MIDTERM COVERAGE Genetic Studies and Modern Interpretations

● Genetic Evidence: Recent genetic studies suggest that the Filipino people have a
Pre- Colonial Philippines- refers to the time before Spanish colonization in the 16th century, complex ancestry, with influences from Austronesian, Negrito, Malay, and even
when various indigenous societies thrived across the archipelago. This era was characterized by Chinese and Indian populations.
complex social structures, economic activities, belief systems, and governance models that ● Out of Taiwan Hypothesis: A theory that suggests the Austronesian-speaking
varied among different ethnic groups. peoples, including Filipinos, originated from Taiwan and spread southward into the
Philippines and beyond.
THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE FILIPINO PEOPLE

● Wave Migration Theory: This theory suggests that the Filipino people are the result of
several waves of migration from neighboring regions.
ARRIVAL OF ASIAN NEIGHBORS IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
● Negritos: Believed to be the earliest inhabitants, arriving around 30,000 years ago.
They are characterized by their small stature and dark skin.
● Austronesians: Migrated to the Philippines around 4,000 years ago, bringing with them Early Trade and Cultural Exchanges
advancements in agriculture, pottery, and navigation. They are considered the
ancestors of the majority of modern Filipinos. ● Barter Trade: Early Filipinos engaged in barter trade with neighboring Asian countries,
● Malays: The final wave of migrants, arriving around 2,000 years ago, introducing more exchanging local products like pearls, gold, and beeswax for goods such as silk,
advanced technologies and social structures. porcelain, and spices.
● Core Population Theory: Proposed by anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano, this ● Balangay: Large wooden boats used by Filipinos to trade with neighboring regions like
theory argues that there was a gradual evolution of culture among the inhabitants of the China, India, and Southeast Asia, facilitating early economic and cultural exchanges.
Philippines without the need for external migration waves. It suggests that the Filipino ● Barangay: The basic socio-political unit in the Philippines, possibly influenced by Malay
culture developed from a core population that evolved over thousands of years within and Indonesian communities, reflecting the interconnectedness with neighboring
the islands. regions.

The Austronesian Expansion Influence of Chinese Traders

● Austronesian: A linguistic group that includes the languages spoken in the Philippines, ● Sangley: The term used to refer to Chinese merchants who settled in the Philippines.
Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Pacific Islands. The expansion of Austronesians is The presence of the Chinese played a significant role in the economic and cultural
considered a significant event in the people of the Philippines. development of early Filipino communities.
● Balangay: Ancient Austronesian boats used for trade and migration, which played a ● Porcelain Trade: The importation of Chinese porcelain became a symbol of wealth and
crucial role in the spread of people and culture across the archipelago. status among Filipino elites, influencing local customs and artistic expressions.
● Chinese Influence: Chinese traders introduced various cultural elements, including the
The Cultural Evolution of Early Filipinos lunar calendar, culinary practices (e.g., pancit, lumpia), and artistic designs that
have been incorporated into Filipino culture.
● Tabon Man: The remains of a prehistoric human found in the Tabon Caves of Palawan,
dating back to approximately 16,500 years ago, are some of the oldest evidence of Indian and Hindu Influence
human habitation in the Philippines.
● Laguna Copperplate Inscription: The earliest known written document found in the ● Laguna Copperplate Inscription: An important archaeological find that suggests
Philippines, dated to 900 AD. It provides evidence of early writing systems and a early contact with Hindu kingdoms in Southeast Asia, showcasing the influence of Indian
complex society with trade relations in Southeast Asia. 4. Debates and culture and languages in the Philippines.
Interpretations ● Sanskrit Terms: Many early Filipino words, particularly in the Tagalog and Visayan
● Beyer's Migration Theory: Proposed by H. Otley Beyer, this is one of the oldest and languages, are derived from Sanskrit, indicating the depth of Indian influence in the
most widely known theories. However, it has faced criticism for its oversimplified view of region.
Philippine history. ● Maharlika: A term used to describe the warrior class in pre-colonial Philippine society,
● Jocano's Challenge: Felipe Landa Jocano challenges the Migration Theory, likely influenced by Indian and Malay concepts of nobility and social hierarchy.
emphasizing internal cultural development and the importance of archaeological
findings in understanding the Filipino origins.
Arrival of Malay and Indonesian Communities Religious Beliefs and Practices

