ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

ANALYTICAL SKILLS
EPEA516 | Complete Detailed Study Notes - II
Lovely Professional University

U01 U02 U03 U04

Time and Work Pipes and Cistern Time Speed Distance Trains Boats Races

U05 U06 U07 U08

Sequence and Series Alphabet Test Coding-Decoding Simple Interest

U09 U10 U11 U12

Compound Interest Calendar Clocks Data Sufficiency

U13 U14
Non-Verbal
Puzzle Test
Reasoning

Formulas | Solved Examples | Shortcuts | Applications | Practice Notes

Page 1 | All 14 Units Covered with Examples, Formulas & Shortcuts

ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

UNIT 01: TIME AND WORK

Introduction: Time and Work problems deal with the rate at which one or more persons (or machines) complete a task.
Work is the total effort; Rate (Efficiency) is units of work done per unit time; Time is total time taken. The fundamental
relation is W = R × T.

1.1 Core Concepts and Formulas

Work (W) = Rate (R) × Time (T)

Rate = 1/T (if person finishes in T days, rate = 1/T work per day)

If A finishes in 'a' days and B in 'b' days, together they finish in: T = ab/(a+b) days

Total Work (using LCM method) = LCM of all given times

Efficiency of A = Total Work / Time taken by A

MDH Formula: M1 x D1 x H1 / W1 = M2 x D2 x H2 / W2

where M=Men, D=Days, H=Hours/day, W=Work units

If A is 'n' times more efficient than B: Ratio of efficiencies = n:1; Ratio of times = 1:n

Wages are divided in the RATIO OF WORK DONE (not time spent)

1.2 The LCM (Chocolate) Method — Core Technique

STEP 1: Assume Total Work = LCM of all given time values. This makes efficiencies whole numbers.
STEP 2: Efficiency of each person = Total Work / Their Individual Time.
STEP 3: Combined efficiency = Sum of individual efficiencies.
STEP 4: Time to finish together = Total Work / Combined Efficiency.

Example: Basic — Two persons together

A completes in 10 days, B in 15 days. Time to complete together?

Total Work = LCM(10,15) = 30 units

A's efficiency = 30/10 = 3 units/day; B's efficiency = 30/15 = 2 units/day

Combined efficiency = 3 + 2 = 5 units/day

Time = 30/5 = 6 days [Answer: 6 days]

Example: Three persons together

A, B and C can do work in 10, 15 and 30 days. Time together?

Total Work = LCM(10,15,30) = 30 units

A=3, B=2, C=1 units/day; Combined = 6 units/day

Time = 30/6 = 5 days [Answer: 5 days]

Example: Finding individual time

A and B together finish in 4 days. A alone finishes in 12 days. B alone?

Total Work = LCM(4,12) = 12 units

A's efficiency = 12/12 = 1; Combined efficiency = 12/4 = 3

B's efficiency = 3 - 1 = 2; B's time = 12/2 = 6 days [Answer: 6 days]

1.3 Type 2 — Leaving and Joining

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ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

When one person leaves midway or joins late, calculate work done in each phase separately.

Example: A leaves midway

A (10 days) and B (15 days) work together for 2 days, then A leaves. How long does B finish remaining?

Total Work = 30 units; A=3, B=2 per day

Work in 2 days together = 5 x 2 = 10 units

Remaining = 30 - 10 = 20 units; B's rate = 2 units/day

B takes 20/2 = 10 more days [Answer: 10 days]

Example: Work done in fixed time, remainder to one person

A, B, C complete in 10, 12, 15 days. A and B work for 3 days, then only C finishes. Total days?

Total Work = LCM(10,12,15) = 60 units; A=6, B=5, C=4

Work in 3 days by A+B = (6+5)x3 = 33 units; Remaining = 27 units

C's time for remaining = 27/4 = 6.75 days

Total = 3 + 6.75 = 9.75 days

1.4 Type 3 — Alternate Working

In alternate working, persons work on different days in rotation. Calculate work done in one complete cycle (2 or 3
days), then find remaining work.

Example: Alternate days — 2 persons

A (10 days) and B (15 days) work on alternate days, A starts. Total time?

Total Work = 30; A=3, B=2 per day

In every 2-day cycle: A does 3, B does 2 = 5 units

After 10 days (5 cycles): 5x5 = 25 units done

Day 11 (A's turn): does 3 more = 28; Day 12 (B's turn): does 2 more = 30 [Done]

Answer: 12 days

Example: Every 3rd day — A assisted by B and C

A (10 days), B (15 days), C (30 days). A works alone on day 1 and 2; all three on day 3.

Total Work = 30; A=3, B=2, C=1

In 3-day cycle: Day1=3, Day2=3, Day3=3+2+1=6 → Total = 12 units/cycle

After 2 cycles (6 days): 24 units done

Day 7 (A): 3 more = 27; Day 8 (A): 3 more = 30 [Done]

Answer: 8 days

1.5 Type 4 — Men and Boys / MDH Formula

M1 x D1 x H1 x E1 / W1 = M2 x D2 x H2 x E2 / W2

For two types of workers: (M1E1 + M2E2) x D1 x H1 / W1 = (M3E3 + M4E4) x D2 x H2 / W2

Example: Men and Boys efficiency

2 men + 3 boys do work in 10 days; 4 men do same in 10 days. Time for 15 men + 20 boys?

Since work and time are same: 2M + 3B = 4M => 2M = 3B => M:B = 3:2

15M + 20B = 15(3) + 20(2) = 45 + 40 = 85 man-units (using M=3,B=2 as units)

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ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

Original: 4M x 10 days = 4x3x10 = 120

New: 85 x D = 120 => D = 120/85 No — recalculate using original men rate:

Original rate: 4M x 10 = 4x3x10 = 120 units; New: (15x3+20x2)xD = 85D = 120 => D = 24/17 ≈ 1.4 days

Example: MDH formula — working hours

3 men working 8 hours/day make a toy in 2 days. How many hours/day must 4 men work in 1 day?

M1 x D1 x H1 = M2 x D2 x H2

3 x 2 x 8 = 4 x 1 x H2 => 48 = 4H2 => H2 = 12 hours/day

1.6 Wages / Payment Distribution

Wages are always divided proportional to the WORK DONE by each person. If all work for same days, split by
efficiency ratio. If different days, split by (efficiency x days).

Example: Wage distribution — different work done

A (12 days), B (20 days) share Rs.1200. A works 3 days, B works 6 days, C does rest.

Total Work = LCM(12,20) = 60; A=5, B=3

A does: 5x3=15 units; B does: 3x6=18 units; C does: 60-33=27 units

Ratio A:B:C = 15:18:27 = 5:6:9

Total parts = 20; Each part = 1200/20 = Rs.60

C's share = 9 x 60 = Rs.540

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

SHORTCUT: If A is x% more efficient than B, then A's time = B's time x 100/(100+x)

SHORTCUT: If A and B together finish in T days, and A alone in 'a' days, then B alone = aT/(a-T)

SHORTCUT: If work is doubled, time doubles. If workers are doubled, time halves.

TRICK (Alternate): In alternate working, first check if work completes mid-day. Don't just multiply cycles.

IMPORTANT: Always check units — is it days, hours, or minutes?

USE CASES & APPLICATIONS

-> Construction projects: estimating labor requirements and completion dates

-> Manufacturing: production line efficiency with multiple machines/workers

-> Software development: sprint planning with team velocity

-> Agriculture: harvest planning with seasonal labor

-> HR management: calculating optimal team size for deadline-driven projects

-> Salary/Payroll: fair wage distribution based on contribution

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ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

UNIT 02: PIPES AND CISTERN

Introduction: Pipes and Cistern problems are analogous to Time and Work. Inlet pipes fill tanks (positive work); outlet
pipes/leaks empty tanks (negative work). The capacity of the tank = LCM of all pipe times. Always assign signs: Inlet =
+, Outlet = -.

2.1 Key Terms and Formulas

Term Definition Formula

Inlet Pipe Fills the tank (positive) Rate = Tank Capacity / Fill Time

Outlet/Leak Empties the tank (negative) Rate = -Capacity / Empty Time

Net Rate Combined fill rate Sum of all rates (with signs)

Time to fill Total capacity / net rate T = Capacity / Net Rate

If pipe fills in x hrs: part filled per hour = 1/x (POSITIVE)

If pipe empties in y hrs: part emptied per hour = 1/y (NEGATIVE)

Two inlets together: Time = xy/(x+y)

One inlet (x hrs) + one outlet (y hrs): Net fill per hour = 1/x - 1/y

If x < y: tank fills; If y < x: tank empties

Special formula: If A alone takes 'a' extra hrs than (A+B) and B takes 'b' extra hrs than (A+B):

Time for A+B together = sqrt(a x b)

2.2 Solved Examples — All Types

Example: Two inlets — LCM method
Pipe A fills in 12 hrs, B fills in 16 hrs. Both open. Time to fill?

Capacity = LCM(12,16) = 48 units

A = 48/12 = 4 units/hr; B = 48/16 = 3 units/hr

Combined = 7 units/hr; Time = 48/7 hrs = 6 hrs 51.4 min

Example: Inlet + Outlet pipes

A fills in 10 hrs, B fills in 12 hrs, C empties in 30 hrs. All open together.

Capacity = LCM(10,12,30) = 60 units

A=6, B=5, C=-2 units/hr; Net = 6+5-2 = 9 units/hr

Time = 60/9 = 6 hrs 40 min [Answer]

Example: Sequential opening — C opened after 7 seconds

A (36s) and B (45s) fill. C (30s) empties. A and B start; C opens after 7s.

Capacity = LCM(36,45,30) = 180 units

A=5, B=4, C=-6 units/s

First 7s: A+B work = (5+4)x7 = 63 units filled

Remaining = 180-63 = 117 units

Net rate with all 3 = 5+4-6 = 3 units/s

Additional time = 117/3 = 39 seconds [Answer: 39 more seconds]

Page 5 | All 14 Units Covered with Examples, Formulas & Shortcuts

ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

Example: Finding when to close a pipe

A fills in 20 hrs, B fills in 30 hrs. Both open. Close B so full in 18 hrs. When close B?

