of firearm in criminal offences is of frequent occurrence. In fact they figure prominently in
most of the heinous crimes like murders, decoity, robberies, assassinations and also in police encounter.
The firearm evidence, therefore, is important in criminal investigations and trials. Forensic ballistics is
the examination of evidence relating to firearms at a crime scene, including the effects and behavior of
projectiles and explosive devices. The assertion of the experts that no two firearms even of the same
make and model, made one after the other, leave identical marks on fired ammunition are alike. A
forensic ballistics expert matches bullets, fragments, and other evidence with the weapons of alleged
suspects or others involved with a case on basis of above said assertion.

Entomology
Forensic entomology is the branch of forensic science in which information about insects is used to draw
conclusions while investigating legal cases relating to both humans and wildlife. It is the broad field
where arthropods and judicial system interact. Such a practice is commonly used to estimate the time
of death when the circumstances surrounding the crime are unknown. After decomposition begins,
insects such as blow flies are the first to infest the body. The forensic entomologist can identify the
specific insect present in the body and approximate how long body has been left exposed by examining
the stage of development of fly larvae. The time required for stage development is affected by
environmental influences suchas climate and weather conditions. Forensic entomologist must take these
conditions into consideration when estimating the post-mortem interval. (Saferstein, 2001)

Page 25 of 56
Odontology
Forensic odontology is the subject in which examination and evaluation of dental evidence is performed,
which will be then presented in the interest of justice. Practitioners of forensic odontology provide
information for the identification of victims when the body is left in an unrecognizable state. Teeth are
composed of enamel, the hardest substance within the body. Because of enamel’s resistance, the teeth
lasts longer than other tissues as decomposition begins. The characteristic of teeth, their alignment, and
the overall structure of the mouth provide the individual evidence for identifying a specific person.
Another application of forensic odontology to criminal investigation is bite mark analysis.

Medicine and Toxicology

The field involves the investigation of sudden, unnatural, unexplained or violent deaths. Typically,
medical examiners are charged with the responsibility of answering several questions like: Who is the
victim? What injuries are present?When did the injury occur? Why and how were the injuries produced?
The preliminary role of medical examiner is to determine the cause of death. An autopsy is normally
performed to establish the cause of death. During autopsy, other factors can be observed that may
indicate the time since death. (Saferstein, 2001)

Toxicology is that branch of medical science which deals with poisons with respect to their sources,
characters and properties, the lethal dose and the remedial measures to counter the effect of poison and
the autopsy findings. Forensic toxicologists deals with the analytical methods of detection and
estimation of poisons in body. The detection of drugs and alcohol in blood and urine samples collected
from the suspects in cases of drug abuse and drunken drivers are also carried out in Forensic toxicology
division. (Krishnamurthy, 2011)

Anthropology

Forensic anthropology is an area that is concerned primarily with the identification and examination
of human skeletal remains. Skeletal bones are remarkably durable and undergo an extremely slow
breakdown process. Because of their resistance to rapid decomposition, skeletal remains can provide
individual characteristics during mass disaster. An examination of bones may reveal their origin, sex,
approximate age and race. This area of expertise is not limited just to identification, however. A forensic
anthropologist may also be of assistance in creating facial reconstructions to aid in the identification of
skeletal remains.

Page 26 of 56
 Forensic Engineering
Forensic engineers are concerned with failure analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and origins
of fires or explosions. Forensic engineers answer questions such as, how did an accident or structure
failure occur? Were the parties involved responsible? If so, how were they responsible? Accident scenes
are examined, photographs are reviewed and any mechanical objects involved are inspected.

Cyber Forensics and Computer Crimes

Computer crime can broadly be defined as criminal activity involving an information technology
infrastructure, including unauthorized access, illegal interception, data interference, system interference
and electronic fraud. Cyber- crime is the latest and perhaps the most complicated problem in the cyber
world. Any criminal activity that uses a computer either as a tool or target or both comes within ambit of
cyber- crime. The computer may however be target for unlawful acts in the following cases- theft of
information contained in the electronic form, e-mail bombing, data dialing, logic bombs, Trojan attacks,
internet thefts, etc. (Krishnamurthy, 2011)

Questioned Document
Documents play important role in human life. The criminal has not been slow to realize the importance
of document. He has been exploiting the potentialities of their falsification. When a question is raised
about authenticity of any document, such is called questioned document. It is a term for a forensic
science pertaining to document that are potentially disputed in a court of law.

Scientific detection of forgery is possible in a fairly large number of cases. Examinations and
comparisons conducted by document examiners can be diverse and may involve any of the following
(Questioned Document Examination, 2017):

• Handwriting and signatures

• Typewriters, photocopiers, laser printers, ink-jet printers, fax machines

• Rubber stamps, price markers, label makers

• Ink, pencil, paper

• Alterations, additions, erasures, obliterations

• Indentation detection and/or decipherment

Page 27 of 56
• Sequence determination

• Physical matching

Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences

Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology is a specialized area in which the relationship between human
behavior and legal proceedings is examined. Forensic Psychiatrists are retained for both civil and
criminal litigations. For civil cases, they normally determine whether people are competent to make
decisions about preparing wills, settling property or refusing medical treatment. For criminal cases they
evaluate behavioral disorders and determine whether people are competent to stand trial. Issues in
family and domestic relations may include juvenile delinquency, child custody, parental fitness,
domestic abuse, adoption, and foster care. Forensic Psychologists also examine behavioral patterns of
criminals as an aid in developing a suspect’s behavioral profile. The Psychological tests like brain
mapping and polygraph are also conducted on criminals by forensic psychologists.

