INSPIRE COACHING CENTRE

• Cells of similar type performing similar function group together to form

a tissue, more than one type of tissues form organs, different organs
form organ systems and organ systems form an organism.
• In unicellular organisms, such as amoeba, a single cell performs all
functions of life.
• In multicellular organisms like plants and animals, different groups of
cells perform different functions.
• A tissue is a group of cells (similar in structure) that work
together to perform a specific function.
• The formation of different types of tissues leads to the division of
labour, which increases the efficiency of the body and enables it to
carry out complex life processes.
For example in animals, muscle tissue enables movement and nervous
tissue carries messages to different parts of the body.
• In plants, conducting tissues, such as xylem transports water and
minerals, while phloem transports food.

Why are Plant and Animal Tissues Different?

.• Most plants are fixed in one place and do not move from place to
place like animals.
• They need support to stay firm and upright.
• Plant cells have a cell wall that provides rigidity and strength.
• In general, animals can move (although some, such as sponges, are
immobile).
• Without a rigid cell wall, animal cells can change shape easily.
• This cellular flexibility eventually helps make their bodies
suitable for locomotion.
• Another major difference between plants and animals is their
mode of nutrition.
• Animals have tissues that help them digest food obtained from different
food sources, while plants have tissues that help them utilise solar
energy for synthesising the food components through photosynthesis.
• Plants and animals have distinct tissues for transporting food and
water to different parts of the body.
• The growth patterns in plants and animals also vary because the
tissues responsible for growth differ in structure and function.

Tissues for Growth in Plants

Plants grow in different ways —
• increase in length (height of stem and depth of roots),
• increase in girth (thickness of stem), and
• regrowth after cutting the branches or grazing by animals.
This growth require actively dividing cells that together form a
tissue called a meristematic tissue.
•( The tissue which cells dividing continuously and formed new
cells is called meristematic tissue . )
Apical meristem — How do plants grow in length?

• plants have growth zones at the tips of their roots and shoots, called
the apical meristems, which help the plants grow in length .

Lateral meristem — How do plants grow in girth?

• You must have observed that the stems of dicot plants not only grow in
length but also increase in diameter or girth over time.
• If you have visited a timber yard or observed the cut trunk of a tree, you
may have noticed several ring-like patterns on the cut surface of the
wood ).
• These are annual growth rings. Some annual rings are wide and some
are narrow, reflecting the favourable or unfavourable
growth conditions during a particular year.
•
• By counting these annual rings, scientists can estimate the age of
a tree and also understand the climatic conditions under which it
grow .
• The increase in girth occurs due to the presence of actively dividing
cells arranged in a ring in the stem.
• These cells divide and produce new cells inside and outside in a
concentric manner, leading to an increase in diameter of stem.
• This meristematic tissue is called the lateral meristem.

Intercalary meristem — How do plants grow after being cut?

• . The intercalary meristem is located at the base of internode or just
above the node.
• The node is point on plant stem where branches or leaves arise.
• The part of stem between the two nodes is called internode.
• You may also have observed that when the hedge around a
garden is cut, after sometime more branches appear again, giving
the hedge a bushy appearance.
• Grass also appear after sometime being mowed and/or grazed by
animals. This happens because of the presence of intercalary
meristem at the nodes of its stem.
• The intercalary meristem located at the base of certain plants, such as
grasses, helps them regenerate after cutting.
• intercalary increase the length of branch in plants .

Property of meristematic tissue ?

• The cells of the meristematic tissues are small, have thin cell walls, a
large and prominent nucleus, and dense cytoplasm with many
organelles.
• Vacuoles are generally absent and the cells are tightly packed with little
or no intercellular space.
• These characteristics of meristematic tissue allow them continuous and
rapid cell division.
Why do you think that the cell of meristematic tissues lack
vacuoles?
• Due to continuous cell division, meristematic tissue adds new cells to
the plant body.
• Some of the newly formed cells remain meristematic while others lose
the ability to divide.
• The cells that loose the ability to divide undergo changes in
structure and function, and become permanent tissues.
• These cells become specialised to perform specific functions,
such as support, transport or storage.
• The process, by which meristematic tissue becomes specialised
to perform specific functions, is called differentiation.
• Meristematic tissue becomes permanent by the process of
differentiation.