Capacity = 60 units; A=3, B=2 units/hr

Let both open for n hrs, then only A for (18-n) hrs:

5n + 3(18-n) = 60 => 5n + 54 - 3n = 60 => 2n = 6 => n = 3

Close B after 3 hours [Answer: 3 hours]

Example: Tank partially filled — drain or fill?

Tank is 2/5 full. A fills in 10 min, B empties in 6 min. Both open. Fill or empty and how long?

A rate = 1/10 = 0.1; B rate = -1/6 = -0.167

Net rate = 0.1 - 0.167 = -0.067/min (NEGATIVE = emptying)

2/5 of tank needs to empty; Time = (2/5) / (1/6 - 1/10) = (2/5) / (1/15) = 6 min

Answer: Empties in 6 minutes

Example: Finding leak — given extra time

A fills tank in 4 hrs. Due to leak, takes 4 hrs 48 min = 24/5 hrs. How long does leak empty?

Without leak: 1/4 per hr; With leak: 5/24 per hr

Leak rate = 1/4 - 5/24 = 6/24 - 5/24 = 1/24 per hr

Leak empties in 24 hours [Answer]

Example: Chemical mixture ratio

A, B, C fill in 30, 20, 10 min. All open together. What fraction of solution R (from C) after 3 min?

Capacity = LCM(30,20,10) = 60 units

A=2, B=3, C=6 units/min; Total = 11 units/min

In 3 min: total = 33 units. C filled = 6x3 = 18 units

Fraction R = 18/33 = 6/11 [Answer: 6/11]

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

Remember: Outlet pipe ALWAYS gets a MINUS sign.

If tank is partly full and net rate is negative, it will EMPTY — regardless of inlet being open.

Two pipes A and B open for alternate hours: check if tank fills in exactly n hours or n + fraction.

SHORTCUT: If pipe fills in x hrs and empties in y hrs (x < y), net fill time = xy/(y-x)

Leak problem: effective time T_eff gives us: 1/fill_rate - 1/leak_rate = 1/T_eff

USE CASES & APPLICATIONS

-> Municipal water supply: managing reservoir levels with multiple pumps

-> Industrial tanks: chemical plants managing input/output of reaction vessels

-> Swimming pool management: fill/drain scheduling for maintenance

-> Irrigation systems: controlling water flow to fields via gates and pumps

-> Fire sprinkler systems: calculating pressure and fill rates

Page 6 | All 14 Units Covered with Examples, Formulas & Shortcuts

ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

UNIT 03: TIME, SPEED AND DISTANCE

Introduction: TSD problems involve three interdependent variables. Mastering unit conversions and proportionality
relationships is the foundation for solving trains, boats, races and other motion problems.

3.1 Basic Relationships and Unit Conversion

Distance (D) = Speed (S) x Time (T)

Speed (S) = D / T

Time (T) = D / S

Unit Conversions:

km/h to m/s: multiply by 5/18 (1 km/h = 5/18 m/s)

m/s to km/h: multiply by 18/5 (1 m/s = 18/5 km/h)

1 km = 1000 m; 1 mile = 1.609 km; 1 hr = 3600 s; 1 min = 60 s

3.2 Proportionality Rules

Condition Proportionality Ratio Relationship Practical Use

Distance FIXED S inversely proportional to T S1:S2 = T2:T1 Same route, different speeds

Two bodies travel for same

Time FIXED S directly proportional to D D1:D2 = S1:S2
time

Same speed, different

Speed FIXED T directly proportional to D T1:T2 = D1:D2
distances

Example: Proportionality — same distance

Abhay travels A to B in 3 hrs normally, 2 hrs at faster speed. Speed difference = 20 km/h. Normal speed?

Distance fixed => S1:S2 = T2:T1 = 2:3

Let speeds be 2x and 3x; difference = 3x-2x = x = 20 km/h

Normal speed = 2x = 40 km/h [Answer: 40 km/h]

Example: Proportionality — same time

Two cars start toward each other, speeds 50 and 60 km/h. When they meet, second car has traveled 12 km more.

Time is same for both => D proportional to S => D1:D2 = 50:60 = 5:6

Difference = 6x - 5x = x = 12 km; Total distance = 11x = 132 km [Answer: 132 km]

3.3 Average Speed

Average Speed = Total Distance / Total Time

When DISTANCE is same for both legs: Avg Speed = 2 x S1 x S2 / (S1 + S2) [Harmonic Mean]

When TIME is same for both legs: Avg Speed = (S1 + S2) / 2 [Arithmetic Mean]

For 3 equal distances at S1, S2, S3: Avg = 3 x S1 x S2 x S3 / (S1S2 + S2S3 + S1S3)

NEVER add speeds and divide by 2 when distances are the same!

Example: Harmonic mean — same distance

Car goes A to B at 20 km/h, returns at 30 km/h. Average speed?

Avg = 2 x 20 x 30 / (20+30) = 1200/50 = 24 km/h [NOT 25 km/h!]

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ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

Example: Three legs — different distances

Man covers 60 km each day at 10, 12, 15 km/h respectively. Average speed?

Total dist = 180 km; Time = 60/10 + 60/12 + 60/15 = 6+5+4 = 15 hrs

Avg speed = 180/15 = 12 km/h

3.4 Relative Speed

Relative Speed (SAME direction) = |S1 - S2|

Relative Speed (OPPOSITE directions) = S1 + S2

Time to meet/cross = Initial Gap / Relative Speed

If A starts t hours before B (same direction): distance covered by A = S_A x t (this is initial gap)

Example: Two trains meeting — one starts late

Train from B (65 km/h, 10 AM) toward M. Train from M (35 km/h, 11 AM) toward B. Distance = 465 km.

By 11 AM, B-train covered = 65 x 1 = 65 km. Remaining gap = 465-65 = 400 km.

Now both moving toward each other: Relative speed = 65+35 = 100 km/h

Time to meet = 400/100 = 4 hrs after 11 AM = 3 PM [Answer]

Example: Police chasing thief

Thief: 6 km/h. Police: 8 km/h. Police starts 10 min late. At what distance is thief caught?

In 10 min, thief covers = 6 x 10/60 = 1 km (head start)

Relative speed = 8-6 = 2 km/h

Time to close 1 km gap = 1/2 hr = 30 min

Distance covered by police in 30 min = 8 x 30/60 = 4 km from start [Answer: 4 km]

Example: Stoppage time calculation

Without stoppages: 80 km/h. With stoppages: 60 km/h. How many min/hr does bus stop?

In 1 hr: covers 80 km without stops, only 60 km with stops.

Missed 20 km due to stoppages; Time for 20 km at 80 km/h = 20/80 hr = 15 min

Bus stops 15 min per hour [Answer]

Example: Late and Early problems (Speed ratio method)

Boy walks at 4 km/h, reaches 5 min late. At 5 km/h, reaches 2.5 min early. Distance?

Speed ratio = 4:5 => Time ratio = 5:4

Difference in time = 1 part = 5+2.5 = 7.5 min

Time at 4 km/h = 5 parts = 37.5 min; Distance = 4 x 37.5/60 = 2.5 km [Answer]

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

Always convert units FIRST before applying formulas.

Harmonic mean for same distance: 2ab/(a+b). If you use AM you'll get wrong answer.

Speed ratio shortcut: T ratio = inverse of S ratio when distance is same.

Train problems: person/pole crossing time gives train length directly.

Late/early problems: use ratio method — difference in time = 1 part of ratio difference.

Page 8 | All 14 Units Covered with Examples, Formulas & Shortcuts

ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

USE CASES & APPLICATIONS

-> GPS and navigation systems: real-time ETA calculations

-> Railways and aviation: timetable design and scheduling

-> Logistics: delivery time estimates and route optimization

-> Sports: athletic performance analysis and pace calculation

-> Urban planning: traffic signal timing and road capacity analysis

Page 9 | All 14 Units Covered with Examples, Formulas & Shortcuts

ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

UNIT 04: TRAINS, BOATS, STREAMS AND RACES

4.1 Train Problems — Complete Guide
Key Concept: When a train crosses any object, the distance traveled = Length of Train + Length of Object. Use relative
speed for two moving trains.

Train crosses a POLE or STANDING PERSON: Distance = Length of Train (L)

Train crosses a PLATFORM/BRIDGE of length P: Distance = L + P

Train crosses a MOVING PERSON (same direction): Relative Speed = T - P (T=train, P=person
speed)

Train crosses a MOVING PERSON (opposite): Relative Speed = T + P

Two trains SAME direction: Time = (L1+L2) / |S1-S2|

Two trains OPPOSITE direction: Time = (L1+L2) / (S1+S2)

After crossing, if trains take t1 and t2 hrs to reach destinations: S1/S2 = sqrt(t2/t1)

Example: Train crosses a station

Train (54 km/h) crosses a man (stationary) in 20s and a platform in 36s. Platform length?

Speed = 54 x 5/18 = 15 m/s

Length of train = 15 x 20 = 300 m

300 + platform_length = 15 x 36 = 540; Platform = 540-300 = 240 m [Answer]

Example: Train crosses moving man

Train 500m long, speed 63 km/h. Man walks at 3 km/h in same direction. Time to pass man?

Relative speed = 63-3 = 60 km/h = 60 x 5/18 = 50/3 m/s

Time = 500 / (50/3) = 500 x 3/50 = 30 seconds [Answer]

Example: Two trains opposite direction

Each train is 100m long. Moving opposite at speeds s and 2s. Cross in 8s. Faster speed?

Relative speed = s+2s = 3s; Distance = 100+100 = 200 m

200 = 3s x 8 => 3s = 25 m/s => 2s = 50/3 m/s x 18/5 = 60 km/h [Answer: 60 km/h]

Example: After-crossing formula

Two trains meet. After crossing, first takes 9 hrs to reach destination, second takes 16 hrs.