Page 28 of 56
 1.2 Basic Principles/Fundamentals of Forensic Science

To comprehend or explore any subject, the foremost stage should begin with the basic concepts such
as definition, theories, and principles. Principles are the chief and basic facts from which numerous
theories can be derived. Each manifestation can be either man-made or natural which are usually based
on the formed principles. Forensic Science also follows the same pattern. It is an applied subject that
includes the principles that have great significance in the context of field application. It provides an
essential aid to support and fasten any kind of investigation procedures. Also, it works in association
with the principles and practices of different fields of science for helping the judicial matters. The
forensic investigations are very well supported by the facts drawn on the basis of these principles. The
most important and basic principles which have been followed for dealing investigations are explained
below:
● Locard’s Principle of Exchange:
This is the most basic and prominent principle in the field of forensic science. It asserts that every
object leaves traces. This principle is asserted by the famous criminologist of France; Edmond Locard.
This principle focuses on the fact that while committing a crime, there are higher chances of the traces
exchange between the perpetrator and surrounding objects. The physical and trace evidence, seen at a
scene of crime follows this basic principle. Evidence rendition needs severe precautions to avoid its
contamination. The evidence of touch DNA applies the straightforward use of this law and includes the
substances that came in contact with the perpetrator directly.
● Principle of Individuality: It asserts that every single item has its own individuality i.e. they are unique
from others. In the field of forensic science, the comparison of questioned with the known samples is
the most important task and this principle forms the base of the comparison task. This principle is
contemplated as the fundamental elementary law of Forensic Science. e.g. fingerprints of every
individual are unique, even among monozygotic twins.
● Principle of Comparison: To specify the source of the questioned sample, its comparison with the
known samples is a must. Therefore, it is said to be an important law. To get the accuracy in results,
comparison among objects with immense similarities is a must. In simple wordings, alike objects are
only compared. For example comparison of a pen that is manufactured by the same company at the
same time and slot.

● Principle of Progressive Change: The main focus of this principle deals with the natural changes in
the environment with advancement of time. The progressive changes in different objects differ in
Page 29 of 56
 period. Volatile samples change at a faster rate than non-volatile ones or the pollen grains of water
pollinated flowers change faster than insects or self-pollinated plants. This creates problem in the
process of investigation. Factors like heat, rain, activities of animals, and wind affect the samples
present at the scene of a crime.

● Principle of Analysis: The sample quality infers the analysis quality. Factors such as procedures of
collecting, preserving, packaging, and maintenance of chain of custody affect the sample quality in one
or the other way. If any of the procedures deals with careless behavior, the result validity is questioned.
e.g. collection of hard disks from the scene of a crime in a plastic or paper bag have higher chances of
destruction and the analysis result comes under a big question. Therefore, appropriate packaging is a
must. Pack it in a faraday or anti-static bag.
● Principle of Circumstantial Facts: Assuming the truism that “Facts don’t lie” is the safest part of the
crime investigation. It asserts that testimonial witnesses have a higher chance of alterations in the
statements because of several reasons such as being pressurized by the opposition, facts exaggeration,
unintentional observations mistakes, etc. whereas physical evidences are highly accurate and therefore
reliable for the investigations. For e.g. a testimonial witness who saw the commencement of the murder
might get confused in the sequence but the physical or trace evidences like blood pattern or the traces
of gun residue on the clothing gives non-biased and highly accurate results.
● Principle of Probability: Probability defines the chances of a specific activity to occur. It helps to
identify the benefits and drawbacks of the analysis method used for inferring the chances of the event
repetition to occur in particular a circumstance that decreases the likelihood numbers and pinpoint an
event or the person. For e.g. the probability or chances of the same blood group among a group of
people are more whereas the probability of the same STR profile is low. Therefore, preference is given
more to the method of DNA fingerprinting than the test of blood grouping.

Page 30 of 56
 Branches of Forensic Science
Forensic science is a science devoted to the using scientific methods and procedures together with
objective information which will be used to help in solving a crime. Thus forensic science has come to
mean the application of natural, physical and medical science to the resolution of conflicts within legal
setting. Forensic science embraces all branches of science and applies them to the purpose of law.
Originally, all the techniques were borrowed from various scientific disciplines like chemistry,
medicine, biology, physics, etc. but in the past few years it has developed its own branches which are
more or less exclusive domains of forensic science.

● Forensic Toxicology: It deals with the examination of toxic materials present in the body and the
associated impacts on the person. The techniques and strategies used belong to many disciplines like
clinical and analytical chemistry, pharmacology, etc. to assist the investigation process of death
occurred due to the consumption of certain drug or poison.
● Forensic Chemistry: It is the application of chemical science or chemistry in solving or proving the
crime in the court of law. The principle of chemical science is being used for the analysis of evidences
found at the scene of a crime.
● Forensic Anthropology: In some crime scenes in which the body is found burnt, degraded, or
mutilated, the identification process becomes difficult. In such circumstances, identification is possible
by anthropology. Anthropologist evaluates the skeleton or body for the individual identification and
finds out the reason for death. They have the skill to find out the sex, age, physique, and race by
examining the bones or their fragments. The cause of death can also be determined or detection of bone
injuries that are present before, during, or after the death.
● Forensic Ballistics: Evidence associated with the firearms like bullet cases, bullet, bullet marks,
gunpowder traces, etc. are analyzed in the branch of Forensic Ballistic. Crime committed using firearms
involves this field and draws conclusions regarding the weapon used, velocity, distance, and firing angle
etc.
● Forensic Physics: To lead the investigation dealing with the criminal or civil cases, there is a need of
forensic physics as it analyses density of glass and soil, materials refractive index, and birefringence
study to analyze fiber.
● Forensic Questioned Document Examination: Examining the documents whose authenticity is in
question/dispute is analyzed in this branch of forensic science. The main objective of this branch is to

