VIP NOTES

Unit 4: Periodic Table and Periodicity of Properties

1. Introduction & Periodic Law

The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number. It is one of the most important tools
in chemistry for understanding and predicting properties of elements.
• Periodic Law: When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers, their properties are
repeated in a periodic manner.
• Useful for predicting physical/chemical properties, reactivity, and type of bonding (ionic or covalent)
based on position in the table.
• From only 23 known elements at the end of the 18th century to 118 elements today.

2. Periods and Groups

Periods (horizontal rows) — There are 7 periods.

• Short periods: 1–3 | Long periods: 4–7
• Number of elements per period: 1 (2), 2 (8), 3 (8), 4 (18), 5 (18), 6 (32), 7 (32)
• Properties change gradually across a period; the pattern repeats in the next period.

Groups (vertical columns / families) — 18 groups (IUPAC 1–18).

• Traditional system: IA–VIIIA (main/representative = Group A) + B groups (transition elements).
• Same group → same number of valence electrons → similar chemical properties.
• Group number indicates valence electrons. For Groups 13–18: valence e− = group number − 10.

Named Groups:
• Group 1: Alkali metals
• Group 2: Alkaline earth metals
• Group 17: Halogens
• Group 18: Noble gases

3. Electronic Configuration, Blocks & Position

Aufbau Order: 1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p → 5s → 4d → 5p → 6s → 4f → 5d → 6p → 7s → 5f → 6d
→ 7p …
• Orbital capacities: s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14 electrons

Determining Position of an Element:

• Block: Subshell in which the last electron enters (s, p, d or f).
• Period: Principal quantum number (n) of the valence shell.
• Group:
• s-block → group number = number of valence electrons
• p-block → group number = number of valence electrons + 10

Examples:
• Na (Z=11): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 → s-block, Period 3, Group 1
• Al (Z=13): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 → p-block, Period 3, Group 13
• K (Z=19): … 4s1 → s-block, Period 4, Group 1
• N (Z=7): 1s2 2s2 2p3 → p-block, Period 2, Group 15
• O (Z=8): 1s2 2s2 2p4 → p-block, Period 2, Group 16

Blocks of the Periodic Table:

• s-block: Groups 1–2 (valence electrons in s subshell)
• p-block: Groups 13–18 (valence electrons in p subshell)

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 • d-block: Groups 3–12 — Transition elements
• f-block: Lanthanides & Actinides

4. Group Number and Charge on an Ion

Elements tend to achieve stable noble-gas configuration (octet or duet).
• Groups 1–3 (1–3 valence e−): lose electrons → form cations (+1, +2, +3)
• Groups 15–17 (5–7 valence e−): gain electrons → form anions (−3, −2, −1)
• Group 14: can form +4 or −4 ions
• Group 18: complete shell → do not form ions under normal conditions

Key Examples:
• Group 1: Li → Li+, Na → Na+, K → K+
• Group 2: Be → Be2+, Mg → Mg2+, Ca → Ca2+
• Group 17: F → F−, Cl → Cl−, Br → Br−
• Group 16: O → O2−, S → S2−

5. Periodicity of Properties
Properties vary periodically because of repeating valence-shell electronic configurations. Physical
properties depend mainly on atomic size; chemical properties depend on valence configuration.

5.1 Shielding Effect

Inner-shell electrons reduce the force of attraction between the nucleus and valence electrons. This
reduction is called the shielding effect.
• Down a group: Shielding effect increases (more inner shells).
• Across a period: Shielding effect remains constant (same number of inner shells).

5.2 Atomic Size (Atomic Radius)

Average distance between the nucleus and the outermost electronic shell.
• Across a period (L → R): Decreases — nuclear charge increases while electrons enter the same shell →
stronger attraction.
• Down a group (T → B): Increases — a new electron shell is added.
• Example: Mg has larger radius than Al; Si has larger radius than C.

5.3 Ionization Energy (IE)

Minimum energy required to remove the outermost electron from an isolated gaseous atom:
M(g) + IE → M+(g) + e−
• High IE = strong nuclear attraction on valence electron.
• Down a group: IE decreases (shielding ↑, radius ↑ → easier removal).
• Across a period: IE increases (nuclear charge ↑, radius ↓).
• Example: B has smaller IE than C; P has smaller IE than N.

5.4 Electron Affinity (EA)

Energy released when an electron is added to the valence shell of an isolated gaseous atom to form a
uni-negative ion:
X(g) + e− → X−(g) + EA
• Across a period: EA generally increases (nuclear charge ↑, radius ↓). Highest for halogens.
• Down a group: EA decreases (shielding ↑, radius ↑).
• Alkali metals have the lowest EA; halogens have the highest in each period.
• Several exceptions exist (studied in higher grades).

5.5 Electronegativity (EN)

Ability of an atom to attract shared electrons toward itself in a chemical bond (Pauling scale).
• Across a period: EN increases.
• Down a group: EN decreases.
• Highest: Fluorine (4.0) | Lowest among main-group metals: Cs / Fr (~0.7)

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6. Characteristic Properties & Trends

6.1 Metallic Character

Tendency of an element to lose electrons and form positive ions (cations).
• Down a group: Metallic character increases (radius ↑ → easier loss of e−).
• Across a period: Metallic character decreases (effective nuclear charge ↑).
• Example: K has higher metallic character than Na; Na higher than Mg.