● Srivijaya Empire: An influential maritime empire based in Sumatra that extended its ● Animism: The belief in spiritual beings or anito that inhabited natural objects like trees,
reach to the Philippines, particularly influencing the Visayan region. The spread of Islam rocks, rivers, and mountains. Early Filipinos worshipped these spirits and sought their
and the establishment of early sultanates in the southern Philippines can be traced back favor in daily life.
to interactions with Malay traders and missionaries. ● Babaylan: A priestess or shaman who acted as an intermediary between the physical
● Sultanate of Sulu: Established in the 15th century, the Sultanate of Sulu was heavily world and the spiritual realm. Babaylans conducted rituals, healed the sick, and
influenced by Islamic and Malay culture, becoming a powerful political entity in the communicated with the spirits.
southern Philippines. ● Anito: Spirits worshipped by pre-colonial Filipinos, often representing ancestors or
● Bornean Datus: Legendary rulers from Borneo who are believed to have settled in the nature deities. Rituals and offerings were made to the anito to ensure good harvests,
Visayas, bringing with them Malay culture and governance structures. health, and protection.
● Bathala: The supreme deity in Tagalog mythology, often regarded as the creator of the
Japanese Presence and Influence universe. Other regions had their own principal deities, such as Kaptan for the
Visayans.
● Nihonjin: Japanese traders and settlers known for engaging in trade with Filipinos
during the pre-colonial period. Japanese pottery and swords have been found in Customs in Marriage and Family Life
archaeological sites, reflecting this interaction.
● Samurai Influence: Although limited, there are historical accounts of Japanese ● Paninilbihan: A traditional practice where a man serves the family of his bride-to-be as
warriors, or ronin, who settled in the Philippines and became integrated into local a form of courtship. This could involve tasks like fetching water, chopping wood, or
communities. working in the fields.
● Dowry (Bigay-Kaya): A custom in which the groom's family provides a dowry to the
Cultural Syncretism bride's family. This could include gold, land, or valuable items, symbolizing the groom's
ability to provide for his new family.
● Pamanhikan: The formal act of asking for a woman's hand in marriage, where the
Syncretism: The blending of different cultural and religious influences from various Asian
groom and his parents visit the bride's family to seek approval and discuss
neighbors that led to the unique development of Filipino culture. Examples include the
arrangements for the wedding.
combination of animist beliefs with Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic practices.
Indigenous Practices: Despite the strong influences from neighboring Asian cultures, early
Filipinos retained many indigenous practices, resulting in a rich and diverse cultural tapestry. Economic Activities