Page 31 of 56
 procure evidence regarding any cautious or a questioned document with the help of scientific tools and
techniques.
● Forensic Fingerprint Examination: The impressions of friction ridges present on the surface of a
body are examined under this branch. Fingerprints recovery is very important for further analysis and
identification of the accused among the list of possible suspects.
● Forensic Odontology: Examining and handling the evidence related to the dental portion is performed
under this branch. The unrecognized dead body can be identified by its teeth anatomy and development,
dental corrections, etc. by the forensic odontologist. Bitemarks are also analyzed in this discipline.
● Forensic DNA analysis: DNA has individualistic characteristics just like fingerprints. To identify the
source of DNA, the method of DNA profiling is opted to lead the investigation of the crime. DNA can
be obtained from hair, semen, blood, skin, saliva, urine, and even from the body remains in case of
burning.
● Forensic Medicine and Pathology: Examination of the dead body to find out the reason for death is
included in this field. Facts are extracted to make it admissible evidence in the court after a proper
collection and examination of the medical specimens. For e.g. wound examination can determine the
weapon used to commit the crime.
● Forensic Psychology: Psychology application is preferred to resolve the matters related to the criminal
and legal areas. The work of the forensic psychologist is to study the perpetrator and the crime
committed by him to understand his personality characteristics that assist in criminal profiling. In
criminal profiling, we can get a comprehensive explanation of criminal behavior and personality
characteristics. Forensic Psychologists even provide counseling to the criminals, evaluate the custody
of a child, contributes in the procedures related to death notification, and examination of post-traumatic
stress disorder.
● Forensic Entomology: The study of insects and other arthropods like centipedes, arachnids,
crustaceans, and millipedes for investigation. The study of insects helps the entomologist to determine
the time since death, location of the crime scene, and in some cases the cause of death by analyzing the
toxic substances from maggots.
● Forensic Biology and Serology: It deals with the examination and analysis of the biological and
serological evidences found at the scene of the crime. Body fluids have immense importance in
connecting the accused with the crime.

Page 32 of 56
● Forensic Botany: It deals with the examination and analysis of the botanical evidence such as leaves,
pollen, wood, fruits, flowers, etc. found at the scene of a crime. Crucial links can be established between
the crime and criminal.
● Wildlife Forensics: It deals with the identification of wild species of flora and fauna related to wildlife
crimes. Poaching, or killing wild creatures that are legally protected from hunting, is one of the most
serious crimes investigated by wildlife forensic expert.
● Forensic Linguistics: It includes the methods and linguistic knowledge to deal with illicit investigation
and judicial proceedings. The experts are well aware of the language spoken and written by the accused
to find out the important conclusions related to the age, gender, education, ethnicity, culture,
geographical, and socio-economic background of the accused. Careful analysis of the forensic text like
demands for ransom, emergency calls, social media, death row statements, and suicide notes is
performed by an expert.
● Forensic Archeology: The techniques used in geological and geophysical surveys along with imaging
and photography help the investigating officers and police for the site identification where personal
items, robbed goods, and victims body are buried. It also assists in excavation at pre-historic and historic
sites. Many tools and techniques help to determine the age of the items found after excavation. Usually,
mass excavation is carried out to generate evidence for bomb or gas explosions, war crime trials, plane
crashes, etc.
● Forensic Engineering: The investigation of mechanical components, materials, and products by using
the principles of engineering comes under the branch of forensic engineering.
● Forensic Geology: It deals with the examination of the specimens that relate with the materials present
in the Earth such as petroleum, oil, soil, minerals, rocks, etc. Such evidence are analyzed to consolidate
them against the accused and make conclusions related to the cause and time of the incident and to find
out the other related information during the investigation.
● Cyber Forensics: It is also termed as Digital forensics that deals with the extraction and examination
of digital evidence like computers, USB drives, hard disks, etc. with the help of powerful tools. It deals
with cybercrime cases and criminal laws where the recovered digital evidence is utilized to assist or
counter the assumption in the court.

Page 33 of 56
 1.3 Forensic Science Laboratories
Forensic science laboratories are the wings of the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs, which fulfills the forensic
requirements in the country.
Cognisance of the capability of Forensic Science in solving criminal and civil cases inspired the government
of India to plan to set up 5 CFSLs, one of which was intended to be established at central places in the country
and the remaining at four corners of the country. In 1957, the first Central Forensic Science Laboratory was
established in Kolkata.
Second, CFSL was established in Hyderabad in 1967. Then in 1968, another CFSL was established in Delhi
under the control of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI). Later in 1978, CFSL Chandigarh was put up.
Initially, it was started as CID Scientific Section in 1933, under the Police Department of United Punjab in
Lahore before Independence. In 1961 it was named Forensic Science Laboratory Punjab, Chandigarh. In
1966, it was taken over by the Union Territory of Chandigarh. In 1970, the Bureau of Police Research and
Development (BPR&D) was formed. It was created to modernise Indian Police, assist the systematic study
of police problems, and initiate the usage of science and technology in crime investigation methods in the
country. Subsequently, in 1978 Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D) took over the control
of FSL Chandigarh and then was named CFSL Chandigarh. Next, in the year 2011, 3 new CFSLs were set
up at Bhopal, Guwahati, and Pune.
Earlier, all CFSLs, excluding CFSL Delhi, were under the control of BPR&D. In the year 2002 Directorate
of Forensic Science Services (DFSS) was carved out from BPR&D, New Delhi, to propagate and carry out
the most acceptable forensic science practices in the country to assist Criminal Justice System. Thus, All
CFSLs were then put under the control of DFSS from the year 2002; however, CFSL Delhi is hitherto under
the control of CBI. The list of CFSL in India is as follows.