Permanent tissues
• You can see that different groups of cells are present in the T.S. of
sunflower stem and each tissue is specialised to perform a specific
function.
These are permanent tissues.
• Permanent tissues can be simple (composed of only one type of
cell) or complex (composed of more than one types of cells).

(i) Protective tissue — Epidermis

• The epidermis forms the outermost layer of the plant body.

• It consists of a tightly packed, single layer of flat and rectangular cells.
• It protects all parts of the plants.
• These cells are covered with a waxy layer of cutin called cuticle.
• In some plants, living in very dry habitat, the epidermis may be covered
by a thick layer of cuticle to reduce the water loss in the process of
transpiration by stomata.
• The cuticle also provides protection against mechanical injury
and invasion by parasites. In many plants, hair-like projections
arise from epidermal cells.
• In roots, these projections are called root hair, which increase the
surface area for absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
• In leaves, the epidermis contains pores called stomata, which apart
from gaseous exchange helps in transpiration, i.e., evaporation of water
vapours through stomata.
• Thus, transpiration helps in water transportation by creating a
transpiration pull in xylem.
• Transpiration also helps in elimination of wastes from the plant
Ready to Go Beyond
In young plants, the outer protective layer is a single-layered epidermis.
• As plants grow older, some cells below the epidermis of the stem
develop the ability to divide, act as lateral meristematic cells and form
the cork cambium.
• The division of cork cambium cells gives rise to cork cells.
• Cork cells are dead, compactly arranged, and contain a substance
which makes them impermeable to water and gases.
• This forms the bark of the tree.
.
Supporting tissue — Simple permanent tissues
• There are three types of supporting tissues or simple permanent
tissues — parenchyma, Collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
• Each differs in structure and performs supporting functions.
• Thick lignified walls

a. Parenchyma
Parenchyma consists of living cells with thin walls .
• These cells are loosely packed with intercellular spaces.
• Parenchyma mainly stores food but also performs photosynthesis in
the green parts of the plants.
• In aquatic plants, specialised parenchyma forms air spaces, which help
them float.

b. Collenchyma
•Collenchyma consists of living cells with unevenly thickened corners
due to pectin (a chemical that gives flexibility like rubber) deposition
• This tissue provides support and flexibility, allowing parts of the plant
like stems and tendrils to bend without
breaking.

c. Sclerenchyma

Sclerenchyma cells have thick walls due to deposition of lignin, making

them hard and strong (forms the woody structure).
• Most of these cells are dead.
• This tissue is found in stems, leaf veins, and hard coverings of seeds
and nuts, such as coconut husk and walnut shell.

Conducting tissues — Complex permanent tissues

• Plants have specialised conducting tissues called xylem and phloem,
together known as complex permanent tissues, because they are made
up of different types of cells working together.

Xylem
• It is the tissue that transports water and minerals from the roots to
other parts of the plant.
• It also provides strength to the plant.
• Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and
xylem
fibres.
• Tracheids and vessels are tubular and thick-walled.
• Xylem parenchyma are the only living component of xylem while
trachieds, vessels, and xylem fibres are primarily sclerenchymatous.

phloem

• It is mostly made up of living cells .

• It consists of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma
and phloem fibres.
• Some cells are long and tubular, joined end to end by perforated walls.
These cells form sieve tubes.
• Sieve tubes transport food from leaves to other parts of the plant.
• The cellular functions of the sieve tube cells are regulated by
companion cells.
• Companion cells are specialised parenchyma cells.
• Main function of companion cells is to monitor loading and
unloading of sugars in sieve tubes.
• Phloem parenchyma store food materials, and resin, tannins and latex.
• The sieve tubes are also supported by phloem fibres which are
primarily sclerenchymatous and provide strength.