EARLY CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES IN PRE-COLONIAL FILIPINO CULTURE ● Agriculture: The primary livelihood of pre-colonial Filipinos, with rice, coconuts, and
root crops as staples. Farming was done through the Kaingin system (slash-and-burn
agriculture) or in Banaue Rice Terraces for more advanced irrigation.
Social Structure and Governance
● Fishing and Hunting: Essential activities for subsistence, particularly in coastal and
riverine communities. Fishing was done using nets, traps, and spears, while hunting
● Barangay: The smallest political unit in pre-colonial Philippine society, typically targeted wild game in the forests.
consisting of 30 to 100 families. Each barangay was led by a Datu, who held both ● Weaving and Pottery: Common household industries, with women often engaged in
political and judicial authority. weaving textiles from abaca, cotton, or other fibers, and creating pottery for cooking
● Datu: A chieftain who governed the barangay and was responsible for leadership, and storage.
governance, and protection of the people. The position was often hereditary but could
also be earned through valor and wisdom.
Trade and Commerce
● Timawa: The class of freemen in pre-colonial society, often serving the Datu in
exchange for protection and land. They were distinct from the Maharlika (nobles) and
Alipin (servants or slaves). ● Barter: The primary method of trade within and between communities, where goods
● Alipin: The lowest social class, comprising those who served others, either due to debt, were exchanged without the use of money. Common trade items included food, pottery,
punishment, or birth. There were two main types: Aliping Namamahay (household metal tools, and textiles.
servants with certain rights) and ● Gold: A highly valued commodity, mined from regions like Luzon and Mindanao, and
● Aliping Saguiguilid (slaves with fewer rights, often working in the fields). used for trade, adornment, and religious objects. Gold jewelry was a symbol of wealth
and status.
● Markets (Tiyangge): Local markets where people from different barangays gather to
trade goods. These markets were social hubs as well as economic centers.
Arts and Oral Literature supposed to provide protection and convert the natives to Christianity, though the system often
led to abuses and exploitation.
● Epic Poetry (Epiko): Long narrative poems that told the stories of legendary heroes, Galleon Trade: A trade route that linked the Philippines with Mexico and Spain, starting in
gods, and the history of the people. These epics were passed down orally and were 1565. The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade facilitated the exchange of goods, including silver
performed during important community events. from the Americas and spices, silk, and porcelain from Asia, but also heavily taxed the local
● Baybayin: The pre-colonial script used by Tagalog-speaking people and other ethno- population.
linguistic groups to write their language. This script was syllabic, with characters
representing syllables rather than individual letters. Christianization of the Philippines
● Music and Dance: Integral parts of community life, with traditional instruments like the
kulintang (gong ensemble) and dances like the tinikling Missionaries: Catholic missionaries, including the Augustinians, Franciscans, Jesuits,
● (bamboo dance) reflecting the rhythm of everyday activities and religious rituals. Dominicans, and Recollects, played a key role in converting the indigenous population to
Christianity. The process of Hispanization involved not only religious conversion but also the
Legal Systems and Justice imposition of Spanish culture, language, and values.
Doctrina Christiana: The first book printed in the Philippines, published in 1593. It was a
● Customary Law (Batasan): The unwritten laws based on traditions, norms, and catechism in Spanish and Tagalog, written in the Baybayin script, used to teach the
practices passed down through generations. These laws governed everything from fundamentals of Christianity to the natives.
marriage and property disputes to criminal offenses. Reducción: A policy where scattered settlements were consolidated into larger, centralized
● Trial by Ordeal: A method of determining guilt or innocence in the absence of towns or pueblos under the supervision of Spanish friars. This facilitated both the spread of
witnesses. Examples include paluasan (water ordeal) or sipok (hot iron ordeal), where Christianity and the administration of colonial rule.
the accused would undergo a test of endurance or strength.
● Conflict Resolution: Disputes were often resolved through community mediation by Resistance and Revolts
the Datu or council of elders. Reconciliation and compensation (e.g., payment in goods
or service) were preferred to violent retaliation. Dagohoy Revolt: The longest-running revolt in Philippine history, led by Francisco Dagohoy
in Bohol from 1744 to 1829. It was sparked by the refusal of a Spanish priest to give a proper
SPANISH PERIOD: EUROPEAN CONQUEST IN THE PHILIPPINES Christian burial to Dagohoy’s brother.