Page 34 of 56
 Central Forensic Science Laboratories (CFSL) in India
Sr. Location Controlling Year of Scientific Divisions
No. Agency establishment
(Current)
1. Central Forensic Directorate 1957
Science Laboratory, of Forensic
Kolkata Science
Services
(DFSS)
2. Central Forensic Directorate 1967 -Ballistics
Science Laboratory, of Forensic -Biology
Hyderabad Science -Chemistry
Services -DNA
(DFSS) -Documents
-Explosives
-Narcotics
-Digital Forensic
Division
-Toxicology
-Physics
-Psychology
3. Central Forensic Central 1968 -Ballistics and
Science Laboratory Bureau of explosive division
Investigation -Biology Division and
(CBI) DNA Profiling Unit
-Chemistry
-Computer Forensics
-Document
-Fingerprint
-Forensic Psychology
-Physics
-Photo and Scientific
Aid division
-Serology Division
-A scientific Aid unit
of CFSL at Chennai
and Mumbai
4. Central Forensic Directorate 1978 -Ballistics
Science Laboratory, of Forensic -Biology
Chandigarh Science -Chemistry
Services -Questioned
(Initially, it was started (DFSS) Documents
as the CID Scientific -Explosives
Section in 1933, under -Physics (also
the Police Department includes computer
of United Punjab in and cyber Forensics)
Lahore. In 1961 it was Toxicology

Page 35 of 56
 named Forensic
Science Laboratory
Punjab, Chandigarh. In
1966 it was taken over
by the Union Territory
of Chandigarh. Then in
1978, BPR&D took
over the control of the
laboratory and then was
named CFSL,
Chandigarh)
5. Central Forensic Directorate 2011 -Biology/Serology
Science Laboratory, of Forensic -Questioned
Bhopal Science Document and
Services Photography
(DFSS) -Chemistry/Narcotics
Ballistics
-Computer Forensic
-Speaker
identification and
Audio-Video Tape
Authentication

6. Central Forensic Directorate 2011 -Ballistics

Science Laboratory, of Forensic -Biology
(Kamrup) Guwahati Science -Chemistry
Services -DNA
(DFSS) -Digital
-Documents
-Explosive
-Narcotics
-Physics
-Toxicology
7. Central Forensic Directorate 2011 -Ballistics
Science Laboratory, of Forensic -Biology
Pune Science -Chemistry
Services -Documents
(DFSS) -DNA Fingerprinting
-Digital Forensics
-Explosives
-Narcotics
-Physics

Page 36 of 56
 Government of India

Ministry of Home Affairs

DFSS

CFSL Hyderabad

Director

Administrative Division Scientific Division

Establishment Accounts Purchase Ballistics

Biology

Chemistry

DNA

Documents

Explosives

Narcotics

Digital Forensic

Toxicology

Physics

Psychology

Figure 1: Organisational setup of CFSL Hyderabad

Page 37 of 56
 Government of India

Ministry of Home Affairs

Central Bureau of Intelligence

CFSL New Delhi

Director

Principal Scientific Officer

Scientific Cadre Ministerial Cadre

Ballistics and Explosives

Biology Division and DNA

Profiling Unit

Chemistry

Computer Forensics

Document

Fingerprint

Forensic Psychology

Physics

Photo and Scientific Aid division

Serology Division

Scientific Aid unit of CFSL at

Chennai and Mumbai

Figure 2: Organisational Setup of CFSL New Delhi

Page 38 of 56
 Government of India

Ministry of Home Affairs

DFSS

CFSL Chandigarh

Director

Quality Office Support

CFSL Unit Shimla Scientific Divisions
Management Services

Questioned Ballistics
Document

Biology

Chemistry

Questioned
Documents

Explosives

Physics (Including
Computer and Cyber
Forensics)

Toxicology

Figure 3: Organisational Setup of CFSL Chandigarh

Page 39 of 56
 Government of India

Ministry of Home Affairs

Directorate of Forensic
Science Services (DFSS)