Tissue system
• The system in which tissue are organised together into larger
groups called tissue system .

• Plant tissues are organised into three tissue systems

1- dermal tissue system . : This forms the outer covering of the plant.
• It protects the inner parts and reduces water loss.

2. Ground tissue system : This forms the main body of a plant between
the dermal and conducting tissues.
• It includes parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma

3. Vascular tissue system : This consists of conducting tissues —

xylem and phloem.

Animal Tissues
Epithelial tissues — Structure and functions
• Epithelial tissue forms the outer covering of the body (skin) and also
lines the internal organs, such as the mouth, lungs, blood vessels and
intestine.
• It is composed of closely packed cells with very little space
between them.
• This structure prevents the entry of the germs, reduce water loss, and
also helps in the absorption, secretion and movement of
substances.
•

Types of epithelial tissue

1 - simple squamous epithelium
2- stratified squamous epithelial
3- columnar epithelial
4- cuboidal epithelial
How are various parts connected in our body?
• blood connects different parts of the body by transporting
nutrients, gases, hormones, etc.

• , bones connect and support the body from head to toe.

• A tissue that connects and supports other tissues is called a
connective tissue.
• Both blood and bones are connective tissues.
• Though both are connective tissues, they differ in composition and
consistency.
• Blood is fluid, while bone is hard.
• This difference is due to the matrix, which is watery, soft and jelly-like
in blood but hard, solid, and rigid in bones

• The everyday experiences mentioned above are related to blood

and its components.
1. The red colour of blood is due to haemoglobin, an iron-rich protein
in the Red Blood Cells (RBCs). RBCs live for about 4 months and are
replaced regularly.
2. Platelets help in blood clotting at the site of the injury.
3. During exercise or running, muscles need more oxygen, so breathing
becomes faster and blood flow increases (face appears red).
4. White Blood Cells (WBCs) collect at infected areas, causing pus
formation and inflammation (causing redness and swelling, and
possible pus formation at the infected area).
• Bones have a rigid matrix containing calcium and phosphorus
compounds, giving them strength and rigidity.
• In contrast, cartilage has a soft, jelly-like matrix, and provides flexibility
and cushioning.
• Other connective tissues include tendons and ligaments.
• Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments connect bones to
bones and prevent excessive movement .

Can we control movement in our body?

• Some movements are under our conscious control, such as running,

writing or lifting objects. These are called voluntary movements and are
carried out by skeletal muscles ), which are attached to the skeleton.
• They are made up of bundles of long, cylindrical cells called muscle
fibres, which are unbranched, multinucleate (having many nuclei) and
striated ( showing light and dark bands).

involuntary movements
• , many body movements occur automatically without conscious control,
for example the movement of food in the intestine and the beating of the
heart. These are called involuntary movements.
• The muscles responsible for these movements include smooth
muscles which are found in organs like the stomach and intestines.
• Their cells are spindle-shaped, have a single nucleus and lack
striations.

• They help in slow, continuous movements like digestion.

The cardiac muscles are found only in the heart.
• Their fibres are cylindrical and branched with a single nucleus, and
have faint striations.
• Cardiac muscles work tirelessly and rhythmically, enabling the
heart to beat throughout life without fatigue.

How does the body sense, communicate and respond?

Have you noticed how quickly you pull your hand away from something
hot, or how you remember the lyrics of a song learned long ago? These
actions are controlled by nervous tissue, which forms the body’s control
and coordination network.
• The brain acts as the control centre; coordinating activities,
memory and responses across the body.
• Muscles, both voluntary and involuntary, cannot function
independently.
• They receive instructions from the nervous tissue.
• For example, during exercise, the brain signals the heart to beat faster
to meet the body’s increased oxygen demand.
• The cells of nervous tissue are called neutrons .

• nerve cells, which are specialised to receive, process and transmit

messages.

• Each neurone has three main parts — the cell body, which contains
the nucleus and controls cell activities; dendrites, which receive signals
from other neurone; and an axon, a long fibre that carries messages
from the cell and ends at axon terminals.
• The axon terminals transmit the messages to other cells.