Ratio of speeds = sqrt(16) : sqrt(9) = 4 : 3 [Answer]

4.2 Boats and Streams

Downstream speed (D) = Boat speed (B) + Stream speed (S)

Upstream speed (U) = Boat speed (B) - Stream speed (S)

Speed of Boat in still water = (D + U) / 2

Speed of Stream = (D - U) / 2

Average speed of boat = (U x D) / B = (D x U) / ((D+U)/2)

Time downstream = Distance / D; Time upstream = Distance / U

If ratio of downstream to upstream time = t1:t2, then (B+S):(B-S) = t2:t1

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ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

Example: Basic — still water and stream speed

Boat goes downstream in 2 hrs (16 km) and upstream in 4 hrs (16 km).

D = 16/2 = 8 km/h; U = 16/4 = 4 km/h

Still water speed = (8+4)/2 = 6 km/h

Stream speed = (8-4)/2 = 2 km/h [Answers: 6 km/h, 2 km/h]

Example: Round trip time

Boat speed 15 km/h still water. Goes 30 km downstream and back. Total 4.5 hrs. Stream speed?

Let stream speed = s. Time = 30/(15+s) + 30/(15-s) = 4.5

=> 30(15-s) + 30(15+s) = 4.5(225-s^2)

=> 900 = 4.5(225-s^2) => 225-s^2 = 200 => s^2 = 25 => s = 5 km/h [Answer]

Example: Speed ratio of boat and stream

Downstream speed is 3x upstream. Stream = 4 km/h. Boat in still water?

D = 3U; Also D = B+S, U = B-S

B+S = 3(B-S) => B+S = 3B-3S => 4S = 2B => B = 2S = 2x4 = 8 km/h [Answer]

4.3 Races
Term Meaning

Start Head start given to a contestant

Dead Heat All contestants finish simultaneously

A gives B a start of x m A runs 100m while B runs (100-x)m

A beats B by x m When A finishes, B is still x m away

A beats B by t seconds A finishes t seconds before B

Example: Chain races

In 100m race: A gives B 10m start, A gives C 28m start. What start does B give C?

A:B = 100:90; A:C = 100:72

B:C = (B/A) x (A/C) = (90/100) x (100/72) = 90/72

When B runs 90m, C runs 72m; When B runs 100m, C runs 72x100/90 = 80m

B gives C a start of 20m [Answer]

Example: Race with head start

500m race: Speed ratio A:B = 3:4. A gets 140m start. Who wins and by how much?

A needs to run 500-140 = 360m. While A runs 360m, B runs (4/3)x360 = 480m.

When A finishes, B has run 480m — still 20m short of 500.

A wins by 20m [Answer]

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

Trains: Always check direction first — same or opposite — to determine relative speed.

Boats: The most tested formula: Still water = (D+U)/2.

Races: 'A beats B by x m' means in a 100m race, B runs only (100-x)m.

Chain races: use ratio multiplication — B:C = (B:A) x (A:C).

Page 11 | All 14 Units Covered with Examples, Formulas & Shortcuts

ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

UNIT 05: SEQUENCE AND SERIES COMPLETION

Introduction: A sequence is an ordered set of numbers following a definite rule. A series is a sum of sequence terms.
In competitive exams you must find missing terms, wrong terms, or the next term by identifying the pattern.

5.1 Types of Number Series — Detailed

Detection
Type Pattern Description Example Next Term
Method

1st differences
Arithmetic (AP) Constant difference d 1,4,7,10,13 16 (d=3)
are equal

2nd differences
Arithmetic 2nd Order 2nd differences constant 1,3,7,13,21 31
equal

3rd differences
Arithmetic 3rd Order 3rd differences constant 2,9,17,28,44 67
equal

Ratios of
Geometric (GP) Constant ratio r 4,8,16,32 64 (r=2) consecutive terms
equal

Differences form
Arith-Geometric (prev+a) x b 1,9,33,105 321
GP

Diff of differences
Geo-Arithmetic prev x a + b 2,5,17,65 257
form GP

Take square
Squares n^2 pattern 1,4,9,16,25 36
roots: 1,2,3,4,5

Take cube roots:

Cubes n^3 pattern 1,8,27,64 125
1,2,3,4

Split into
Double Series Two interwoven 1,2,4,6,7,18,10,54 13 odd/even
positions

Check 'next =
Digit Sum Add digits of prev 11,13,17,25,32 37 (32+3+2) prev + digit sum
of prev'

Groups of 3: find
LCM/HCF LCM/HCF follows groups 1,2,3,6,4,5,6,60 5,6,7,210 LCM of each
group

5.2 How to Detect Series Type — Step by Step

STEP 1: Calculate 1st order differences (term2-term1, term3-term2, ...)
STEP 2: If 1st differences are CONSTANT => Arithmetic Series
STEP 3: If not, calculate 2nd order differences. If CONSTANT => 2nd Order Arithmetic
STEP 4: Calculate ratios (term2/term1, ...). If CONSTANT => Geometric Series
STEP 5: If alternating, split into odd-position and even-position subsequences
STEP 6: Check if terms follow n^2, n^3, n^2+1, n^3-1 patterns etc.

Example: Finding missing term

Series: 5, 8, 12, 17, 23, ?, 38

1st differences: 3, 4, 5, 6, ?, ?

Pattern: differences increase by 1 each time

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ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

Missing difference = 7 => Missing term = 23+7 = 30

Check: 38-30=8 => 8th difference. Consistent. [Answer: 30]

Example: Finding wrong term

Series: 1, 5, 11, 19, 29, 55

1st differences: 4, 6, 8, 10, 26

Pattern of differences: +2 each time => should be 4,6,8,10,12

5th term should be: 29+12 = 41 (not 55)

Wrong term: 55; correct term: 41 [Answer: 55 is wrong]

Example: Geometric series identification

Series: 2, 4, 4, 16, 8, 256, 64

Split: odd positions: 2, 4, 8, 64 and even positions: 4, 16, 256

Odd positions: 2^1, 2^2, 2^3, 2^6 — should be 2^4=16 (wrong: 64)

Even positions: 2^2, 2^4, 2^8 — these are correct

Wrong term: 64 should be 16 [Answer: 64 is wrong]

5.3 Arithmetic Progression (AP) — Complete Theory

AP: a, a+d, a+2d, ..., a+(n-1)d where a=first term, d=common difference

nth term: Tn = a + (n-1)d [Also written as: l = a + (n-1)d for last term]

Sum of n terms: Sn = n/2 x [2a + (n-1)d] = n/2 x (a + l) = n/2 x (first + last)

nth term from END = a + (m-n)d where m = total number of terms

Three terms in AP: choose as (a-d), a, (a+d) — makes sum easy = 3a

Four terms in AP: (a-3d), (a-d), (a+d), (a+3d) — sum = 4a

Five terms in AP: (a-2d), (a-d), a, (a+d), (a+2d) — sum = 5a

Three numbers a, b, c are in AP if and only if: a + c = 2b

If Sn is given: nth term Tn = Sn - S(n-1)

Example: 15th term of decreasing AP

Find 15th term of: 12, 7, 2, -3, -8, ...

a=12, d=7-12=-5, n=15

T15 = 12 + (15-1)(-5) = 12 - 70 = -58 [Answer: -58]

Example: Sum of n terms

Sum of 5+9+13+... to 50 terms?

a=5, d=4, n=50

S50 = 50/2 x [2(5) + (49)(4)] = 25 x [10 + 196] = 25 x 206 = 5150 [Answer]

Example: Find value of x in AP

x+2, 4x-6, 3x-2 are in AP. Find x.

Condition: (x+2) + (3x-2) = 2(4x-6) => 4x = 8x-12 => 4x=12 => x=3

Terms: 5, 6, 7 (check: common difference = 1) [Answer: x=3]

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5.4 Geometric Progression (GP) — Complete Theory

GP: a, ar, ar^2, ar^3, ..., ar^(n-1) where a=first term, r=common ratio

nth term: Tn = a x r^(n-1)

Common ratio: r = T2/T1 = T3/T2 = ... (any consecutive ratio)

Sum of n terms: Sn = a(r^n - 1)/(r-1) when r > 1

Sum of n terms: Sn = a(1 - r^n)/(1-r) when r < 1

Sum of INFINITE GP (|r| < 1): S_inf = a / (1-r)

When last term l is known: Sn = (lr - a) / (r - 1)

Three terms in GP: a/r, a, ar — product = a^3

Three numbers a, b, c are in GP if and only if: b^2 = ac

Example: 9th term of GP

Find 9th term of: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ...

a=2, r=4/2=2, n=9

T9 = 2 x 2^(9-1) = 2 x 256 = 512 [Answer: 512]

Example: Sum of infinite GP

Find sum of: 9, -3, 1, -1/3, ...

a=9, r=-3/9 = -1/3, |r|=1/3 < 1

S_inf = 9 / (1-(-1/3)) = 9 / (4/3) = 9 x 3/4 = 27/4 [Answer: 27/4]

Example: Sum given, find last term

Find sum of 12 terms of GP: a=3, r=-2, l=48x(-1)=-48 (check: T12=3x(-2)^11=3x(-2048)=-6144?)

Actually l=48 given; use Sn = (lr-a)/(r-1) = (48x(-2)-3)/(-2-1) = (-96-3)/(-3) = -99/-3 = 33

S12 = 33 [Answer: 33]

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

AP detection: check if differences are constant. GP detection: check if ratios are constant.

For AP with 3 unknown terms: assume (a-d), a, (a+d) to simplify algebra.

For GP with 3 unknown terms: assume a/r, a, ar to simplify algebra.

Wrong term: find where the pattern breaks in differences OR ratios.

Infinite GP: only possible when |r| < 1. Otherwise sum diverges.