CFSL Bhopal

Director

Administrative Division Scientific Division

Establishment Accounts Purchase Biology/ Serology

Questioned Document and

Photography

Chemistry/ Narcotics

Ballistics

Computer Forensic

Speaker Identification and

Audio-Video Tape
Authentication

Figure 4: Organisational Setup of CFSL Bhopal

Page 40 of 56
 Government of India

Ministry of Home Affairs

DFSS

CFSL Guwahati

Director

Administrative Division Scientific Division

Case Ballistics
Establishment Accounts Purchase Reception
Biology

Chemistry

DNA

Digital

Documents

Explosive

Narcotics

Physics

Toxicology

Figure 5: Organisational setup of CFSL Guwahati

Page 41 of 56
 Government of India

Ministry of Home Affairs

DFSS

CFSL Pune

Director

Administrative Division Scientific Division

Case Ballistics
Establishment Accounts Purchase
Reception
Biology

Chemistry

Documents

DNA Fingerprinting

Digital Forensics

Explosives

Narcotics

Physics

Figure 6: Organisational Setup of CFSL Pune

Page 42 of 56
 State Forensic Science Laboratories

After the SFSL West Bengal (Kolkata) was established, many such SFSLs began to be set up in different
states of India. In 1958 SFSL Maharashtra (Mumbai) was started up, then SFSL Rajasthan (Jaipur) and SFSL
Tamil Nadu (Chennai) in 1959, later SFSL Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram) in1961, SFSL Bihar (Patna) in
1963, SFSL MP (Sagar) in 1964, SFSL Karnataka (Banglore) in 1967. The Directorate of Forensic Science,
Assam (Guwahati), was put up in 1967. It was first established as Forensic Science Laboratory Assam in
Shillong in 1967. Later after two years, it was shifted to Guwahati under the control of the Director-General
of Police Assam, and then a separate Directorate of Forensic Science was created in 2005. In 1971 SFSL
Orissa was formed at Bhubaneshwar. It was first set up in Cuttack in 1962 and later, in 1971, was shifted to
Bhubaneshwar. 1974, SFSL Andhra Pradesh was set up at Hyderabad, which became SFSL Telangana after
Telangana separated from Andhra Pradesh, and the new SFSL Andhra Pradesh was established at
Mangalagiri. In 1976 State Forensic Science Laboratory, Haryana was started at Madhuban. It was initially
set at Rohtak in 1973 and then was shifted to Madhuban in 1976. SFSL UP was set up in 1979 at Lucknow.
Earlier in 1969, the Scientific section of CID, UP, was converted into Forensic science Laboratory and later
was merged with Chemical Examiners Laboratory, Agra. Following, more SFSLs were set up in different
states SFSL Punjab (Mohali) was set up in 1980, then SFSL Meghalaya (Shillong) in 1987, then SFSL
Manipur (Pangel, Imphal) in 1989, then SFSL Delhi (Rohini) in 1993. In 1996 SFSL Himachal Pradesh
(Junga) was established. First, SFSL Himachal Pradesh was set up in Shimla in 1988 and was later shifted to
Junga. Henceforth, in 2000 SFSL Mizoram was put up at Aizawl. in 2002, SFSL Chhattisgarh (Raipur) was
set up. It was initially a Regional Forensic science laboratory in Raipur in Madhya Pradesh. Later, when
Chhattisgarh was established as a different state, this RFSL was converted into SFSL Chhattisgarh. In the
same year, SFSL Tripura was established at Agartala. Then in 2003, SFSL Andaman and the Nicobar Islands
was set up at Port Blair. Then in 2005, SFSL Jharkhand was established at Ranchi; in the past, it was started
as RFSL Ranchi before the separation of Jharkhand. Later it was converted into SFSL after the formation of
the state.

Page 43 of 56
 Organizational Setup of State Forensic Science Laboratory
i) Director
ii) Joint Director/Additional Director
iii) Deputy Director
iv) Assistant Director
v) Scientific officer
vi) Senior scientific assistant
vii) Scientific assistant
viii) Lab assistant/ attendant

Organizational Setup of Regional Forensic Science Laboratory

i) Joint Director/Additional Director/ Deputy Director
ii) Assistant Director
iii) Senior scientific officer
iv) Junior scientific officer
v) Senior scientific assistant
vi) Scientific assistant
vii) Lab assistant/ attendant

Organizational Setup of District/Mobile Forensic Science Laboratory

i) Assistant Director/ Scientific officer
ii) Senior scientific assistant
iii) Scientific assistant
iv) Lab assistant/ attendant

Page 44 of 56
Mobile Laboratory
Most of the states have mobile forensic laboratories units. They vary in number also in the administrative
control. The main function of the mobile laboratories is to help the police investigation at the scene of
occurrence to locate , collect and preserve the evidence . These teams also provide photoghraphic . Facilities
to record the scene , the evidence etc. the team also guides the investigation to collect adequate and correct
sample for comparison and provide leads for further investigation.
THE FOLLOWING ITEMS FORMS THE MOBILE LABORATORIES:-
1) A truck or a power wagon with four wheel drive and special fittings is useful for a mobile laborator .
The space is divided into two components . One is used as a dark room with a facilities for loading
and processing sensitive material. The second component houses the equipment and a small
examination table , lighter vehicle for their being preferred increasing, mainly for their speed and
greater accessibility to the scene of occurrence.
The vehicle is fitted with a generator to produce electricity , which is used for floodlight and
operating the instruments.
2) Investigator’s kit
3) Photographic equipment. A speedgraphic or similar camera and a 35mm camera (Leica) with

Various accessories including close up attachment ,wide- angle and telephotolenses , photoflood
lamps ,flashguns , lightmeter and ultraviolet ,infrared ,polascreen and colour filters. A stereometric
camera can be [Link] lenses cameras,video and digital camera are slowly but certainly replacing
the current conventional cameras.
An adequate supply of films of various grades of contrast and speed for
the above cameras.
4) Ultraviolet and infrared lamps and small portable x-ray unit.
5) Magnifiers , stereomicroscopic, handspectroscope ,vaccum cleaner , avometer , electricity tester.
As it is not possible for the laboratory personal to attend to every scene of occurrence ,they visit only in
important cases.

Page 45 of 56
 Mobile Forensic Science Laboratory

Mobile Forensic Science Laboratories or Field Units of Forensic Science Laboratories has been
established in certain states. The staff of the Mobile Forensic Science Laboratories assists the
Investigating Officers in assembling of evidences after the scenes of crime. Mobile crime labs enable
crime-scene technicians to conduct extensive evidence collection and processing at crime-scene sites,
such as homicide scenes, meth lab sites, arson sites, and investigations that involve mass casualties.
Most mobile crime labs contain equipment for analyzing chemicals, special hoods for fume disposal,
isolated boxes for hazardous material analysis, and supplies for crime-scene investigation.