6.2 Reactivity
• Capability of an element to react with other elements to form new compounds.
• Metals (left side): Reactivity increases down the group.
• Non-metals (Groups 16–17): Reactivity decreases down the group.
• Left-side elements are reactive due to tendency to lose electrons; right-side due to tendency to gain
electrons.

6.3 Density
• Generally increases down a group (atomic mass ↑ faster than volume).
• Across a period: tends to increase to a maximum near the middle, then decreases.

7. Alkali Metals (Group 1)

General electronic configuration: ns1. Highly reactive metals.
• Soft, low density, low melting points; can be cut with a knife.
• Excellent conductors of heat and electricity.
• Monovalent; form +1 ions easily.
• Reactivity increases down the group (Li < Na < K < Rb …).
• Melting & boiling points decrease down the group.
• Softness increases down the group (K is softer than Na).
• Reaction with water: metal + H2O → metal hydroxide + H2
Prediction: Rubidium (below K) will be more reactive than K, have lower m.p./b.p., and react more violently
with water.

8. Transition Elements (d-block, Groups 3–12)

• High density — e.g., Fe = 7.87 g/cm3, W = 19.3 g/cm3
• High melting points — strong metallic bonding due to partially filled d-subshells (W = 3422 °C, Pt =
1768 °C)
• Variable oxidation states — both s and d electrons participate (Fe: +2, +3; Cu: +1, +2)
• Coloured compounds — Cu compounds blue/green; Cr compounds red/green
• Catalysts:
• Fe → Haber process (ammonia synthesis)
• Pt / Pd → catalytic converters (reduce emissions)
• Ni → manufacture of margarine
• Pt → Contact process (sulphuric acid)

9. Lanthanides & Actinides (f-block)

• Lanthanides (rare-earth elements): atomic numbers 57–71 (14 elements)
• Actinides: atomic numbers 89–103 (14 elements)

10. Halogens (Group 17)

Name from Greek: “halos” (salt) + “gen” (former). General configuration: ns2 np5. Exist as diatomic
molecules (X2).

10.1 Appearance at RTP

• F2 — pale yellow gas

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 • Cl2 — yellow-green gas
• Br2 — red-brown liquid
• I2 — grey-black solid (gives dark purple vapour on warming)
• Colour darkens down the group.

10.2 Density
• Density increases down the group (mass increases more than volume; intermolecular forces also
strengthen).

Halogen Density (g/cm³ at 25 °C)

Fluorine 0.0017

Chlorine 0.0032

Bromine 3.1028

Iodine 4.933

10.3 Reactivity & Oxidizing Power

• Reactivity is linked to ability to gain one electron and form X−.
• Reactivity / oxidizing power decreases down the group: F > Cl > Br > I
• Fluorine is the most reactive halogen; iodine the least reactive of the common ones.

10.4 Displacement Reactions

A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halide ion from solution.
• F2 displaces Cl−, Br−, I−
• Cl2 displaces Br−, I−
• Br2 displaces I−
• I2 cannot displace any of the above
Examples that occur: Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2 ; Cl2 + 2NaI → 2NaCl + I2
Examples that do not occur: Cl2 + 2NaF → … ; I2 + 2KBr → …

10.5 Hydrogen Halides & Thermal Stability

• Halogens react with hydrogen: H2 + X2 → 2HX
• Bond strength decreases from HF to HI (electronegativity difference decreases).
• Thermal stability order: HF > HCl > HBr > HI

10.6 Predictions for Group 17

• Melting & boiling points increase down the group → state changes: gas → liquid → solid.
• Astatine (5th halogen) is predicted to be a solid with high m.p./b.p. and a very dark colour.

11. Noble Gases (Group 18)

Also called inert gases. Monoatomic, colourless, odourless. Extremely low reactivity due to complete
valence shell.
• General configuration: ns2 np6 (except He: 1s2)
• Members: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn, Og
• Uses: neon signs, refrigeration, welding, shielding gases, lighting.

Element Atomic No. Electronic Configuration

Helium 2 1s²

Neon 10 1s² 2s² 2p⁶

Argon 18 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶

Krypton 36 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶

Xenon 54 … 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶

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12. Comparison: Metals vs Non-Metals
Property Metals Non-Metals

Thermal conductivity High — conduct heat easily Poor conductors of heat

Electrical conductivity Good (free electrons in lattice) Poor (except graphite)

Malleability & ductility High — can be hammered / drawn into Brittle — neither malleable nor ductile
wires

Melting & boiling points Generally high (strong metallic bonds) Generally lower (weaker intermolecular
forces)

Key Points – Quick Revision

• Elements arranged by increasing atomic number → properties repeat periodically.
• Horizontal row = period; vertical column = group / family.
• Same group → similar valence configuration → similar chemical properties.
• s-block = Groups 1–2; p-block = Groups 13–18; d-block = transition; f-block = lanthanides/actinides.
• Shielding effect ↑ down group; constant across period.
• Atomic radius ↓ across period; ↑ down group.
• Ionization energy ↑ across period; ↓ down group.
• Electron affinity generally ↑ across period; ↓ down group (halogens highest).
• Electronegativity ↑ across period; ↓ down group (F highest).
• Metallic character ↑ down group; ↓ across period.
• Alkali metals: soft, reactive, low m.p.; reactivity ↑ down group.
• Halogens: coloured diatomic non-metals; reactivity ↓ down group; show displacement reactions.
• Noble gases: complete octets → chemically inert under normal conditions.
• Transition metals: high density & m.p., variable oxidation states, coloured compounds, catalysts.

End of VIP Notes — Periodic Table and Periodicity of Properties

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