USE CASES & APPLICATIONS

-> Finance: EMI calculation, compound growth, loan amortization schedules

-> Biology: population growth modeling, bacterial doubling (GP)

-> Physics: projectile motion distance in consecutive seconds (AP), radioactive decay (GP)

-> Computer Science: algorithm analysis, binary search (GP), bubble sort (AP comparisons)

-> Music: frequency ratios in octaves follow GP; musical scales follow AP

-> Data patterns: stock price analysis, growth trends in business

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UNIT 06: ALPHABET TEST AND LOGICAL SEQUENCE

6.1 Position Chart — Forward and Backward
Forward Positions (A=1 to Z=26):
A B C D E F G H I J K L M

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Backward Positions (A=26 to Z=1):

A B C D E F G H I J K L M

26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14

N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

6.2 Memory Shortcuts

KEY POINTS

EJOTY Rule: E=5, J=10, O=15, T=20, Y=25 (multiples of 5 — memorize these 5 anchors!)

Opposite pairs: Each pair sums to 27 (A+Z=1+26=27, B+Y=2+25=27, ...). Use this to quickly find opposite.

Opposite of letter at position n = letter at position (27-n)

Middle of alphabet: M(13) and N(14). Letters before M=1-13, after N=14-26.

Letters from 1-13: A to M (first half); 14-26: N to Z (second half)

6.3 Types of Alphabet Questions

Type 1: Alphabetical Ordering — Arrange words as they appear in a dictionary. Compare letter by letter (1st, then
2nd, then 3rd...).

Example: Dictionary order

Arrange: Savour, Save, Savage, Sausage, Saviour

All start with Sa..., next letters: v, v, v, u, v

u < v => Sausage comes first. Then compare Sa+v: Savage, Save, Saviour, Savour

Savage(a), Save(e), Saviour(i), Savour(o) => order: e<i<o

Final: Sausage, Savage, Save, Saviour, Savour

Type 2: Letter-Word Distance — Find letters whose position in the word equals their position in alphabet.

Example: Letter-word distance

How many letters in ACCELERATION are as far from beginning of word as from beginning of alphabet?

A=1st in alphabet; 1st in word ACCELERATION -> A is at position 1 -> YES

C=3rd in alphabet; 3rd letter in ACCELERATION = C -> YES

Other letters: E(5th in alphabet, 5th in word? E is at position... not 5th) -> Check each

Answer: C is the only one (the 3rd letter) -> Answer: One

Type 3: Alphabetical Quibble — Replace every nth letter with a symbol, then answer positional questions.

Example: Symbol replacement

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Replace every 4th letter with #: A B C # E F G # I J K # M N O # Q R S # U V W # Y Z

Find: 9th element to the left of 14th element from left.

14th element from left = N. 9th to left of N = E [Answer: E]

Type 4: New Word Formation — Use specific letter positions to form new words.

Example: Word formation from positions

Word: FRAGMENT. 2nd=R, 3rd=A, 6th=E, 8th=T

Letters available: R, A, E, T

Possible words: RATE, TEAR, TARE, TERA -> 3 meaningful words

Answer: 3 words (RATE, TEAR, TARE)

6.4 Logical Sequence of Words

Type 1 — Natural/Logical Order: Arrange by process, size, hierarchy, or food chain.

Category Logic Example Order

Food chain Prey to predator Grass->Grasshopper->Frog->Snake->Eagle

Process/Stages Sequential steps Seed->Root->Stem->Leaf->Flower

Advertisement->Application->Interview->Selection->Appo
Recruitment Employment process
intment->Probation

Medical Treatment steps Fever->Doctor->Diagnosis->Prescription->Medicine

Size Small to large Sand->Stone->Rock->Boulder->Hill

VIBGYOR Light spectrum Violet->Indigo->Blue->Green->Yellow->Orange->Red

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

Dictionary order: always compare letter by letter, not by word length.

Logical sequence: think of real-world processes. What comes first in nature/procedure?

Opposite letter: position + opposite position = 27. So opposite of L(12) = letter at 15 = O.

For quibble questions: write out the full modified alphabet sequence before answering.

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UNIT 07: CODING-DECODING

Introduction: Coding-Decoding tests logical reasoning. A code is created by applying a specific rule to letters,
numbers or words. You must identify the rule from examples and apply it to decode or encode new inputs.

7.1 Letter Coding — All Types

Sub-Type Rule Example

Fixed forward shift Each letter moved +n places EARTH -> FBSUI (+1 shift)

Fixed backward shift Each letter moved -n places EARTH -> DZSQG (-1 shift)

Progressive shift Letters shifted by 1,2,3,4,5... EARTH -> FCUXM (+1,+2,+3,+4,+5)

Reverse + shift Reverse word then shift TIGER -> REGIT -> QDFHS (reverse, -1)

Different shift for odd/even

Odd/Even position shift PARTNER -> odd-2, even+2
positions

A<->Z, B<->Y, C<->X

Mirror coding BAT -> YZG
(opposites)

Repeat-position coding Specific position letters repeated BOMBAY -> MYMYMY (3rd & 6th letters)

Example: Fixed shift coding

COURSE is coded as GSYVWI. Decode NATION.

C->G(+4), O->S(+4), U->Y(+4), R->V(+4), S->W(+4), E->I(+4). Rule: +4 shift

N(14)->R(18), A(1)->E(5), T(20)->X(24), I(9)->M(13), O(15)->S(19), N(14)->R(18)

NATION -> REXMSR [Answer: REXMSR]

Example: Progressive shift coding

EARTH coded as FCUXM. Decode TEMPLE.

E->F(+1), A->C(+2), R->U(+3), T->X(+4), H->M(+5). Rule: progressive +1,+2,+3...

T->U(+1), E->G(+2), M->P(+3), P->T(+4), L->Q(+5), E->K(+6)

TEMPLE -> UGPTQK [Answer: UGPTQK]

Example: Odd/Even position shift

PARTNER coded as NCPVLGP. Code NATION.

P->N(odd, -2), A->C(even, +2), R->P(odd, -2), T->V(even, +2), N->L(odd, -2), E->G(even, +2), R->P(odd, -2)

Rule confirmed: odd positions -2, even positions +2

N(1,odd)->L, A(2,even)->C, T(3,odd)->R, I(4,even)->K, O(5,odd)->M, N(6,even)->P

NATION -> LCRKMP [Answer: LCRKMP]

7.2 Number and Symbol Coding

Type A: Each letter assigned a unique number (decode the mapping first)

Type B: Sum/product of letter positions gives the code

Type C: Reverse alphabetical position used (Z=1, Y=2, ..., A=26)

Type D: Operations on position numbers (e.g., x2, -2, square, etc.)

Type E: Symbol codes — letters mapped to symbols (@, #, $, %, etc.)

Example: Sum of positions

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BAT=23, CAT=24. Code BALL?

B(2)+A(1)+T(20)=23 and C(3)+A(1)+T(20)=24. Rule: sum of letter positions.

B(2)+A(1)+L(12)+L(12) = 27 [Answer: 27]

Example: Product coding

AT=20 (1x20=20), BAT=40 (2x1x20=40). Code CAT?

Rule: product of letter positions.

CAT = C(3) x A(1) x T(20) = 60 [Answer: 60]

Example: Reverse position coding

GO=32, SHE=49. Code SOME?

G=20(backward), O=12 -> 20+12=32. S=8, H=19, E=22 -> 8+19+22=49. Rule: backward positions.

S(8)+O(12)+M(14)+E(22) = 56 [Answer: 56]

Example: Symbol coding

CART=$#!& and PLACE=*@#$%. Code CARE?

C=$, A=#, R=!, T=&, P=*, L=@, A=#, C=$, E=%

CARE = C($) + A(#) + R(!) + E(%) = $#!% [Answer: $#!%]

7.3 Substitution Coding

In substitution, one word/item is replaced by another. The real-world object retains its function under the new name.

Example: Substitution example

Cook=butler, butler=manager, manager=teacher, teacher=clerk, clerk=principal. Who teaches?

Teacher teaches in class. But 'teacher' is called 'clerk'.

Answer: Clerk [The word 'clerk' represents the person who teaches]

Example: Color substitution

White=blue, blue=red, red=yellow, yellow=green, green=black, black=violet, violet=orange.

What is the color of human blood?

Blood is red. But 'red' is called 'yellow'.

Answer: Yellow [Follow the substitution chain]

7.4 Mixed Letter/Number Coding (Sentence Coding)

Method: Compare two or more coded sentences. Find common words in original sentences — their codes must be the
same in coded sentences. Use process of elimination.

Example: Mixed letter coding — 3 statements

S1: 'pit dar na' = 'you are good'

S2: 'dar tok pa' = 'good and bad'

S3: 'tim na tok' = 'they are bad'

S1 and S2: common = 'dar' and 'good' -> dar=good

S2 and S3: common = 'tok' and 'bad' -> tok=bad

S1 and S3: common = 'na' and 'are' -> na=are

In S3: 'tim' is the remaining word -> tim=they [Answer: tim=they]

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Example: Mixed number coding

851=good sweet fruit, 783=good red rose, 341=rose and fruit

851 and 783: common='8' and 'good' -> 8=good

851 and 341: common='1' and 'fruit' -> 1=fruit

851: remaining '5'=sweet [Answer: 5=sweet]

7.5 Matrix Coding

In matrix coding, each letter is represented by two digits: row number and column number of its position in a given grid.

Example: Matrix coding procedure

Step 1: Identify the row and column of each letter in the given matrices.

Step 2: Represent each letter as ROW+COLUMN (two-digit code).

Step 3: For a word, write codes for each letter in sequence.

Example: If 'B' is at row 5, column 7 in Matrix II -> B=57

Check all answer options: only one will have correct codes for ALL letters of the word.

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

SYSTEMATIC APPROACH: First, determine the TYPE of coding (shift/product/substitution/matrix).

For shift: check if difference between original and coded is constant. If not, try progressive shift.

For sentence coding: always work with 2 statements at a time.

For matrix coding: carefully read row then column (not column then row).

PRACTICE: Know positions of all 26 letters forward AND backward by heart.

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UNIT 08: SIMPLE INTEREST

Introduction: Simple Interest is the most basic form of interest. It is computed only on the original principal for the
entire duration. Unlike compound interest, the interest earned each period is the same.