The Musculoskeletal System

• The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, muscles, joints,
cartilage, tendons and ligaments.
• This system helps us stand upright, move, maintain posture and
protect delicate organs.
• The musculoskeletal system functions under the control of the nervous
system.
• Muscles pull on bones to produce movement.
• They are attached to bones by strong, flexible bands called tendons .
• When a muscle contracts, the tendon transmits this force to the bone,
resulting in movement at a joint.
•On an average, the adult human skeleton makes up about 12 – 15
per cent of body weight, though this can vary with age, gender and
body composition.

• You may have noticed that some parts of our body can move easily in
many directions, while others move only in a single direction.
•The difference is due to the types of joints present.
• A joint is a junction between two or more bones.
• Joints allow movement but they cannot move the bones on their own
.
Types of Joints
1- Ball and socket joint
• The shoulder joint allows free movement of the arm This is because
the rounded top of the upper arm bone fits into a shallow hollow of the
shoulder bone, forming the ball and socket joint
• Together with the collarbone, the shoulder forms the shoulder girdle,
which connects the arm to the skeleton.
• This joint allows forward, backwards, sideways and circular
movements.
2- Hinge joint
• the elbow bends and straightens in one direction only like a door hinge
• This type of joint is called a hinge joint.
• A similar hinge joint is present in the knee, where a small bone called
the kneecap protects the joint.

3- Pivot joint
• The skull is connected to the backbone through a pivot joint, which
allows the head to move side to side like a doorknob turning in
its socket.

4- Fixed joints
The skull is a hard case of flat bones joined together to
protect the brain, eyes and ears.
•The bones of the skull are connected by fixed joints, which means the
bones of the skull cannot move.
• This keeps the brain safe even when the body moves.

Skeletal System
• The skeletal system consists of a framework of bones that
provides strength and protects delicate internal organs.
• It includes the skull, vertebral column and rib cage.
• From the base of the skull, it extends a flexible column called
the backbone or vertebral column (spine), made up of a series of small
bones called vertebrae.
• It supports the body and helps us stand upright.
• Between each vertebra is a cartilage disc, which acts as a cushion and
allows flexibility, so we can bend and twist without injuring the internal
spinal cord.
• 12 pairs of ribs and together they form the rib cage.
• The rib cage acts like a protective cage to protect vital organs, such as
the heart and lungs.
• The ribs are attached to the spine at the back and to the breast bone
(sternum) in the front.
• They are joined by flexible cartilage.
• This flexibility allows the rib cage to expand and contract during
breathing.
• This movement increases and decreases space in the chest,
allowing air to move in and out of the lungs. Injury to the ribs can
make breathing painful and difficult.

Bridging Science and Society

Yoga and Health

• Yoga involves physical postures (asanas), breathing

exercises (pranayama) and meditation.
• Scientific studies indicate regular practice of yoga
improves flexibility, posture and breathing, reduces stress
and helps prevent lifestyle-related conditions.
• International Yoga Day is observed on 21 June each year
to promote the benefits of yoga.
• Correct posture, balanced diet, regular exercise and yoga
contribute to strong bones, healthy muscles and flexible
joints.

Agrobacterium and Plant Genetic Engineering

• Crown gall disease is a plant disease characterised by

tumour-like swellings on stems arising from uncontrolled
cell division.
• The disease is caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium
tumefaciens.
• Scientists studied how this bacterium transfers its DNA
into plant cells and used this mechanism as a tool for plant
genetic engineering.
• Agrobacterium is now used to introduce beneficial genes
into plants for traits such as disease resistance, improved
yield and production of valuable phytochemicals.

• This remarkable capacity of a single mature plant cell to

develop into an entire plant is called totipotency
• In 1958 F. C. Steward demonstrated that individual phloem cells
from carrot roots can regenerate into whole plants when cultured
in a suitable nutrient medium.