Arrival of the Spaniards and Initial Encounters Lakandula and Soliman Revolt: An early resistance against Spanish rule led by the local
rulers Lakandula and
Rajah Soliman in 1574, shortly after the Spanish established control over Manila.
Ferdinand Magellan: A Portuguese explorer leading a Spanish expedition that arrived in the
Philippines on March 16, 1521. Magellan is credited with the first European contact with the
Pampanga Revolt: An uprising in 1585 by Kapampangan nobles and laborers against the
archipelago, although his arrival marked the beginning of Spanish interest in the region.
abuses of Spanish encomenderos, particularly due to the heavy demands for tribute and forced
Battle of Mactan: Fought on April 27, 1521, between the forces of Magellan and the warriors
labor.
of Lapu-Lapu, the Datu of Mactan. Magellan was killed in this battle, halting the Spanish
Silang Revolt: Led by Diego Silang in Ilocos in 1762, during the British occupation of Manila,
expedition's immediate plans for conquest.
aimed at establishing an independent Ilocano state. After his assassination, his wife, Gabriela
Ruy López de Villalobos: Another Spanish explorer who named the islands Las Islas Silang, continued the revolt but was eventually defeated.
Filipinas in honor of Prince Philip (later King Philip II of Spain) during his expedition in 1543.
Economic and Social Impact
Establishment of Spanish Colonial Rule
● Polo y Servicio: A system of forced labor imposed on Filipino males between the ages
Miguel López de Legazpi: The Spanish conquistador who established the first permanent of 16 and 60. They were required to provide 40 days of labor annually for public works,
Spanish settlement in Cebu in 1565. He later moved the capital to Manila in 1571, which such as building roads, churches, and other infrastructure projects.
became the center of Spanish colonial administration. ● Tributo: A system of taxation where every Filipino family (or their community) was
Colonial Government: The Philippines was governed as a colony of Spain under a centralized required to pay tribute to the Spanish authorities, often in the form of cash, crops, or
system with a Governor-General as the highest authority, appointed by the Spanish Crown. other goods.
The Spanish colonial government established encomiendas, a system of land grants that ● Bandala: A policy requiring provinces to sell a portion of their agricultural produce to
allowed Spanish settlers to collect tribute from the local population. the colonial government at a fixed price. This often led to resentment due to the unfair
Encomienda System: A labor system where Spanish encomenderos were granted the right to prices and forced requisition of goods
extract labor and tribute from the indigenous people. In return, the encomenderos were
Social Hierarchy: The Spanish colonization introduced a rigid social hierarchy with Tribute and Taxation
Peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) at the top, followed by Insulares (Spaniards born in
the Philippines), Mestizos (mixed-race individuals), Indios (native Filipinos), and Sangley ● Tributo: The main form of taxation imposed on the native population (Indios) by the
(Chinese immigrants). Spanish colonial government. It was a fixed annual payment that could be made in cash
or kind, such as agricultural products. The tributo was a significant burden on the locals
Cultural Transformation and often led to resentment.
● Cedula Personal: A personal identification certificate introduced in the 19th century,
Hispanization: The process of adopting Spanish culture, including the Spanish language, which required individuals to pay a fee to the colonial government. It served as a form of
Catholicism, and European customs, which became widespread in the Philippines during the taxation and was also used as proof of identity.
colonial period. The Fiesta tradition, Catholic sacraments, and Spanish surnames are ● Bandala: An economic policy requiring provinces to sell a portion of their agricultural
legacies of this cultural transformation. produce to the government at a fixed price. This system was intended to supply the
Education: Spanish colonial rule also introduced formal education, often through church-run colonial administration with resources but often resulted in exploitation of the farmers.
schools. However, access to education was limited, with primary education focused on religious
instruction. Forced Labor and Public Works
Architecture: The construction of Baroque churches, fortresses, and government
buildings in Spanish colonial style, many of which remain as historical landmarks today. The Polo y Servicio: A system of forced labor that required Filipino males aged 16 to 60 to work on
introduction of stone masonry and tile roofing marked a significant shift in local architecture. public infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, churches, and government buildings.
Laborers, called polistas, were required to work for 40 days each year, often under harsh
Spanish Colonial Administration in the Philippines conditions. This system was heavily resented by the local population.
Obras Pías: Charitable foundations established by wealthy Spaniards and religious orders to
Centralized Colonial Government fund public works and social services, such as hospitals, schools, and orphanages. These
foundations played a role in the development of colonial infrastructure and the provision of
services to the population.
● Governor-General: The highest-ranking official in the Philippines during the Spanish
colonial period, representing the Spanish Crown. The GovernorGeneral held executive,
legislative, and judicial powers, making decisions on behalf of the King of Spain. The role Role of the Catholic Church in Governance