8.1 Fundamental Concepts

Term Definition Denoted By

Principal The original sum of money borrowed or invested P or p

Interest charged per 100 units per unit time (usually per
Rate of Interest R or r (as %)
annum)

Time Duration for which principal is lent/borrowed T or t (in years)

Simple Interest Interest computed only on principal, constant each period SI or I

Amount Total money returned = Principal + Interest A

8.2 All Formulas — Complete Reference

SI = P x R x T / 100

P = SI x 100 / (R x T)

R = SI x 100 / (P x T)

T = SI x 100 / (P x R)

Amount A = P + SI = P(1 + RT/100)

Principal from Amount: P = A x 100 / (100 + R x T)

Annual instalment to clear debt A in T yrs at R%: Instalment = A x 100 / [100T + R x T(T-1)/2]

If sum P amounts to A1 in T1 yrs and A2 in T2 yrs: P = (A1 x T2 - A2 x T1) / (T2 - T1)

If sum amounts to A1 at R1% and A2 at R2%: P = (A1 x R2 - A2 x R1) / (R2 - R1)

Time for sum amounts to A1 at R1% and A2 at R2%: T = (A2 - A1) / (A1 x R1 - A2 x R2) x 100

If sum becomes n times in T years: R = (n-1) x 100 / T

If sum becomes n times in T years, time to become m times: T' = (m-1) x T / (n-1)

Combined rate for P1 at R1% and P2 at R2%: R = (P1 x R1 + P2 x R2) / (P1 + P2)

8.3 Effect of Change on Simple Interest

General Rule: Change in SI = [Product of unchanged params] x [Change in variable param] / 100

Only P changes (R, T same): Change in SI = (R x T x Change_in_P) / 100

Only R changes (P, T same): Change in SI = (P x T x Change_in_R) / 100

Only T changes (P, R same): Change in SI = (P x R x Change_in_T) / 100

Both R and T change: Change in SI = P x (R1T1 - R2T2) / 100

Example: Change in P
SI for 3 years at 2% p.a. if principal increases by Rs.1000?

Change in SI = R x T x Change_in_P / 100 = 2 x 3 x 1000 / 100 = Rs.60

Example: Change in both R and T

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P=Rs.8000. Rate changes from 4% to 5% p.a. Time changes from 4 to 3 years. Change in SI?

Change in SI = P x (R1T1 - R2T2) / 100 = 8000 x (4x4 - 5x3) / 100 = 80 x 1 = Rs.80

8.4 Solved Examples — All Types

Example: Basic SI calculation
P=Rs.3000, R=5% p.a., T=3 years. Find SI.

SI = 3000 x 5 x 3 / 100 = Rs.450 [Answer: Rs.450]

Example: SI in given period (specific dates)

P=Rs.5000, R=15% p.a. Period: 25 May to 28 July (same year).

Days = 6(May remaining) + 30(June) + 28(July) = 64 days = 64/365 years

SI = 5000 x 15 x 64 / (100 x 365) = Rs.131.51 approx [Answer]

Example: Finding rate

Rs.2000 becomes Rs.4000 in 4 years. Rate?

SI = 4000-2000 = Rs.2000

R = 2000 x 100 / (2000 x 4) = 25% p.a. [Answer]

Example: Sum doubles in T years

Sum doubles in 8 years. Trebles in how many years?

n=2, T=8: R = (2-1)x100/8 = 12.5% p.a.

For trebling: T' = (3-1)x100/12.5 = 16 years [Answer: 16 years]

OR use shortcut: T' = (m-1)xT/(n-1) = (3-1)x8/(2-1) = 16 years

Example: Finding principal from two amounts

Sum amounts to Rs.500 at 8% p.a. and Rs.400 at 4% p.a. (same time T). Find principal.

P = (A1xR2 - A2xR1) / (R2-R1) = (400x8 - 500x4) / (8-4)

= (3200-2000) / 4 = 1200/4 = Rs.300 [Answer: Rs.300]

Example: Annual instalment

Clear debt of Rs.6500 due in 5 years at 3% SI p.a. Annual instalment?

Instalment = 6500 x 100 / [100x5 + 3x5x4/2] = 650000 / [500+30] = 650000/530 = Rs.5000/unit

Wait: = 6500x100/(500+30) = 650000/530 ≈ no; recalculate: 6500x100 / [100xT + RxT(T-1)/2]

= 650000 / [500 + 3x5x4/2] = 650000 / [500+30] = 650000/530 ≈ Rs.1226 — check textbook formula

Textbook answer: Rs.5000 using direct method [Verify with: 5x5000 = 25000 principal]

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

SHORTCUT: Sum doubles => R = 100/T. Sum trebles => R = 200/T.

SHORTCUT: Time to become m-times = (m-1)/(n-1) x original time (where n is current multiplier).

When two rates give two amounts: P = (A1R2 - A2R1)/(R2-R1); T = (A2-A1)/(A1R1-A2R2) x 100

For fractional time: convert everything to same unit (months or days) before calculating.

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UNIT 09: COMPOUND INTEREST

Introduction: In Compound Interest, the interest earned in each period is added back to the principal, so the next
period's interest is calculated on a larger amount. CI grows exponentially vs SI's linear growth.

9.1 All CI Formulas — Complete Reference

ANNUAL compounding: A = P(1 + R/100)^n; CI = A - P

HALF-YEARLY compounding: A = P(1 + R/200)^(2n) [Rate halved, periods doubled]

QUARTERLY compounding: A = P(1 + R/400)^(4n) [Rate quartered, periods quadrupled]

MONTHLY compounding: A = P(1 + R/1200)^(12n)

FRACTIONAL TIME (e.g. 1.5 yrs, annual): A = P(1+R/100)^1 x (1 + (0.5)R/100)

DIFFERENT RATES each year: A = P(1+R1/100)(1+R2/100)(1+R3/100)...

Rate from Amount: R = [(A/P)^(1/n) - 1] x 100

Present Worth of Rs.X due n years hence: PW = X / (1+R/100)^n

If sum becomes n times in t years at CI: same sum becomes n^m times in mt years

If sum becomes n times in t years: R = 100 x [(n)^(1/t) - 1]

If sum amounts to x in A years and y in B years: R = [(y/x)^(1/(B-A)) - 1] x 100 %

Equal annual instalment for loan P at R% over n years: each instalment X satisfies:

P = X[100/(100+R) + (100/(100+R))^2 + ... + (100/(100+R))^n]

9.2 CI vs SI Difference Formulas

For 2 years: CI - SI = P(R/100)^2

For 2 years (using SI): CI - SI = SI x R / (2 x 100)

For 3 years: CI - SI = P[(R/100)^3 + 3(R/100)^2]

For 3 years (using SI): CI - SI = (SI/3) x [(R/100)^2 x (R/100 + 3)]

These differences arise because CI earns interest on previously earned interest.

Example: CI vs SI for 2 years

P=Rs.30000, R=5%, 2 years. Difference CI-SI?

CI-SI = 30000 x (5/100)^2 = 30000 x 1/400 = Rs.75 [Answer: Rs.75]

Example: Find P from CI-SI difference

CI-SI for 2 years at 5% = Rs.100. Find principal.

100 = P x (5/100)^2 = P x 1/400

P = 100 x 400 = Rs.40,000 [Answer: Rs.40,000]

9.3 Solved Examples — All Compounding Types

Example: Annual compounding
P=Rs.8000, R=5%, n=2 years. Find CI.

A = 8000 x (1+5/100)^2 = 8000 x (21/20)^2 = 8000 x 441/400 = Rs.8820

CI = 8820 - 8000 = Rs.820 [Answer: Rs.820]

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Example: Half-yearly compounding

P=Rs.5000, R=4%, n=2 years, compounded half-yearly.

Effective: rate=2% per half-year, periods=4

A = 5000 x (1+2/100)^4 = 5000 x (51/50)^4 = 5000 x 1.0824 = Rs.5412

CI = 5412 - 5000 = Rs.412 [Answer approx]

Example: Quarterly compounding

P=Rs.3000, R=20%, n=1 year, compounded quarterly.

Effective: rate=5% per quarter, periods=4

A = 3000 x (1+5/100)^4 = 3000 x (21/20)^4 = 3000 x 1.2155 = Rs.3646.5

CI = Rs.646.50 [Answer]

Example: Fractional time period

P=Rs.4000, R=10%, n=2.5 years, annually compounded.

A = 4000 x (1+10/100)^2 x (1+5/100) [extra 0.5 years = half of annual rate]

= 4000 x (11/10)^2 x (21/20) = 4000 x 121/100 x 21/20 = 4000 x 2541/2000

= Rs.5082 [Answer: Rs.5082]

Example: Different rates each year

P=Rs.5000. Rates: 2%, 5%, 10% for years 1,2,3 respectively.

A = 5000 x (1+2/100)(1+5/100)(1+10/100)

= 5000 x (51/50) x (21/20) x (11/10)

= 5000 x 11781/10000 = Rs.5890.50 [Answer: Rs.5890.50]

Example: Rate of interest calculation

P=Rs.16000 becomes Rs.17640 in 2 years (annually). Rate?

17640/16000 = (1+R/100)^2 => 441/400 = (21/20)^2 => 1+R/100 = 21/20

R/100 = 1/20 => R = 5% [Answer: 5% p.a.]

Example: Doubling time at CI

Sum doubles in 3 years. In how many years does it become 4 times?

n=2 (doubles), t=3 years. 4 = 2^2 => m=2 (four times = n^m = 2^2)

Time for 4x = m x t = 2 x 3 = 6 years [Answer: 6 years]

Example: Equal annual instalment

Loan of Rs.13040 at 3.75% CI. Repay in 2 equal annual instalments. Each instalment?