Revise, Reflect, Refine

Q1. Meristematic tissues divide repeatedly. What property of
their cells allows them to do this?
(i) They have thick walls for protection.
(ii) They contain large vacuoles that store nutrients.
(iii) They have thin walls, dense cytoplasm and large prominent
nucleus.
(iv) They are functionally differentiated cells.
Ans. (iii) They have thin walls, dense cytoplasm and large
prominent nucleus.
Q2. If a plant is unable to transport food from leaves to roots
which tissue is malfunctioning?
(i) Xylem
(ii) Phloem
(iii) Epidermis
(iv) Sclerenchyma
Ans. (ii) Phloem.
.
Q3. Why are the epithelial tissues that line an animal's internal
organs usually only one or a few cells thick?
(i) To store food efficiently.
(ii) To provide maximum strength.
(iii) To allow quick exchange of materials across them.
(iv) To reduce friction.
Ans. (iii) To allow quick exchange of materials across them.
Q4. You can perform these two jumps (Fig. 3.21): Straight-leg
jump - keep knees and ankles stiff. Normal jump - bend knees
and ankles naturally. How did your ankle, knee and hip positions
differ between the two jumps?
Ans. In the straight-leg jump, the knees and ankles are kept stiff,
so only the hip joint is used for the jumping motion.
• Landing is very hard, painful and causes greater impact on the
body because the joints cannot absorb shock.
• In the normal jump, the knees and ankles bend naturally.
•During takeoff and landing, the knee and ankle joints act as
shock absorbers - cartilage at joints cushions the impact.
•The hip joint also participates in bending.
•This makes the jump smoother, more efficient and reduces
stress on the bones and joints.
• The normal jump demonstrates why joints and cartilage are so
important for movement and protection.
Q5. Which type of joint is involved when you bend your knees
and ankles?
(i) Ball and socket
(ii) Hinge
(iii) Pivot
Ans. (ii) Hinge joint.

Q6 In each of the following cases (A, B, C and D), choose the

correct option as given below:
(i) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of
(A).
(ii) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A).
(iii) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(iv) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(A). Assertion: Epithelium is well-suited for gas exchange in the
lungs.
Reason: It consists of multiple layers of tall cells that slow down
diffusion.
Ans. (iii) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
The assertion is correct - the epithelium lining the lungs (alveoli)
is indeed well-suited for gas exchange. However, the reason
given is incorrect.
• The epithelium in the lungs actually consists of a single layer of
very thin, flat cells (squamous epithelium), NOT multiple layers of
tall cells. This single thin layer allows rapid diffusion of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between air and blood. Multiple layers would
actually slow down gas exchange.
(B). Assertion: Cardiac muscle can contract continuously without
fatigue.
Reason: Cardiac muscle cells have a high number of mitochondria
and an abundant blood supply.
Ans. (i) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct
explanation of (A).
Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart and they beat
tirelessly and rhythmically throughout life without ever getting
tired.
•This is because cardiac muscle cells have an exceptionally high
number of mitochondria - these are the 'energy factories' of the
cell that produce ATP (energy). Additionally, the heart muscle has
a very rich blood supply (coronary arteries), ensuring constant
delivery of oxygen and nutrients needed for energy production.
•Together, these features allow cardiac muscles to work
continuously.
(C) . Assertion: Tendons connect bone to bone and allow joint
movement.
Reason: Tendons are made of tough connective tissue that
transmits force from muscle to bone.
Ans. (iv) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
The assertion is incorrect - tendons do NOT connect bone to
bone. Tendons connect muscle to bone. It is ligaments that
connect bone to bone and help prevent dislocation at joints.
•The reason, however, is correct - tendons are made of tough
connective tissue and their function is to transmit the pulling
force generated by muscle contraction to the bone, resulting in
movement at a joint.
(D). Assertion: In a hinge joint, movement occurs primarily in one
plane.
Reason: The bone ends are shaped to allow sliding in all
directions.
Ans. (iii) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
The assertion is correct - hinge joints like the elbow and knee
allow movement in one plane only (bending and straightening).
However, the reason is incorrect.
•The reason describes a ball and socket joint, not a hinge joint. In
hinge joints, the bone ends are shaped like a hinge (interlocking
ridges and grooves) that restrict movement to one direction only.
•It is the ball and socket joint where the rounded top of one
bone fits into a hollow, allowing movement in multiple directions.
Q7. Plot a graph between the age of a tree (in years) on the x-
axis and the diameter of the tree (in cm) along with the number
of annual rings formed over time on the y-axis, using the data
given in the Table 3.7.
(i) Analyse the graph in terms of the diameter of the stem over
time and share the interpretation.
(ii) What is the relation between the diameter of the teak tree to
the annual rings formed?
(iii) Which specialised tissue is responsible for the girth of the
stem and where is it located?
Ans.
(i) Graph Analysis: The diameter of the stem increases steadily
with age. From age 5 to 10 years, growth is gradual (4 to 8 cm).
Between 10 and 20 years, there is a rapid increase (8 to 24 cm).
After 20 years, growth continues but at a more moderate rate.
• This shows that the tree grows in girth most rapidly in its
younger years, then the rate of growth gradually stabilises.
• The diameter increases continuously as long as the tree is alive.