Page 46 of 56
 1.4 Education of Forensic Science

Forensic science education in India begin with Sagar University in 1959 has attempted taking a near –
exponential growth, with the result that there is mismatch between the pass outs and placement. Public
funding as well as private financing afford umbrella to a multitude of forensic courses of different
nomenclatures; there is also choice for modes: full time / part time / distance learning / on – line (Table
8). Attracted by the application novelty of forensics, some “knowledge pursuers” and many “job
seekers” subject themselves to a spectrum of non-uniform regulations, curricula and syllabi which as a
matter of fact appear to be of global standard. However the hitch is obvious in that much is desired in
the imparting of education, say, the availability of teachers (number and competence), infrastructure
(space, class rooms, laboratories, equipments, library, hostel), forensic exposure, and mission &
objectives. Thus, it is time that forensic education is regulated in order to groom potential case work –
ready analysts.

Page 47 of 56
 Table 8 : Bird’s – eye view of capricious forensic education in India (few examples)

Certificate, diploma or degree offered

S. No. University / Institution (FT / PT / DM / OL )

• [Link].(H) (FS) - FT
Amity University • [Link]. (FS) - FT
1
Noida • Ph.D. (FS) - FT

Asian School of Cyber Law

2 Certificate (CC) - OL
Pune

• PG Diploma (FS) - FT
Bundelkhand University • [Link].(H) (FS) - FT
3
Jhansi • [Link]. (FS) – FT
• Ph.D. (FS) - FT

Department of Anthropology • PG Diploma (FS) - FT

4 University of Delhi • [Link].(H) (FS) - FT
Delhi • [Link]. (FS) – FT

The West Bengal national

5 • PG Diploma (FS) - FT
University of Juridical Sciences,
• [Link]. (FS) – FT
Kolkata
• Ph.D. (FS) - FT

• [Link].(H) (FS) - FT
Dr. H.S. Gour
• [Link]. (FS) - FT
6 Vishwavidhyalaya
• Ph.D. (FS) - FT
Sagar

IFO Forensic Standards and

7 Research Seven certificate courses (FS) - DM
Delhi

Intense Forensic Services India

8 Eleven courses - OL
Pune

Kurukshetra University
9 [Link]. (FS) - FT
Kurukshetra

Table 8 : Bird’s – eye view of capricious forensic education in India few examples (Contd.)
Page 48 of 56
 • PG Diploma (FS) - FT
Maharashtra Govt. Institute of • [Link].(H) (FS) - FT
Forensic Science • [Link]. (FS) – FT
10 Aurangabad/Nagpur/Mumbai

• Induction, refresher and awareness courses - FT

NICFS (Now NFSU Delhi • Certificate - FT
Campus) • Diploma - FT
11
Delhi • PG Diploma - FT
• [Link]. (FS) - FT

NFSU Gandhinagar
12 • Induction, refresher and awareness courses - FT
• Certificate - FT
• Diploma - FT
• PG Diploma - FT
• [Link]. (FS) – FT
• Ph.D.

Panjab University • M. Sc. (FS) - FT

13
Chandigarh • Ph. D. ( FS) - FT

Punjabi University • Diploma (DOC / FP) - FT

14
Patiala • M. Sc. ( FS) - FT
• Ph.D. ( FS) – FT / PT

Sam Higginbottom Institute of • Diploma (DOC / FP) - FT

Agriculture, Technology & • [Link]. ( FS) - FT
15
Science • M. Sc. ( FS) - FT
Allahabad • Ph.D. ( FS) – FT / PT

FT : Full time PT : Part time DM : Distance mode OL : On – line

H : Honours Degree FS : Forensic Science NI : Not indicated CC : Cyber crime
DOC : Documents FP : Finger print

Another facet of Indian forensics is that private practitioners (some of whom

may turn out to be amicus curiae), non – governmental enterprises and PPP ventures are
already in the

Page 49 of 56
 arena; as a consequence prompt steps are required for regulating the profession as well.

Imperative

In the light of the foregoing observations on the contemporary

forensic edifice, action is necessitated for redefining the vision , relisting the
mission, relaying the road-map, renaming the organization, reengineering the
structure, reviewing the policies, revisiting the strategy, regrouping the functions,
revamping the infrastructure, refurbishing the procedures, reinforcing the
academics, regulating the profession, repurposing the practice, and researching
the futuristics especially to reach out to homeland security. Anticipated output
should be quality driven forensic service delivered on time infusing accelerated
credibility into the minds of clients namely triers of fact and the public / Society.
Comprehensively consolidated single window service packages made available at
locations across the country by Central forensic establishments would be role
model for States / UTs to emulate; handholding gesture by the former would be
an additional enabler for the present symbiosis and for the future co-evolution.
With this backdrop, striking a balance between linear / stable bureaucratic path
and nonlinear / dynamic scientific path, and, embarking upon policy imperatives
for transformational changes, recommendations constituting Perspective Plan are
given hereunder to enhance the knowledge service function of Indian forensics
with specific attribution to Central forensic establishments.

Ethics in Forensic Science

The caption “Ethics” is typically a philosophical branch concerned with morally right and
wrong, good and bad principles of life. The terms "right" and "wrong" refer to actions or
conduct, while "good" and "bad" refer to the outcomes and consequences of those actions.
Individual morals, group dynamics, and group direction are all taken into account, while
the rights of persons involved in a particular group, agency, or profession are protected.
In the discipline of forensic science, ethics is extremely important because it can directly
affect the fates of people involved in a criminal case. Despite the fact that forensic evidence
is extremely crucial in linking many parts of a crime, but there always remains the
probability of negligence or mismanagement due to participation of manpower. From the