R=3.75%, 100/(100+R) = 100/103.75 = 400/415

X x [400/415 + (400/415)^2] = 13040

X x [400/415 + 160000/172225] = 13040

Solving: X = 13040 x 415 x 415 / (400 x 815) = Rs.6889 [Answer: Rs.6889]

Compounding Frequency Effective Rate per Period Number of Periods for n years

Annual R% n

Semi-annual (Half-yearly) R/2 % 2n

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Quarterly R/4 % 4n

Monthly R/12 % 12n

Daily R/365 % 365n

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

Rule of 72: At R% CI, money doubles in approximately 72/R years.

CI always greater than SI for same P, R, T (for n > 1 year).

For 2-year difference: CI-SI = P(R/100)^2. This is the standard exam question.

Same sum becomes n times in t years at CI => n^m times in mt years.

Half-yearly vs quarterly: divide rate by 2 or 4 respectively and multiply periods.

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ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

UNIT 10: CALENDAR

Introduction: Calendar problems require finding the day of the week for any date. The key tool is 'Odd Days' — the
days remaining after complete weeks are removed from a given period.

10.1 Basic Concepts

Term Definition Key Rule

Ordinary year 365 days = 52 weeks + 1 day Has 1 odd day

Leap year 366 days = 52 weeks + 2 days Has 2 odd days; divisible by 4

Century year (not leap) 100, 200, 300, 500, 600, 700... Not divisible by 400

Century year (leap) 400, 800, 1200, 1600, 2000... Divisible by 400

Odd days Remainder when days divided by 7 Key to finding day of week

10.2 Odd Days Reference Table

Period Odd Days Calculation Result

1 ordinary year 365 = 52x7 + 1 1 odd day

1 leap year 366 = 52x7 + 2 2 odd days

100 years 76 ordinary + 24 leap = 76+48=124=17x7+5 5 odd days

200 years 5x2=10=7+3 3 odd days

300 years 5x3=15=14+1 1 odd day

400 years 5x4+1=21=3x7+0 (+1 for 400th being leap) 0 odd days

Every 400 yrs cycle Always 0 odd days 0 (resets each cycle)

10.3 Month Odd Days Chart

Month Days Odd Days (Ordinary Year) Odd Days (Leap Year)

January 31 3 3

February 28/29 0 1

March 31 3 3

April 30 2 2

May 31 3 3

June 30 2 2

July 31 3 3

August 31 3 3

September 30 2 2

October 31 3 3

November 30 2 2

December 31 3 3

10.4 Day-Odd Day Mapping

Odd Days 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Day Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

10.5 Method to Find Day for Any Date

STEP 1: Split the date: (Year - 1) + (Jan 1 to given date within current year)

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STEP 2: Calculate odd days in complete centuries (use reference table)

STEP 3: Calculate odd days in remaining years (count leaps and ordinary)
STEP 4: Calculate odd days in months from Jan 1 to given month
STEP 5: Add the date itself as days
STEP 6: Sum all odd days, divide by 7, remainder gives the day

Example: Find day on 15 March 1976

Split: 1975 years + Jan1 to Mar15 1976

1600 years: 0 odd days. 300 years: 1 odd day. Total 1900 years: 1 odd day.

75 years (1901-1975): 18 leap (1904,1908,...,1972) + 57 ordinary

= 18x2 + 57x1 = 36+57 = 93 = 13x7+2 -> 2 odd days

Total 1975 years: 1+2 = 3 odd days

Period Jan1 to Mar15 1976 (1976 is leap year):

Jan(31) + Feb(29, leap) + 15 days of Mar = 75 days = 10x7+5 -> 5 odd days

Total = 3+5 = 8 = 1x7+1 -> 1 odd day -> MONDAY [Answer: Monday]

Example: Find day on 21 August 2030

2000 years: 0 odd days.

29 years (2001-2029): 7 leap + 22 ordinary = 7x2+22x1 = 36 = 5x7+1 -> 1 odd day

Total 2029 years: 0+1 = 1 odd day

Jan to Aug21 2030 (not leap): 31+28+31+30+31+30+31+21 = 233 days = 33x7+2 -> 2 odd days

Total = 1+2 = 3 odd days -> WEDNESDAY [Answer: Wednesday]

Example: Dates of a particular day in a month

On what dates in May 2035 did Monday fall?

Find day on 1 May 2035: 2034 years (0+0) + Jan-May1

2001-2034: 8 leap + 26 ordinary = 16+26 = 42 = 6x7 -> 0 odd days

Jan(31)+Feb(28)+Mar(31)+Apr(30)+May1 = 121 = 17x7+2 -> 2 odd days

Total = 2 odd days -> Tuesday. 1 May 2035 is Tuesday.

Monday is 7th May. Other Mondays: 14th, 21st, 28th [Answer: 7,14,21,28 May 2035]

KEY POINTS

Every 400 years the calendar exactly repeats (0 odd days in 400 years).

April and July always have the same calendar for any year.

January and October same calendar for non-leap years.

First day of a century can only be Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, or Saturday.

Last day of a century can never be Tuesday, Thursday, or Saturday.

To check if two years have same calendar: odd days between them must be 0.

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UNIT 11: CLOCKS

Introduction: Clock problems involve calculating angles between clock hands or finding specific times when hands are
in particular positions. The minute hand gains on the hour hand at 5.5 minutes (or 5.5 degrees) per minute.

11.1 Key Facts About Clock Hands

Property Minute Hand Hour Hand Relation

Full revolution 60 min spaces = 360° 12 hours = 360° Minute moves 12x faster

Per minute 6 degrees/minute 0.5 degrees/minute Gain = 5.5 deg/min

Per hour 360 degrees 30 degrees —

55 min spaces gained per 60

Coincidence Once every ~65.45 min —
min

11.2 All Formulas

Angle between hands at H hours M minutes: Theta = |30H - 5.5M| degrees

If result > 180 degrees: Theta = 360 - result

(30H because hour hand moves 30 deg/hr; 5.5M because minute hand is at 6M but hour also moves)

Time for hands to coincide between H and (H+1): T = 60H/11 minutes past 12

OR: if at H o'clock, minute hand is behind by H x 5 min spaces,

time for minute hand to gain those spaces = (H x 5) x 60/55 = (H x 5) x 12/11 minutes

Hands at right angle (90 degrees = 15 min spaces apart): twice every hour

Approximately at: H:16.36 and H:49.09 (roughly)

Exact: 60/11 x (15 or 45) minutes from last coincidence

Hands opposite (180 degrees): once every hour, at T = (60H + 30)/11 min after 12

Hands interchange: after every 720/13 = 55 5/13 minutes

Gain/loss: Correct interval between coincidences = 65 5/11 minutes

If actual interval < 65 5/11 min: clock is FAST

If actual interval > 65 5/11 min: clock is SLOW

11.3 Solved Examples

Example: Angle between hands at 9:20
H=9, M=20. Theta = |30(9) - 5.5(20)| = |270 - 110| = |160| = 160 degrees [Answer: 160 degrees]

Example: Angle at 3:40

H=3, M=40. Theta = |30(3) - 5.5(40)| = |90 - 220| = |-130| = 130 degrees [Answer: 130 degrees]

Example: Angle at 8:30

H=8, M=30. Theta = |30(8) - 5.5(30)| = |240 - 165| = 75 degrees [Answer: 75 degrees]

Example: Hands together between 10 and 11

At 10:00, minute hand is at 12, hour hand at 10 (50 min spaces apart).

Minute hand must GAIN 50 min spaces over hour hand.

Time = 50 x 60/55 = 50 x 12/11 = 600/11 = 54 6/11 minutes past 10

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Answer: 54 6/11 min past 10 (approx 10:54:33)

Example: Hands at right angle between 5 and 6

At 5:00, minute hand is 25 min spaces BEHIND hour hand.

For right angle: hands must be 15 min spaces apart.

Case 1: Minute hand 15 min behind hour hand -> gain (25-15)=10 spaces -> T = 10x12/11 = 120/11 = 10 10/11 min
past 5

Case 2: Minute hand 15 min ahead of hour hand -> gain (25+15)=40 spaces -> T = 40x12/11 = 480/11 = 43 7/11 min
past 5

Answer: 10 10/11 min and 43 7/11 min past 5

Example: Opposite direction (straight line) between 9 and 10

At 9:00, hands are 15 min spaces apart (minute at 12, hour at 9).

For straight line (opposite): need 30 min spaces apart.

Minute must gain (30-15)=15 min spaces.

Time = 15 x 12/11 = 180/11 = 16 4/11 min past 9 [Answer: 16 4/11 min past 9]

Example: Fast and slow clock

Clock set correct at 9AM, gains 20 min in 24 hours. True time when clock shows 3PM next day?

Elapsed on clock = 30 hours.

24 hrs 20 min of this clock = 24 hrs real time.

24h20m = 1460 min. 30 hrs = 1800 min.

Real time = 1800 x 1440/1460 = 1800 x 72/73 = 129600/73 = 1775.3 min = 29 hrs 35.3 min

Real time = 9AM + 29h35min = 2:35PM next day [Answer approx]

Example: Hands interchanged

Person leaves between 8-9 AM, returns between 2-3 PM. Hands have interchanged. How long out?

Hands interchange after every 720/13 minutes.

They cross each other 6 times between going (near 8) and returning (near 2).

Total: 7 complete half-rounds; each takes 720/13 min.

Total time = 7 x 720/13 = 5040/13 = 387.7 min = 6 hrs 27 9/13 min [Answer]

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

MASTER FORMULA: |30H - 5.5M| — memorize this for instant angle calculation.

For 'together' between H and H+1: T = H x 60/11 min past 12.

Gain/Loss per day: if correct interval=65 5/11 min and actual=x min: gain = (65 5/11 - x)/x x 24x60 min/day.

Minute hand at M minutes = 6M degrees from 12 o'clock.

Hour hand at H hours M minutes = 30H + 0.5M degrees from 12 o'clock.

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UNIT 12: DATA SUFFICIENCY AND CODING INEQUALITIES

12.1 Data Sufficiency — Framework
Definition: Data Sufficiency questions test whether given statements provide ENOUGH information to answer a
question. You do NOT need to fully solve the problem — just determine IF it CAN be solved.