(ii) Relation between diameter and annual rings: The number of

annual rings equals the age of the tree in years (e.g., 5 years = 5
rings, 40 years = 40 rings).
•Each year, one new ring is formed. The diameter at breast
height (DBH) also increases with age. So, both increase with age -
but not in the same proportion.
•Diameter growth is rapid in early years then slows.
•This means annual rings are not all equal in thickness - early
rings may be wider (more growth) and later rings may be
narrower.
(iii) The specialised tissue responsible for girth (increase in
diameter/thickness of stem) is the lateral meristem.
•It is located along the circumference (periphery) of the stem,
arranged in a ring.
•Cells of the lateral meristem divide and add new cells inward
and outward in a concentric manner, causing the stem to become
thicker over time.
Q8. In a forest, it was observed that one of the trees was
severely debarked by an elephant to meet its food requirements,
as the bark is a rich source of nutrients (Fig. 3.22).
Based on your learning, answer the following:
(i) Which function(s) of the tree is/are hampered by debarking?
(ii) Which plant tissue would be affected by further damage to
the tree trunk even after debarking?
(iii) Which function of the tree would be hampered if the tissues
beneath the bark were severely damaged?
(iv) What assumptions are you making to answer the questions
above? How would the answer change if your assumptions are
also changed?
Ans.
(i) Debarking removes the bark which includes the epidermis and
the phloem (outer bark). Functions hampered:

• Protection - the epidermis/bark protects the tree from

mechanical injury, water loss, and entry of
microorganisms. Without it, the tree is exposed to
infections and drying.
• Food transport - the phloem present in the bark
transports food from leaves to roots. Removal of bark
interrupts phloem, so roots cannot receive food (sugars)
from leaves, eventually killing the roots.