Page 50 of 56
collection of evidences at the crime scene to the analysis of the evidences in a forensic
laboratory, each step in this procedure necessitates extreme caution and care. There are
some challenges that forensic scientists may confront while balancing the protocol of
scientific laboratories and law enforcement agencies.
The findings of forensic evidence hold a significant impact on the court. There are many
potential ethical difficulties to consider when it comes to forensic evidences; however,
understanding appropriate technique is the most essential step in avoiding complications.
Forensic scientists are required to review all relevant evidences and ensure that samples
must not be manipulated. The value or weight of evidence in the court of law is usually
determined by the type and quality of the evidence. Regardless of the type of evidence,
forensic scientists must collect data in a method that meets the scientific standards of
validity, accuracy and precision.
The proper documentation not only helps investigators in gathering evidences, but could
also acts as a reminder to scientists of what happened or how things were done, and what
the results revealed. Preparation of notes also provides the perspective of the evidence, as
this can determine how it is processed, collected, and examined. However there are some
key points that could be considered as unethical and should not be followed in any
circumstances by any forensic scientist (Fisher 2000). Some of such practices like putting
or ignoring certain evidences at a crime scene just to show or miss a link with perpetrator,
fabricating any laboratory based tests, use of unconventional techniques for examining
evidences or evidence processing by incompetent expertise etc., are not ethically correct to
follow.
However, ethical guidelines states some important facts like the confidentiality of all the
information regarding the case, use of standardized protocols for laboratory examination,
unbiased examination, proper and timely maintenance or records.

Duties of Forensic Scientist

Forensic Science can be defined as criminalistics science. In other words the scientific
studies or investigation of crime can be termed as Forensic Science. Along with the
development of science and technology the pattern of our society has also changed to cope
with the day to day development. According the criminal also often uses different
techniques for commission of various crimes within our society. So it has become a
problem for the law enforcing agencies to check the potentiality of crimes. For such

Page 51 of 56
checking the need of forensic science becomes an essential prerequisite on the part of the
investigative agencies. Considering the necessity and importance of forensic science, Govt.
of India has established a few forensic science in the different parts of our country. The
operation of forensic science is nothing but the application of techniques and blood, saliva,
firearms, ammunitions, explosives, and explosives substances, liquor, hashish, opium,
adulterated petrol, kerosene, diesel, etc. and other chemical vehicles involved in accidents,
various types of paints. Weapons used in burglary, arson, etc. different types of poisons
and poisons and poisonous substances, hair, skeletal remains and other plant or animal
remnants. Apart from these, forensic scientists are also to examine the forged signatures
and documents along with the photographic analysis of all materials exhibits. Any material
exhibit encountered in the way of investigation needs to be thoroughly examined to prove
or disprove its association a particular crime or criminal. Practically the forensic scientists
are to examine the material exhibits connected with various nature of crimes. P. C. and
other relevant acts and laws of the land. Unlike other research and analytical materials,
forensic scientists are required to work with limited quantity and amount of materials
generally left behind or carried away by criminals.

For better collection of exhibits for various range of studies, forensic scientist are often
summoned to the scene of crime so as to assist the investigation agencies in determining
clue by means of scientific analysis.

Let us discuss first about the forensic physicist. Generally the material exhibits which are
obtained at the scene of crime are examined by the scientist of this division. Besides
comparative studies of various impressions and marks of tools etc. used in commission of
crime are also made in this division. Determination of forced engine or chassis marks or
restoration of an erased number upon metallic dates are also determined by the scientist of
this division. Analysis of paints and glass articles, stamp impressions of forest authorities
can be examined by these scientists to establish the facts for the determination of clues of
commission of crimes and criminals.

Secondly the scientists of forensic chemistry are also equally busy determining clues of
crime and detection of criminals by their various methods of analysis. For instance it is the
forensic chemist who has to determine purity of petrol, diesel and kerosene from samples.
They are also to determine the quality of liquor, opium, ganja and other chemicals, analysis
of explosive and the like. From their various methods of analysis, they have to establish
fact Forensic biologists have also been playing an important role in examining biological

Page 52 of 56
exhibits oriented with crime. It is the biologist who has to analyze the biologist material
exhibit starting from a micro organism to a higher plant or an animal and also their parts
and products. From the skeletal remains, a biologist has to determine the sex, origin,
stature, and age of the deceased. He is to identify from the skull by using superimposition
method and thereby help the investigating authority in coming to a conclusion with the
regard to a particular crime. In case of a suspected death case, the biologist is to ascertain
the cause of death. He is also to analyze various poisonous plant materials in cases where
plant poison is administered in the commission of crimes.

A Serologist plays equally important role in establishing facts in respect of various crimes.
In case of a murder where knife and other weapons are involved, it is the serologist who is
to ascertain whether the particular weapon is stained with human blood or not. Form the
findings of a serologist, the investigating officer can get a definite clue in a particular case,
depending on which the investigating officer can identify the culprit of the crime. It is the
serologist who has to establish the facts of disputed paternity cases by testing the blood
group in question.

Now, coming to the ballistics branch of forensic science it may be stated that a ballistic
expert is the only person who ascertains whether a particular fire arm was used or not while
committing a crime. He is also to examine the types of fire arms and ammunitions used in
commission of a crime. He has also to establish the facts with regard to firing ranges,
distance, direction, and angle of firing. After obtaining the opinion of a ballistic expert the
investigating officers can come to a reasonable conclusion in respect of a particular crime.
A toxicologist determines the clues of the crime in which poison is used. In any such case,
be it accidental suicidal or intentional, a toxicologist analyses the viscera and other relevant
materials from which he establishes the quality and quantity of poison used. From the
report of a toxicologist, the investigating officer can usually obtain vital clues for detecting
the criminals involved. Similarly, the Court also gets positive evidence for coming to a
conclusion in any particular case.