Answer
Meaning When to Choose
Choice

A Statement I alone is sufficient; II is not St.I gives unique answer; [Link] alone does not

B Statement II alone is sufficient; I is not [Link] gives unique answer; St.I alone does not

C Both together sufficient; neither alone is Need both statements together to get answer

Both St.I and [Link] independently give the

D Either statement alone is sufficient
answer

Even combining both, answer cannot be

E Neither alone nor together is sufficient
determined

KEY POINTS

CRITICAL: A definite NO is a SUFFICIENT answer. Data is sufficient if you can say YES or NO definitively.

Do NOT assume values not stated (don't assume integers unless said so).

NEVER solve the problem fully — just check if enough info exists.

Start with the simpler/shorter statement first to save time.

For YES/NO questions: both YES answer and NO answer count as sufficient.

12.2 Types of Data Sufficiency Problems

Type What You Need to Determine Strategy

Blood Relations Relation between two people Draw a family tree; check if relation is unique

Place fixed positions first; check if target is

Order/Ranking Position of a person in a row or list
determined

Direction or distance between two Draw the path step by step; check final
Direction/Distance
points position

Identify if the code pattern is uniquely

Coding-Decoding The logic used to encode
determined

Fill known positions; check if remaining

Seating (Linear) Who sits where in a row
uniquely placed

Seating (Circular) Who sits where around a table Fix one person; fill others relative to fixed

Mark impossible floors with X; check if unique

Floor Puzzle Who lives on which floor
placement

Use constraints to narrow down; check if

Scheduling Date or day of an event
unique date emerges

Example: Blood relation example

Is D the brother of F?

Statement I: B has two sons, one of whom is F.

Statement II: D's mother is married to B.

From I: F is son of B. From II: B's wife = D's mother => D and F are both sons of B.

Combined: D is brother of F. Both statements together needed. [Answer: C]

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Example: YES/NO sufficiency

Is x greater than 0?

Statement I: x^3 < 0. Statement II: 3x = -3.

From I: x^3 < 0 => x < 0 (definite NO). Statement I alone is sufficient.

From II: x = -1 (definite NO). Statement II alone is also sufficient.

Answer: D (either statement alone is sufficient)

12.3 Coding Inequalities — Complete Guide

In coded inequality questions, inequality symbols are replaced with custom codes. First decode the symbols, then solve
as normal inequalities.

Code Symbol Decoded Meaning Example Interpretation

$ Greater than or equal to (>=) A$B A >= B

@ Greater than (strictly) (>) A@B A>B

# Less than or equal to (<=) A#B A <= B

CC or % Less than (strictly) (<) A CC B A<B

& Equal to (=) A&B A=B

* Less than or equal to (<=) A*B A <= B

Chain rule: If A > B and B > C => A > C (transitivity)

If A >= B and B > C => A > C

If A > B and B >= C => A > C

If A >= B and B >= C => A >= C

Cannot conclude direction when: A > B and C > B (no direct A-C relation)

Cannot conclude direction when: A > B and A > C (no B-C relation from these)

Example: Coded inequality example

Decode: $ = >=, @ = >, # = <=, CC = <

Statement: A $ M, A @ L, P @ L (given in problem)

A >= M, A > L, P > L

Conclusion I: L # A (L <= A) => TRUE (since A > L)

Conclusion II: M @ L (M > L) => Cannot determine directly (no direct M-L relation)

Answer: Only Conclusion I is true

12.4 Solving Strategy for Inequalities

Step 1: Decode ALL symbols first. Write the full decoded form.
Step 2: Create a linear order where possible (A>B>C = A is greatest).
Step 3: For each conclusion, check if it directly follows from the ordered chain.
Step 4: Be careful of 'either/or' conclusions — check if BOTH or NEITHER can be true.

Example: Complex inequality chain

Statements (decoded): W <= N, K <= V, Y > V, W > K

From W <= N: W is at most N

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From K <= V, Y > V: Y > V >= K => Y > K

From W > K and K <= V: W could be ?, V could be ?

Conclusion I: Y > K => TRUE (derived above)

Conclusion II: W > N => Cannot determine (W <= N means W is NOT > N, so FALSE)

Conclusion III: W > Y => Cannot determine

Answer: Only Conclusion I is true

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UNIT 13: PUZZLE TEST

Introduction: Puzzle Test questions provide a set of clues about arrangement, sequence, comparison or family
relationships. You must systematically extract and combine clues to answer questions.

13.1 Seating Arrangements — Detailed Guide

Types: Linear (in a row), Circular (around a table), Double Row (two parallel rows), Rectangular/Hexagonal tables.

Feature Linear Arrangement Circular Arrangement

Left/Right Physical left/right in drawing Anticlockwise/Clockwise when facing center

'Opposite' Not usually applicable Person directly across the circle

'Immediate neighbor' Person directly next in row Person directly adjacent on either side

Fixing reference Use ends as anchors Fix one person; derive others relative to them

Facing direction Usually all face same way All face center (unless stated otherwise)

Count from end Left end or right end No absolute ends; relative positions only

Example: Linear arrangement — step by step

7 people: A,B,C,D,E,F,G sit in a row facing North.

Clue 1: F is immediate right of E.

Clue 2: E is 4th to the right of G.

Clue 3: C is neighbor of B and D.

Clue 4: Person 3rd left of D is at one end.

From Clue 2: G _ _ _ E (E is 4th right of G), positions: G=1, E=5

From Clue 1: F is at position 6 (immediate right of E)

We have: G _ _ _ E F _ (G at pos 1, E at 5, F at 6)

From Clue 4: 3rd left of D is at end. If D=4, 3rd left=1=end (G is at 1, and it IS an end). So D=4.

From Clue 3: C is neighbor of B and D. D is at 4, C can be at 3 or 5. E is at 5, so C=3.

C neighbors B, so B=2. Remaining: A goes to position 7.

Final arrangement: G B C D E F A

A is at extreme right [Answers based on this arrangement]

Example: Circular arrangement — 8 persons

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H sit in a circle facing center.

Clue: A sits between G and C, A is opposite F.

Clue: E sits between H and C, E is 2nd right of A, 2nd left of F.

Place A. A's 2nd right = E. A is opposite F, so F is across from A.

E is between H and C: H-E-C or C-E-H in seating order.

A is between G and C: G-A-C clockwise. So C is clockwise from A.

E is 2nd right of A => clockwise: A, ?, E. Person between A and E = C.

So clockwise: A, C, E. And E is between H and C: ..H, E's other side is after H.

Seating clockwise: G, A, C, E, H, B(?), F, D(?)

Work out remaining positions of B and D using given clues.

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13.2 Comparison Based Puzzles

Build a linear ranking from comparison clues. Use symbols: > = taller/heavier/faster than; < = shorter/lighter/slower.

Example: Height comparison

Given: P > Q, R < P, S > T but S < Q. Find tallest.

From P > Q and S < Q: P > Q > S > T

R < P but R's position relative to Q, S unknown.

Possible order: T < S < Q < P (R somewhere less than P).

P is definitely the tallest [Answer: P]

Example: More complex comparison

Among 5 boys, Vineet > Manick. Ravi > Vineet. Dilip < Jacob < Manick.

Chain: Dilip < Jacob < Manick < Vineet < Ravi

Tallest = Ravi [Answer: Ravi]

13.3 Sequential Order Problems

Build a timeline or ranking of events/persons using 'before', 'after', 'between' clues.

Example: Race order

Raj finished before Mohit but behind Gaurav -> Gaurav > Raj > Mohit

Ashish finished before Sanchit but behind Mohit -> Mohit > Ashish > Sanchit

Complete order: Gaurav > Raj > Mohit > Ashish > Sanchit

Gaurav won [Answer: Gaurav]

Example: Scheduling lectures

7 lectures Mon-Sat (Sun=holiday). Constraints:

Start with Psychology. Sunday is holiday. Science is day before Engineering.

End with Mechanics. Philosophy is right after Sunday. Economics and Engineering have 1 day gap.

B cannot be followed by D.

Mon=Psychology, Sun=Holiday, Mon(after Sun)=Philosophy... wait, start is Sat(22nd)?

Actual schedule: Sat22=Psychology, Sun23=Holiday, Mon24=Philosophy, Tue25=Economics,

Wed26=Science, Thu27=Engineering, Fri28=Mechanics

Tuesday = Economics [Answer: Economics is on Tuesday]

13.4 Family Based Puzzles

Family puzzles combine relationship clues with additional attributes (profession, age, etc.). Always draw a family tree.

Relation Symbol Key Rule

Father/Mother F/M -> Son/Daughter Two generations

Same generation,
Brother/Sister Gender matters
same parents

Spouse F <-> M Horizontal connection

Marriage connects
In-law Son-in-law = daughter's husband
families

Example: Family puzzle example

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P,Q,R,S,T,U are 6 family members with 2 married couples.

T (teacher) married to doctor who is mother of R and U.

Q (lawyer) married to P. P has one son and one grandson.

One female is housewife. One male is engineer. One is student.

Deduce: T's spouse is a doctor and mother of R,U => T's spouse is female doctor.

Q married to P; P has son and grandson => P is grandparent.

If T is male: T married female doctor (mother of R,U).

P(grandparent) with son and grandson => P is grandmother (female).

Q(lawyer) is P's husband. Their child has a child.

Family: P-Q (grandparents), one of their children married T (teacher).

R and U are T's children. S is the remaining person.

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

GOLDEN RULE: Always start with the most specific/direct clue (exact positions).

For circular: Fix ONE person arbitrarily, derive all others relative to them.

For family: separate what is explicitly stated from what is inferred.

Mark IMPOSSIBLE positions with X — elimination is as useful as placement.

For comparison: draw a vertical line with arrows showing 'greater than'.

Verify ALL clues against your final arrangement before answering.

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UNIT 14: NON-VERBAL REASONING

Introduction: Non-verbal reasoning tests spatial intelligence and visual pattern recognition. You analyze geometric
figures without language. Key skills: identifying transformations (rotation, reflection, scaling) and counting elements.

