UNIT 5

5. Runoff
[Link]
 Runoff is the portion of precipitation which appears in the or
intermittent nature.
 It is the precipitation excess after meeting the
evapotranspiration demands.
 It is usually expressed as volume per unit time, (m3/s) or cumec.
 It may also be expressed as depth equivalent over a basin that is
mm/day, mm/month or mm/year.
• This is particularly useful unit for comparing runoff rate or
runoff volume with precipitation.
 5.2. Components of Runoff
 According to the source from which the flow is derived, the
total runoff is visualized to consist of;
 Surface runoff
 Sub-surface runoff
 Groundwater runoff
 The Figure below shows the inter-relationship between various
items involved in the process of transforming the total precipitation
into the total runoff.
 Before reaching the ground a small portion of precipitation
evaporates and joins back the atmosphere while another portion
is intercepted.
 Cont…
 The precipitation falling on the water surface is called channel
precipitation and it immediately becomes the stream flow.
 The rest of the precipitation falling on the land surface, after
satisfying the infiltration demand, is temporarily detained on the
ground surface and when sufficient depth is built up it travels over
the ground surface towards the stream channel – overland flow.
 The overland flow ceases shortly after the rainfall stops.
 Surface runoff may then be defined as that part of the total runoff
which travels over the ground surface to reach a stream channel and
then through the channel to reach the basin outlet.
 It is the combination of the overland flow and the channel
precipitation.
 Cont…

Fig. 1: Schematic representation of runoff process

 Cont…
Interflow: water infiltrates into the soil surface moves laterally through
the upper soil horizons above the main groundwater table towards the
stream channels.
 It is also known as sub-surface runoff, sub-surface stream flow, and
storm seepage.
Groundwater runoff: the infiltrated water which percolates deeply to
recharge groundwater and when the groundwater table rises and
intersects the stream channels of the basin it discharges into stream as
the groundwater runoff.
 The movement of the groundwater is very slow, the groundwater
runoff to streams may lag behind the occurrence of precipitation by
several days, or weeks.
 Cont…
 The groundwater flow also tends to be very regular and it
represents the main long-term component of total runoff
and is particularly important during dry spells when
surface runoff is absent.
 For the practical purpose of analysis total runoff in stream
channels is generally classified as direct runoff and base
flow.
Direct runoff: is that part of runoff which enters the stream
promptly and is equal to the sum of surface runoff and rapid
interflow.
 Cont…
o Direct runoff represents the major runoff contribution
during storm periods and is also the major contribution to
most floods.
Base flow: is defined as the sustained or fair-weathered runoff.
Composed of groundwater runoff and delayed interflow.
 Precipitation excess is that part of total precipitation which
contributes directly to the surface runoff.
 5.3. Factors Affecting Runoff
 The factors affecting the runoff of a catchment may be
broadly classified into two categories:

• Climatic factors and

• Physiographic factors
Cont…
 Cont…
A. Climatic Factors
1. Intensity of rainfall
 The runoff increases with an increase in the intensity of
precipitation.
 An intense rainfall occurs in a short and the evaporation and
infiltration losses are relatively small.
• For rainfall intensities exceeding the infiltration capacity, the
runoff increases with increase in intensity.
• Owing to the storage effects of the basin, however, the increase
in the runoff rate is not the same as the increase in rainfall intensity.
 Cont…
2. Duration of rainfall
 If rainfall occurs over a long period, the runoff is large
because the runoff is proportional to the total rainfall.
 Moreover, the infiltration capacity decreases with time.
 Under favorable conditions the infiltrated water may even
raise the water table to the ground surface reducing the
infiltration to zero leading to serious flood.
 As a consequence, rains of long duration may produce high
rates of runoff even though the intensity is relatively mild.
 Cont…
Time of concentration the basin tc: is the time taken by a
rain drop falling on the remotest point of the basin to reach the
basin outlet.
 If the duration of rainfall ≥ tc, the whole of the basin is
likely to contribute to runoff during the later stages of the
storm so that the potential runoff rate is maximum.
 If the rainfall duration ≤ tc the potential runoff will be
lower than the maximum because only part of the basin
will be contributing to runoff before rainfall ceases.
 Cont…
3. Rainfall distribution over the basin
 Uniform areal distribution of rainfall over a basin is rarely
observed in nature.
 Some portion of the basin will receive rainfall which is
much less than the average rainfall over the basin while the
remaining portion will receive rainfall which is more than
the average of the basin.
 A large areal extent of the rainfall over the catchment
produces large runoff.
 Cont…
• Heavy rainfalls in the lower portions of the basin will
produce a runoff hydrograph with a rapid rise and nearly
peak discharge.
• While heavy rainfall in the upper portions will reverse the
hydrograph trend with a slow rise and late peak.
• On the other hand, rainfall distribution uniformly over the
entire basin will tend to produce increased base flow and
consequently a long and slow increase in the hydrograph.
 Cont…
4. Direction of storm movement
If a storm moves upstream direction, the runoff contributed by the
lower tributaries would have been already drained out by the time the
runoff from the middle and upper tributaries reaches the basin outlet.
 Therefore, less peak discharge would be observed in this case.
When the storm moves downstream the runoff peaks from the
individual tributaries are more likely to arrive at the basin outlet at
approximately the same time with the result the runoff peak will be
many times more than in the case of storm moving upstream.
 Cont…
5. Antecedent precipitation
 The soil moisture conditions of the basin existing at the
time of occurrence of storm would greatly influence the
runoff peak resulting from that storm.
 Even very intense rains falling in late summer, when the
soil moisture is at its least, rarely produce high discharges
because most of the water enters the soil moisture under the
existing high infiltration capacity rates and is held there.
 Cont…
B. Physiographic factors
1. Land use: the manner in which a land is being used.
 Rain falling over on a thick forest or vegetated area
produces less runoff because of large interception,
transpiration and infiltration losses.
 On the other hand, in urban areas, the losses are less and
the runoff is more because of paved areas (no infiltration).
 Cont…
2. Type of soil
 Light textured soils (sandy soils) consists of coarser soil
particles and has large pore spaces  rapid absorption of
water  less runoff potential.
 Heavy textured soil (clay soils) have fine soil particles 
small pore spaces  little absorption of water  huge
runoff volume.
 Cont…
3. Area of the basin
 The area of the basin increases as the outlet point shifts
downstream.
 Area of the basin affects the peak flow and minimum flow in
different ways.
• The total runoff expressed as volume will be more in the case of
large basins associated with higher peak discharges.
• As far as the minimum flow in the stream is concerned, the
larger basins will produce higher rates than smaller catchments.
 Cont…
4. Shape of the catchment
 In approximately square or circular drainage basins the
tributaries often tend to become together and join the main
stream near the center of the area.  Consequently, the
separate runoff peaks generated by heavy rainfall in the
individual tributaries are likely to reach the main stream in
approximately the same locality and at approximately the
same time, thereby resulting in a large and rapid increase in
the runoff.
If the basin is long and narrow the tributaries will tend to be
relatively short and are more likely to join the main stream at
intervals along its length.
 This means that after a heavy rainfall over the area the runoff
peaks of the lower tributaries would have left the catchment
before the peaks of the upstream tributaries have reached the
basin outlet.
 Cont…
6. Slope
 The slope of the catchment area is an important factor as it
decides the relative importance of infiltration, interflow and
overland flow.
 A catchments having extensive flat area gives rise to low peaks
and less runoff whereas a catchment with steep slope produces
high peak flood.
 Rate of infiltration from a flat catchment is more which affects
the velocity of overland flow.
 Therefore, the time of arrival of peak at the outlet is late and so
is the total time of runoff for such flat shaped catchment
 Cont…
 The basin slope plays an important role in urban hydrology
where catchment is usually small.
 For a high intensity and long duration storm, the effect may
be less pronounced.
7. Storage Characteristics of the basin
 The storage characteristics of the basin affects the runoff.
 5.4. Methods of Runoff Computation
 Determination of accurate runoff rate or volume from the
watershed is a difficult task, because runoff is dependent
upon several factors related to watershed and atmosphere,
prediction of whom is not so easy.
However, some common runoff estimation methods are;
A. Rainfall-Runoff Correlation
B. Empirical Methods
C. Rational Method
D. Infiltration Indices method (Read from chapter-4)
E. Hydrograph Method and others
 5.4.1. Rainfall-Runoff Correlation
 The relation between rainfall and the resulting runoff is
quit complex and is influenced by a host of factors
relating the catchment and climate.
 Further, there is the problem of paucity of data which
forces one to adopt simple correlations for the adequate
estimation of runoff.
 One of the most common methods is to correlate runoff
(R) with rainfall (P) values.
 Plotting of R values against P and drawing a best fit line
can adopted for very rough estimates.
 Cont…
 A better method is to fit a linear regression line between R
and P and to accept the result if the correlation coefficient is
nearer unity.
 The equation for straight-line regression between runoff and
rainfall is;
R = a*P + b (5.1)
and the values of the coefficients a and b are given by;
(5.2)
And (5.3)
 Cont…
 In which, N = number of observation sets r and P.
 The coefficient of correlation r can be calculated as;
(5.4)
 The value of r lies between 0 and 1 as R have only positive
correlation with P.
 A value of 0.6 < r < 1.0 indicates good correlation.
 Further it should be noted that R  0.
 For large catchment, it is found advantageous to have an
exponential relationship as;
(5.5)
 Cont…
 Where;  and m are constants, instead of the linear
relationship given by Eq. (5.1).
 In that case Eq. (5.5) is reduced to a linear form by
logarithmic transformation as;
(5.6)
 and the coefficients m and ln determined by using the
method indicated earlier.
 5.4.2. Empirical Method
 Empirical formulas can be classified in different ways
depending upon the basis adopted.
But, they be considered under the following heads for the
purpose;
• Formulae that take area of the basin only into consideration
• Formulae that take one or more basin parameters apart from
area and rainfall characteristics into consideration.
 These formulae are essentially rainfall-runoff relations with
additional third or fourth parameters to account for climatic
or catchment characteristics.
 Cont…
 Some of the important formulae are;
1. Runoff Coefficient Method