A document expert examines the various types of documents directly or indirectly involved
in a forgery case. The forgery cases may be of different types, but all these are examined
by the handwriting expert. From the report of a document examiner, the investigating
agency can definitely detect the real culprit of a particular case. Apart from the forged
signatures or documents, a handwriting expert often gives opinion on typed papers, time of

Page 53 of 56
 writing and the age of the ink used for writing questionable documents. So the opinion of
a handwriting expert also helps the court to a conclusion in meeting the ends of justice.

Like all others branches of science, personnel of the photography division also play a vital
role in determining clues of crimes and detecting the criminals. It is the forensic
photographer who establishes the connecting link of various clues of a crime by their
Photographic evidence. In case of a crime where the facts of erasure are involved, it is only
the photographic evidence by which the facts of easement can be established with any
degree of precision. Thereby they are also helping the courts to come to a definitive opinion
with regard to the case.

Forensic scientist by the very nature of his work is duty bound for the establishment of
justice for the society. As a matter of fact forensic scientists are playing a vital role in
reducing the potentiality of crime and also in determining the root causes of crime in our
society.

Qualifications for a Forensic Expert

To qualify as an expert, the desirable qualifications are as follows:
1. Proper training from an institute along with the content of the course and training time
period.
2. Experience requirement in his specific field along with the other related areas.
3. His research work must be published and discussed in numerous seminars, workshops,
meetings, conferences, etc.
4. If he has any published book in his name i.e. the authorship.
5. Any kind of program related to the training or teaching in his field.

The qualifications mentioned above helps to determine the validity of an expert statement
or opinion in the court of law to give a verdict to the case.

Challenges and Criticism in the past

In the court of law, the significance of various scientific evidences is controversial if not
properly collected or examined. For e.g while examining the bite marks found on the
victim's body, the characteristics obtained are compared with that of suspect. The
assumptions of unusual characteristics between the two different bite marks samples may

Page 54 of 56
lead to wrong convictions. Sometimes, even the keen onlookers or unauthorized people
disturb the scene of crime that can complicate the investigation. The inappropriate
procedure of collection can contaminate the evidence at the scene of the crime.
Investigators while collecting evidence might not have taken appropriate precautions like
not wearing gloves, caps, any protective material, etc. contaminate the evidence.
Some problems found in the forensic science application have been listed below:
1. Questionable or unpredictable discipline in Forensics: There are fewer techniques in
forensic science that are not found accurate during the investigation of any crime because
of its inaccurate results. E.g. In the comparison of bite marks, the analysis method is
completely incorrect and unreliable.
2. Inadequate assurance of technique: There are numerous methods in the field of
forensic science that has a proficiency in developing factual results but still a question
might arise on its validity because of the inadequate research. Studies prove the accuracy
of the given result as these studies help to interpret the analysis of any evidence. E.g. Shoe
print examination can help the investigators to find out the distinct source but the analysis
method validity has not been provided.
3. Testimonials mislead: At times, forensic testimony might amplify the counterpart's
importance between the evidence found at a scene of the crime and from a particular
individual or the data might get oversimplified. Moreover, there are changes of forensic
testimony that discard the evidence analysis importance and therefore excluding the
individual from the list of possible suspects. An inconclusive examination eliminates the
individual from the list of possible suspects. At times, the constraints of any method of
analysis of the evidence do not get included such as the error rates in the technique that
might have or not have been displayed for its validity. There are chances of samples
contamination by a forensic practitioner that can happen in any laboratory during its testing
even in a well-validated and developed field. In fewer cases, there are chances of the result
fabrication by the forensic analyst, hiding some exculpatory evidence, or providing results
of the test that has not been conducted by them at all.

Crisis faced in Forensic Science

The field of forensic science is correlated with the field of law, science, government,
policing, and policy. It is a complicated ecosystem that has striving needs and drivers for
delivering science in the court of law to gain justice. The latest investigation was done by

Page 55 of 56
the "House of Lords Science & Technology Select Committee" of the UK mentioned
forensic science in crisis to such an extent that it weakens the belief in the system of justice.
It is a multifaceted crisis that has resulted in justice miscarriage, malpractice, quality
standards failures, crisis aspects that have been overlooked. The catastrophe is a result of
the systematic issue of science used in the system of justice. Detecting crucial traces of
forensics such as DNA or GPS data is not enough. The interpretation of such evidence to
reconstruct the crime is a must. Detection of the traces of gun powder on clothing is not
enough. In the system of justice, the role of forensic science is at the top because of the
upcoming development in science & technology. Even after an erratic development, the
dependency on scientific tools and techniques has always remained low specifically in
India. In India, technology is important in the investigation field. There are many reports
of commissions that says, fairness in the verdict of the court is possible because of the
appropriate scientific tools and techniques that become democracy hallmark.
But the court of law reluctantly consolidates forensic science because of the evidence
contamination or tampering chances. Preference is given more to the old methods for
justice. The recent amendments in the sections have still not provided worth to forensic
science in the court of law. The investigating team is unprofessional and not much skilled
in their field whereas the experts add more fuel to the fire. This field has constantly
confronted the problem of low employees.
To overcome these challenges, the basic need is to strengthen the system for further
improving the impact of forensic evidence examination in the court of law. Innovation and
refinement in processing of evidences is very crucial for helping modern crime situations.
Similarly, the use of advanced techniques for examining the different categories of
physical, biological or chemical evidences should be adopted by the professionals. This
kind of approach would facilitate the collection and processing of evidences for
investigators. There should be more focus in the area of research & development in the
various fields of forensic science. The knowledge and experience of experts should
collaborate more with technology to present a new dimension to the field. The measures
should be taken by the government agencies to raise public understanding of the value of
forensic evidence in the criminal justice system. It is necessary to instruct police,
investigating officers, detectives, and scientists regarding the advancement of science and
technology as well as the significance of such evidences.

Page 56 of 56