included overseeing colonial affairs, implementing royal decrees, and maintaining law
and order. Friarocracy: The dominance of the Catholic religious orders (e.g., Augustinians, Franciscans,
● Real Audiencia: The supreme court established in 1583, which served as the highest Dominicans, Jesuits) in both religious and political life. Friars often held significant power over
judicial authority in the colony. It also had administrative functions, often advising the local governance, especially in rural areas, where they acted as both spiritual leaders and de
Governor-General and acting as a check on his power. The Real Audiencia handled facto government officials. They controlled vast lands and had influence over local decision-
appeals and was responsible for ensuring justice was administered throughout the making.
colony. Reducción: A policy initiated by the Spanish colonial government to consolidate scattered
native populations into centralized towns or pueblos. This made it easier for the Church to
Local Governance Structure evangelize the population and for the colonial government to administer control, collect taxes,
and enforce policies.
● Provinces (Alcaldías and Corregimientos): The Philippines was divided into Catholic Missions: The Church played a key role in the colonial administration through the
provinces, each governed by an Alcalde Mayor or Corregidor, depending on whether establishment of missions aimed at converting the indigenous population to Christianity. These
the area was pacified or still rebellious. The Alcalde Mayor held both administrative and missions often served as centers of education, health care, and community organization.
judicial powers in the province, collecting taxes, enforcing laws, and maintaining order.
● Pueblos: Towns or municipalities within the provinces, led by a Gobernadorcillo (little Economic Policies and Trade
governor). The Gobernadorcillo was typically an elite local official or a member of the
principalia (the local ruling class) who managed local governance, tax collection, and Galleon Trade: The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1815) was a major economic activity
public works. during the Spanish period, linking the Philippines with Mexico and Spain. It facilitated the
● Barangay: The smallest administrative unit, consisting of several families under the exchange of goods, such as silver, silk, spices, and porcelain, but also led to the neglect of local
leadership of a Cabeza de Barangay. The Cabeza was responsible for collecting industries as the economy became heavily dependent on this trade.
tribute, maintaining peace, and reporting to the Gobernadorcillo. Barangays retained Monopolies: The Spanish colonial government established state monopolies on key products
some of their pre-colonial structures, but were incorporated into the broader colonial like tobacco (Tobacco Monopoly of 1782), which required farmers to sell their tobacco to the
administration. government at fixed prices. This was a significant source of revenue for the colonial government
but also caused hardships for local producers.
Challenges and Corruption Propaganda Movement: A campaign led by the Illustrados during the late 19th century,
primarily through publications such as La Solidaridad, to demand reforms from the
Corruption: Widespread corruption was a major issue within the Spanish colonial Spanish government. They sought representation in the Spanish Cortes (parliament),
administration. Governors, alcaldes, and other officials often abused their power for personal freedom of speech, equal rights, and secularization of the clergy.
gain, leading to inefficiencies, injustices, and widespread dissatisfaction among the local
population. Legal and Political Reforms
Revolt and Resistance: Numerous uprisings and revolts occurred throughout the Spanish
colonial period as a reaction to abuses, heavy taxation, forced labor, and cultural impositions by Royal Decrees and Laws: Throughout the Spanish colonial period, various royal decrees
the colonial government. These included revolts led by local leaders such as Dagohoy, Silang, and laws were issued to regulate life in the colony. These included the Law of the Indies,
and Tamblot. which governed the organization of towns, and the Maura Law of 1893, which attempted
to reorganize local governments to make them more efficient.
The End of Spanish Rule Spanish Legal System: The Spanish introduced their legal system, which included
courts (Audiencia) and laws that governed property, marriage, and civil disputes.
Philippine Revolution: The culmination of centuries of dissatisfaction with Spanish colonial However, the application of these laws often favored Spaniards and the mestizo elite,
rule led to the Philippine Revolution of 1896, spearheaded by the Katipunan, a revolutionary further marginalizing the indigenous population.
society led by Andres Bonifacio and later Emilio Aguinaldo. The revolution aimed to Principalia: The local elite class consisting of datus, rajas, and wealthy landowners who
overthrow Spanish rule and establish an independent Philippine nation. were co-opted into the colonial administration. They served as intermediaries between the
Treaty of Paris (1898): The treaty that ended the Spanish-American War, wherein Spain Spanish authorities and the local population, collecting taxes and enforcing colonial
ceded the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. This marked the end of over 300 years policies. Over time, members of the principalia became influential in both local
of Spanish colonial rule and the beginning of American colonization. governance and economic activities.