 This method involves the estimation of runoff by

multiplying the runoff coefficient to the rainfall depth of
the area.
 It is given by; R = C*P (5.7)

Where, R = runoff, (cm), C = Runoff coefficient, and P =

Rainfall depth, (cm)

 The values of runoff coefficient for different land use

conditions are given in the Table below.

 Cont…
Table 5.1: Values of Runoff Coefficient (C)
[Link]. Area C
1 Urban area covered by
(i) building 0.30
(ii)garden apartment 0.50
2 Commercial, industrial area 0.90
3 Forest area 0.50 to 0.20
4 Parks, Farms, Pastures 0.05 - 0.3
5 Asphalt or concrete pavement 0.85
 Cont…
2. Formulae based on Area of the basin
 There are several regression equation for predicting the
runoff rate from the drainage basins.
 The form of equation is given as under;
Q = C*An (5.8)
Where, Q = Peak flow for a given recurrence interval, (m3/s)
n, C = are constants, known as regression constants
A = Drainage area, (km2)
 Cont…
 Dicken's Formula:
 Admasu's Formaula (1989):
 Seleshi (2001):
 Khosla`s formula:
R = P – 4.811*T (5.9)
Rm = Pm – Lm (5.10)
Lm = 0.48*Tm ,for Tm >4.5 °C
T ( oC) 4.5 -1 -7 -12 -18
For Tm ≤ 4.5 0C L (cm)
m
2.17 1.8 152 1.25 1.0
m

Annual runoff coefficient = annual runoff / annual rainfall.

 If the loss Lm is higher than Pm then Rm will be zero.
 Cont…
Where, R = annual runoff in mm
P = Annual rainfall in mm
T = Mean temperature in °C
Rm = Monthly runoff in cm and Rm  0
Pm = Monthly rainfall in cm
Lm = Monthly loss in cm
Tm = Mean monthly temperature of the catchment in °C.
 Khosla’s formula is indirectly based on the water-balance
concept and the mean monthly catchment temperature is used to
reflect the loss due to evapotranspiration.
 Example
For a given catchment, the mean monthly rainfall and
temperatures are given. Calculate the annual runoff and annual
runoff coefficient by Khosla`s formula.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct No Dec
v
T (°C) 12 16 21 27 31 34 31 29 28 29 19 14
P (cm) 4 4 2 10 2 12 32 29 16 2 1 2

SOLUTION

Rm = Pm – Lm Lm = = 0.48*Tm, for Tm >4.5 °C

i. annual runoff = ?
Month T (℃) P(cm) Lm(cm) = 0.48*Tm R(cm)

Jan 12 4 5.76 0
Feb 16 4 7.68 0
Mar 21 2 10.08 0
Apr 27 10 12.96 0
May 31 2 14.88 0
June 34 12 16.32 0
July 31 32 14.88 17.12
Aug 29 29 13.92 15.08
Sept 28 16 13.44 2.56
Oct 29 2 13.92 0
Nov 19 1 9.12 0
Dec 14 2 6.72 0
ii. Annual runoff coefficient = annual runoff / annual rainfall

= 34.76 /116 = 0.299655 = 0.3

 5.4.3. Rational Method
 Among various types of empirical relations, Rational formula
is the most rational method of calculating peak discharge for
small catchments.

 In this method, it is assumed that the maximum flood flow is

produced by a certain rainfall, which lasts for a time equal to
or greater than the period of concentration time.

 This concentration time is the time required for the surface

runoff from the remotest part of the catchment area to reach
the basin outlet.
 Cont…
 When the storm continues beyond concentration time every
part of the catchment would be contributing to the runoff at
outlet and therefore it represents conditions of peak runoff.