(ii) After debarking, further damage to the tree trunk would affect
the xylem (wood).
•Xylem is located beneath the phloem/bark and forms the woody
part of the trunk.
•Additionally, if the lateral meristem (cambium) is damaged, the
tree would lose its ability to grow in girth and regenerate new
xylem and phloem layers.
(iii) If the tissues beneath the bark (mainly xylem) were severely
damaged, the transport of water and minerals from roots to
leaves would be hampered.
•Without water and minerals reaching leaves, photosynthesis
would fail, and the tree would eventually die.
(iv) Assumption: The debarking is complete (removes all bark
including phloem) and occurs around the entire circumference of
the tree trunk (ring-barking).
•If the assumption changes - if only partial debarking occurred,
leaving some phloem intact on one side - some food transport
may continue, allowing the tree to partially survive longer.
Similarly, if the lateral meristem (cambium) beneath the bark is
intact, the tree may regenerate new bark over time.
Q9. Aamrapali observed that a young mango sapling's stem
bends flexibly during monsoon winds and does not break. Which
tissue is responsible for this flexibility? Predict and provide your
explanation of the impact if the existing tissue was replaced by
sclerenchyma.
Ans. The tissue responsible for the flexibility of the young mango
sapling's stem is collenchyma.
•Collenchyma consists of living cells with unevenly thickened
corners due to pectin (a chemical that provides rubber-like
flexibility).
•This tissue allows the stem to bend without breaking when
subjected to wind.
If collenchyma was replaced by sclerenchyma, the stem would
become hard, brittle and rigid because sclerenchyma cells have
thick walls with lignin deposition that makes them dead and
inflexible.
•Instead of bending, the stem would snap and break under the
force of monsoon winds.
•The plant would have no ability to withstand mechanical stress.
This shows why different tissues have different compositions
suited to their specific functions - collenchyma for flexible
support in young plants, sclerenchyma for hard, permanent
support in mature parts.
Q10. Sohan designed an experiment for the regeneration of
sugarcane, where he used cuttings to grow sugarcane. He used
two types of cuttings, type 'A' and type 'B' (Fig. 3.23). After a few
weeks, type 'B' cuttings sprouted and developed into sugarcane
plants, whereas the type 'A' cuttings did not sprout.
(i) Why were the type 'B' cuttings able to grow as sugarcane but
type 'A' could not?
(ii) What difference was present in type 'B' compared to type 'A'?
(iii) What observation or measurement was made to determine
whether this change had an effect?
(iv) What parameters should be kept the same for both types of
cuttings to ensure a fair comparison?
Ans.
(i) Type 'B' cuttings were able to grow because they
contained nodes - the regions of the stem that have intercalary
meristem.
•Intercalary meristem is present at the base of internodes or just
above nodes.
•This meristematic tissue can actively divide and give rise to new
shoots.
•Type 'A' cuttings likely did not contain nodes, so they lacked
meristematic tissue and had no ability to regenerate new growth.
(ii) The difference in type 'B' compared to type 'A' was
the presence of nodes (which contain meristematic/intercalary
meristem tissue).
•Type 'B' cuttings had at least one node that could give rise to
new buds and eventually develop into a full plant.
•Type 'A' cuttings may have only had internodal sections without
any node.
(iii) The observation made was whether the
cuttings sprouted (produced new buds or shoots) and eventually
developed into complete sugarcane plants.
•Measurement of the length/growth of new shoots over a few
weeks was likely recorded to confirm the effect.
(iv) To ensure a fair comparison, the following parameters should
be kept the same for both types of cuttings:

• Same species of sugarcane

• Same length and size of cuttings
• Same soil type and pot/container
• Same amount of water given
• Same sunlight exposure
• Same temperature and environmental conditions
 • Same time period of observation
• Same number of cuttings for each type (replication)

Q11. During the discussion in class, Rohan gives a statement

that, "A tissue is a group of similar cells performing similar
functions". But Rajiv counter argues that, "this is true in case of
simple tissues but little different in case of complex tissues".
Provide your explanation in view of the discussion in class.
Ans. Both Rohan and Rajiv are partially correct.
Rohan's statement is true for simple permanent tissues like
parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma - in these, all cells
are of the same type and perform the same function (e.g., all
parenchyma cells store food).
•Rajiv's counter-argument is correct for complex permanent
tissues. Xylem is a complex tissue made of four different types of
cells - tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres.
Each type of cell in xylem has a different structure and performs
a different function (e.g., tracheids and vessels conduct water;
xylem parenchyma stores food; xylem fibres provide support).
•Similarly, phloem has sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma and phloem fibres with different structures and
roles.
•However, all these different cells work together as a team to
achieve the overall function of the complex tissue (water
transport in xylem, food transport in phloem).
• So a better definition would be: A tissue is a group of cells
(similar or different in structure) that are organised and work
together to perform one or more specific functions for the
organism.
Q12. Coconut husk fibres are used for mats which are tough and
fibrous. Which tissue has structural features suitable for
providing this strength? Explain why living parenchyma couldn't
serve the same purpose.
Ans. The tissue responsible for the toughness and strength of
coconut husk fibres is sclerenchyma.
•Sclerenchyma cells have very thick cell walls due to heavy
deposition of lignin - a hard, rigid chemical.
•These cells are dead at maturity, with the cell wall being
extremely hard and strong.
•This gives the fibres their characteristic toughness, hardness
and fibrous nature, making them suitable for making mats and
ropes.
parenchyma cells cannot serve this purpose because:

1. They have thin cell walls with no lignin deposition, making

them soft and fragile
2. They are living cells filled with watery cytoplasm, which
would make them soft and easily damaged
3. They cannot provide the rigidity, hardness or tensile
strength needed for tough fibrous products

In contrast, the dead, lignin-rich sclerenchyma cells form a tough

structural material that can withstand pulling forces and wear.

Q13. Vibha claims to her friend Neha that, "Meristematic cells

are located only at the root and shoot apices". What do you think
about this statement? What question can Neha ask Vibha to help
her understand further if the statement is incorrect?
Ans. Vibha's statement is [Link] cells are NOT
located only at the root and shoot apices.
• While apical meristem is present at root and shoot tips, there
are two more types of meristematic tissue:

1. Lateral meristem - located along the circumference of

stems; responsible for increase in girth/diameter
2. Intercalary meristem - located at the base of internodes
or just above nodes; responsible for regrowth after cutting
or grazing

Neha can ask Vibha the following questions to help her

understand:

• "If meristematic cells are only at root and shoot tips, how
does a grass plant grow back after being mowed or grazed by
animals?" (This would direct Vibha to think about
intercalary meristem.)
 • "If meristematic cells are only at tips, how does the trunk of a
tree become thicker and wider as it grows older?"(This would
direct Vibha to think about lateral meristem.)

Q14. A plant cell and an animal cell are of the same size.(i) Which
cell will have a larger vacuole? Give reasons.(ii) What
assumptions are you making to answer the question above?
Ans.
(i) The plant cell will have a larger vacuole compared to the
animal cell. In plant cells, vacuoles are large and prominent, often
occupying 60-90% of the cell volume.
•They play important roles in storing water (maintaining turgidity
and firmness), storing nutrients and waste products, and
maintaining the shape of the cell.
• In animal cells, vacuoles are either absent or very small and
temporary (used for transport or digestion).
•Therefore, even if both cells are the same size, the plant cell's
vacuole will be significantly larger.
(ii) Assumptions being made:

• We are comparing a typical mature plant cell (like

parenchyma) with a typical animal cell - not a specialised
plant cell like a meristematic cell (which has very small or
no vacuoles)
• Both cells are in a healthy, normal physiological state
• The plant cell is a non-meristematic, permanent tissue cell
• The animal cell is not a specialised secretory cell that
might have larger vacuoles

If the assumption changes (e.g., if we compare a meristematic

plant cell with an animal cell), the answer might be different, as
meristematic cells lack vacuoles.

Q15. A textbook states, "Each plant tissue performs only one

specific function". What questions would you ask to critically
examine the correctness of this statement? What examples of
tissues would you take to find out the answers to these
questions?
Ans. The statement is an oversimplification and is not entirely
correct. To critically examine it, one would ask the following
questions:

1. Does parenchyma perform only one function? -

Parenchyma primarily stores food, but it also performs
photosynthesis in green parts (chlorenchyma), and in
aquatic plants, specialised parenchyma (aerenchyma)
forms air spaces to help plants float. So parenchyma
performs multiple functions - this challenges the
statement.
2. Does epidermis perform only one function? - Epidermis
primarily provides protection, but it also helps in
transpiration (through stomata), gaseous exchange,
absorption (root hair cells absorb water), and elimination
of waste. So epidermis performs multiple functions.
3. Does xylem perform only one function? - Xylem
transports water and minerals, but xylem fibres also
provide mechanical strength to the plant. So xylem has
dual roles.
4. Does phloem perform only one function? - Phloem
transports food, but phloem parenchyma stores food,
tannins, resins and latex; phloem fibres provide support.
So phloem also performs multiple functions.