Institutional Impact of Spanish Rule: From Indio to Filipino Religious Influence and Cultural Syncretism

Transformation of Social Identity Catholicism: The Catholic Church was a dominant institution in the Philippines, deeply
influencing both the social structure and cultural practices. The Church’s role in education,
land ownership, and governance reinforced its authority. Religious festivals, devotions,
Indio: The term used by the Spanish colonizers to refer to the native inhabitants of the
and practices became deeply embedded in Filipino culture.
Philippines. It was a pejorative label that denoted the indigenous people’s supposed inferiority
compared to the Spanish and other Europeans. The label reinforced the social hierarchy and the Syncretism: The blending of Catholic religious practices with pre-colonial beliefs and
subjugation of the native population under colonial rule. rituals led to a unique form of Filipino Catholicism. For instance, fiestas often combined
indigenous and Catholic traditions, and many Filipinos continued to observe pre-colonial
Filipino: Originally, this term was used exclusively to refer to Spaniards born in the customs alongside Christian practices.
Philippines, also known as Insulares. However, by the late 19th century, it evolved to Reducción: The policy of relocating scattered indigenous populations into centralized
include the educated natives, Illustrados, who were advocating for equal rights, towns (pueblos) under the supervision of the Church. This facilitated the spread of
recognition, and reforms. The term eventually became a national identity for all the Catholicism and allowed for more effective governance and tax collection, but also
inhabitants of the Philippines, especially during the Philippine Revolution. disrupted traditional social structures.

Education and the Rise of the Illustrados Economic Changes and the Development of a Landed Elite

Education under the Spanish: Education during the Spanish colonial period was Encomienda System: An early system where Spanish encomenderos were granted
primarily religious and controlled by the Catholic Church. The primary aim was to control over certain territories and the people within them. They could collect tribute and
Christianize and Hispanicize the local population. Basic education was offered through use local labor in exchange for providing protection and converting the population to
parish schools, where the curriculum focused on Christian doctrine, the Spanish language, Christianity. This system often led to the exploitation of the native population and the
and practical skills. concentration of wealth in the hands of a few.
Illustrados: A class of educated Filipinos who emerged in the late 19th century, often Hacienda System: By the 18th century, the encomienda system was largely replaced by
coming from wealthy and influential families. Many Illustrados studied in Europe and were the hacienda system, where large estates (haciendas) were owned by Spanish landlords
influenced by liberal ideas, which led them to advocate for reforms and greater autonomy. or religious orders. These estates were worked by tenant farmers (kasama) who were
Notable Illustrados include José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano López often subjected to oppressive conditions. The hacienda system contributed to the rise of a
Jaena. wealthy landowning class.
Galleon Trade and Economic Integration: The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade
(1565-1815) integrated the Philippines into the global economy, linking Asia, the
Americas, and Europe. The trade brought wealth to a few, but also made the colony
dependent on external markets. The focus on export crops and imported goods hindered
the development of local industries.

Language and Communication

Spanish Language: Spanish was the official language of the colonial government, the
Church, and education. However, it was mainly spoken by the colonial elite, clergy, and
educated Filipinos (Illustrados). The majority of the population continued to speak their
native languages, with only a small portion becoming fluent in Spanish.
Doctrina Christiana: The first book printed in the Philippines, published in 1593, was a
catechism written in both Spanish and Tagalog, reflecting the Church’s efforts to teach
Christianity to the native population in their own language.
Baybayin: The pre-colonial script used by various ethnic groups in the Philippines, which
was gradually replaced by the Roman alphabet due to Spanish influence. The decline of
Baybayin and the spread of the Roman alphabet facilitated the adoption of Spanish and
later, English.

Emergence of a National Consciousness

Secularization Movement: A movement among Filipino priests in the 19th century

advocating for the transfer of control over parishes from Spanish friars to native clergy.
The movement was part of a broader push for equality and recognition of Filipino
capabilities, leading to tensions between the local clergy and the Spanish religious orders.
Gomburza: The collective name for three Filipino priests—Mariano Gómez, José
Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora—who were executed in 1872 for alleged involvement in the
Cavite Mutiny. Their execution became a rallying point for Filipino nationalists and inspired
the push for reforms and eventual independence.
Philippine Revolution: The growing sense of national identity and the desire for
independence culminated in the Philippine Revolution of 1896. Led by the Katipunan and
key figures like Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo, the revolution marked the
shift from colonial subjugation to the struggle for nationhood.