 The runoff rate corresponding to this condition is given by;

Q = C*I*A (5.11)

 Where; Q is runoff rate(ft3/s), A is the area of the

catchment (acres), I is the intensity of rainfall (inches/h)
and C a runoff coefficient to account for the abstractions
from the rainfall.
 Cont…
 However, in SI system of units when A is in km2 and I is in
cm/h, the runoff rate is given by;
Q = 2.778*C*A*I
 The maximum rainfall intensity depends on duration and
frequency.
 The intensity of rainfall used in the equation above should
therefore be corresponding to duration equal to
concentration time and desired return period.
 Cont…
 This requires an estimate of concentration time which is
usually provided by an empirical equation given by Kirpich
(1940).
 Where; tc is time of concentration in min, L is the
maximum length of travel of water along the water course
in m and S is the slope expressed as the ratio of difference
in elevation between the remotest point and the catchment
outlet to the length L.
 Cont…
 Once the concentration time has been determined, the
rainfall intensity can be determined using the intensity-
duration-frequency relation applicable to the catchment
area in question using equation below.

 Where; Tr is the return period in years and C and d are

regression constants for a given location.
 Cont…
 Runoff coefficient is the ration of peak runoff rate to the
rainfall intensity.
 Its values are assigned on the basis of land use and soil type
(Table 1).
 When the watershed has different features regarding land use
and soil types, then weighted value of runoff coefficient is
determined. For example:
 Let, if a watershed area is divided into five sub-parts on the
basis of soil type and land use practice adopted, having the area
a1, a2, a3, a4 and a5 and the value of runoff coefficient is C1, C2,
C3, C4, and C5, respectively for the five sub-watersheds.
 Cont…
 Then, the value of weighted runoff coefficient (C) is
given by:

 In which, A is the total area of watershed.

 Cont…
Table 1: Values of C as a function of land use, topography and
soil type for use in rational method
Land use and topography Soil Types
Sandy loam Clay and siltloam Tight
clay
Cultivated land
i) Flat 0.30 0.50 0.60
ii) Rolling 0.4 0.60 0.70
iii) Hilling 0.52 0.70 0.82
Pasture land
i) Flat 0.10 0.30 0.40
ii) Rollin 0.16 0.36 0.55
iii) Hilling 0.22 0.42 0.60
Forest land
i) Flat 0.10 0.30 0.40
ii) Hilling 0.30 0.50 0.60
Populated land
i) Flat 0.40 0.55 0.65
ii) Rolling 0.50 0.65 0.80
 Example
1. A small watershed consists of 1.5 k𝒎𝟐 of cultivated area (c =
0.2), 2.5 k𝒎𝟐 under forest (c = 0.1) and 1 k𝒎𝟐 under grass cover
(c = 0.35). There is a fall of 20 m in a watercourse of length 2
km. The I–D–F relation for the area is given by;

and, I in cm/hr, T in year, t in minutes.

Estimate the peak rate of runoff for a 25 year frequency.

Given
(L) = 1.8km = 1800m
A = 1.5+2.5+1= 5k𝑚2
S = H/L = 20/2000 =0.01
(H) = 20m
SOLUTION
 0.2587 𝑚
I = 25.87cm/hr = 0.2587m/hr =
60×60 𝑠𝑒𝑐

A = 1.5 + 2.5 + 1 =5 km2 = 5000000 m2

0.2587 𝑚 2 3
Q = C× 𝐼 × 𝐴 = 0.18× × 5000000 m = 64.69 Τ𝑠
𝑚
60×60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 Exercise
2. For a given catchment, the mean monthly rainfall and
temperatures are given. Calculate the annual runoff and annual
runoff coefficient by Khosla`s formula.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
T (°C) 12 16 21 27 31 34 31 29 28 29 19 14
P (cm) 4 4 2 0 2 12 32 29 16 2 1 2

3. Compute the value of weighted runoff coefficient of

watershed from the following data regarding watershed
characteristics.
Land use and Cultivated land Pasture land Populated land
topography Flat, sandy soil Rolling and sandy soil flat, sandy soil
Area (ha) 100 30 75
 Cont…
4. An engineer is required to design a drainage system for an
airport with an area of 2.5 km2 for 50 years return period. The
50-year rainfall intensity in that region is given by;

Where; I is intensity in cm/h and t is duration in minutes.

If the concentration time for the area is estimated as 50

minutes, what is discharge that must be used to design the
system?
 Cont…
5. A culvert is proposed across stream drainage an area of 185
ha. The catchment has a slope of 0.004 and the length of travel
for water is 1150 m. Estimate the 25-year discharge if the
rainfall intensity is given by;

Where; I is in mm/h, Tr is in years and t is in minutes. Assume

a runoff coefficient of 0.35.

6. Calculate the time of concentration of 306 ha land of

watershed, if the maximum length of drainage course is 350 m
and effective slope of water course is about 4 m/100 m.