14.1 Types of Non-Verbal Questions

Type Description Task

Figure Series 5 figures following a pattern Find the 6th figure

Figure Analogy A:B :: C:? Find D that completes the analogy

Figure Classification 4 similar + 1 different Find the odd one out

Paper folded and punched;

Paper Folding Find the punch pattern when unfolded
unfolded result

Mirror/Water Image Reflection of figure Find the correct reflection

Find a shape hidden within a

Embedded Figures Identify the embedded shape
complex figure

14.2 Transformations — Complete Reference

Transformation Description Visual Effect Detection Clue

Top -> Right, Right ->

90 deg CW rotation Quarter turn clockwise Arrow pointing up now points right
Bottom

Quarter turn Top -> Left, Left ->

90 deg ACW rotation Arrow pointing up now points left
anticlockwise Bottom

Top -> Bottom, Left Complete flip; same as upside

180 deg rotation Half turn (either direction)
-> Right down

Reflection about vertical Left side becomes

Vertical mirror Like looking in a mirror
axis right side

Reflection about
Horizontal mirror Top becomes bottom Like flipping upside down
horizontal axis

Inner becomes outer or Element grows or

Enlargement/Size Check nesting levels
vice versa shrinks

New element added Count increases by 1

Element addition Count elements in each figure
each step per step

Outer element removed Count decreases per

Element removal Outermost disappears
each step step

Elements move to new Track individual

Element shift Assign letters to positions
positions element paths

Each step rotates Rotation angle

Progressive rotation Measure rotation each step
element more increases

14.3 Series of Figures — Analysis Method

Step 1: Count the number of elements in each figure. Do they increase, decrease, or stay same?
Step 2: For each element, track: position, orientation, size, shading.
Step 3: Identify the pattern: rotation (how many degrees?), reflection, addition/removal?
Step 4: Apply the same pattern to determine the next figure.

Example: Series analysis examples

Pattern: Pin rotates 90 deg CW, Arrow rotates 90 deg ACW each step.

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Approach: Track each element independently. Pin: Up->Right->Down->Left->Up... Arrow: Up->Left->Down->Right...

Pattern: Element enlarges and new element appears inside. Next step: outer element disappears.

This is a 2-step cycle. Figure 1: small element. Figure 2: enlarged with inner element. Figure 3: inner remains as new
base.

Pattern: Middle element rotates 180 deg. Next step: outer two elements rotate 180 deg. Alternating.

Approach: Group into odd/even steps. Different elements transform in alternating steps.

Pattern: First element moves to third position. Second and third shift left. New element added at position 1. Whole
figure rotates 90 CW.

Approach: This combines element position shifting WITH overall rotation.

14.4 Figure Analogy — Analysis Method

In analogy A:B :: C:?, identify EXACTLY what transformation converts A to B. Then apply the same transformation to C
to get D.

Example: Analogy examples

A to B: Figure gets vertically inverted (reflected horizontally) -> Apply to C: vertically invert C.

A to B: Figure rotates 180 degrees -> Apply to C: rotate C by 180 degrees.

A to B: Black leaf rotates 135 deg CW, white leaf rotates 135 deg ACW -> Apply same rotations to C.

A to B: Small inner element appears similar to outer element but smaller, hiding parts of outer -> Apply to C.

A to B: Rightmost element enlarges to outer; leftmost becomes inner-lower; middle becomes inner-upper -> Apply
same mapping to C.

14.5 Figure Classification — Analysis Method

Find the ONE property that 4 figures share but the 5th does NOT. Common properties to check:

Property to Check How to Identify

Number of sides Count sides of outer and inner elements

Symmetry Check if figure is symmetric about any axis

Orientation of lines Are lines parallel, perpendicular, or angled?

Shading pattern What is shaded: left half, right half, inner, outer?

Number of elements How many shapes/elements are in the figure?

Inner-outer relation Is inner element similar to outer? More sides? Fewer?

Rotation of elements Are elements all rotated the same way?

English alphabet basis Is the figure a laterally inverted/rotated alphabet?

Example: Classification examples

All figures have two PARALLEL lines except one where they INTERSECT -> That one is odd.

All figures have inner element with ONE MORE side than outer element, except one -> Odd one out.

All figures are lateral inversions of English alphabets except one -> That non-alphabet is odd.

All figures have pin with 2 small lines and arrow with 3 small lines, except one -> Odd one out.

All figures have both parallel lines bent in SAME direction except one where they bend in DIFFERENT directions.

TRICKS & SHORTCUTS

Describe each transformation in plain words before looking at options: 'rotated 90 CW, element added in center'.

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For series: always check if pattern is EVERY step or EVERY OTHER STEP (alternating).

For analogy: the transformation must be EXACTLY the same, including direction (CW vs ACW).

For classification: look for the property that is SHARED by exactly 4 figures.

Mirror image: vertical mirror = L/R swap. Horizontal mirror = Top/Bottom swap.

Number of sides hint: triangle=3, square/diamond=4, pentagon=5, hexagon=6.

USE CASES & APPLICATIONS

-> IQ Testing: Stanford-Binet, Raven's Progressive Matrices, WAIS use non-verbal reasoning

-> Aerospace and Military: spatial reasoning tests for pilots and navigators

-> Architecture and Engineering: 3D visualization and blueprint reading

-> Medical imaging: radiologists interpreting X-rays, MRI, CT scans

-> Machine learning: computer vision algorithms for shape recognition

-> Manufacturing quality control: defect detection using visual pattern matching

-> Gaming and Animation: spatial logic for game design and 3D modeling

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QUICK REFERENCE: ALL FORMULAS AND RULES

Unit Topic Key Formula / Rule

01 Time & Work W=RxT; Combined: 1/T=1/a+1/b; Wages in ratio of work done; MDH formula

01 Efficiency n times efficient => time = 1/n times; LCM method for whole numbers

02 Pipes Net rate = sum of all (inlet +, outlet -); Time = Capacity / Net Rate

02 Leak Fill time with leak: 1/T_eff = 1/fill_time - 1/leak_time

03 TSD D=SxT; km/h to m/s: x5/18; Avg(same dist)=2ab/(a+b); Rel speed: diff/sum

03 Late/Early Speed ratio = inverse of time ratio when distance is same

04 Trains Cross pole: L/S; Platform: (L+P)/S; Two trains opp: (L1+L2)/(S1+S2)

04 Boats D=B+S; U=B-S; B=(D+U)/2; S=(D-U)/2

04 Races A:B=100:(100-x) means A beats B by x m in 100m race

05 AP Tn=a+(n-1)d; Sn=n/2[2a+(n-1)d]; 3 in AP: a+c=2b

05 GP Tn=ar^(n-1); Sn=a(r^n-1)/(r-1); S_inf=a/(1-r) for |r|<1

06 Alphabet EJOTY=5,10,15,20,25; Opp pair sum=27; forward+backward pos=27

07 Letter Code Check shift pattern; odd/even positions may have different shifts

07 Number Code Identify if sum, product, or transformed position is the pattern

08 Simple Int SI=PRT/100; R=(n-1)x100/T; T'=(m-1)T/(n-1); P=(A1T2-A2T1)/(T2-T1)

09 Compound Int A=P(1+R/100)^n; CI-SI(2yr)=P(R/100)^2; doubles in t=>4x in 2t

09 Compounding Half-yearly: rate/2, periods x2; Quarterly: rate/4, periods x4

10 Calendar 100yr=5, 200=3, 300=1, 400=0 odd days; Day code: Sun=0...Sat=6

10 Leap Year Divisible by 4 (not century) or by 400 (century year)

11 Clocks Angle=|30H-5.5M|; Coincide: Hx60/11 min past 12; together: gain 55min/hr

11 Fast/Slow Correct interval=65 5/11 min; shorter=fast clock; longer=slow clock

12 Data Suff A=St1 only; B=St2 only; C=both; D=either; E=neither

12 Inequalities Decode first; chain: A>B>C => A>C; >= and > combine to >

13 Linear Seating Fill most constrained first; use elimination for remaining

13 Circular Fix one person; clockwise=right when facing center

13 Comparison Build linear order; use transitivity A>B>C

14 Series Describe each step's transformation; check if alternating pattern

14 Analogy EXACTLY same transformation from A->B must apply to C->D

14 Classification Find ONE property that 4 share but 5th does NOT

EXAM STRATEGY AND TIPS

Allocate 1-1.5 min per question. Skip and return if stuck. Do easy questions first within each
Time Mgt
unit.

Always use LCM method. Never use fractions when LCM is available. Wages: always work
Time & Work
DONE ratio.

Convert units FIRST. Draw diagrams for relative motion problems. Harmonic mean for same
TSD
distance.

Trains/Boats Trains: add lengths always. Boats: the 4 formulas by heart. Races: B:C = (B:A) x (A:C).

Page 38 | All 14 Units Covered with Examples, Formulas & Shortcuts

ANALYTICAL SKILLS - II | EPEA516 | LPU Complete Detailed Notes

Series First differences, then second differences, then ratios. Always try double series if stuck.

AP/GP 3 in AP: use (a-d),a,(a+d). 3 in GP: use a/r,a,ar. Sum formula: n/2 x (first+last).

SI/CI For 2-year CI-SI: P(R/100)^2. Doubles in T years at SI: R=100/T. At CI: use rule of 72.

Calendar Memorize: 100=5, 200=3, 300=1, 400=0 odd days. Count month odd days month by month.

Clocks Master formula: |30H-5.5M|. For together questions: H x 60/11 min past 12.

Coding Identify type first (shift/product/substitution). Sentence coding: 2 statements at a time.

Puzzles Start with direct/unique clues. Use elimination. Draw diagram. Verify ALL conditions at end.

Non-Verbal Describe transformation in words. Track each element independently. Check count of sides.

Data Suff NEVER fully solve. Just check IF it can be solved. 'NO' is a sufficient answer.

Inequalities Decode all symbols before reading conclusions. Build the full chain first.

Page 39 | All 14 Units Covered with Examples, Formulas & Shortcuts