1.
Research Methods
Study Guide • Research-Based Learning Material
Page 1 — Foundations of Research
What is research?
Research is a systematic process used to answer questions, explain patterns, test ideas, and create reliable knowledge.
Good research begins with a clearly defined problem and uses appropriate evidence rather than relying only on personal
opinion.
Key characteristics
• Systematic: follows an organized process.
• Empirical: uses observable or measurable evidence.
• Transparent: explains how conclusions were reached.
• Critical: evaluates alternative explanations and limitations.
• Ethical: protects participants and reports findings honestly.
Research problem and question
A research problem identifies an issue worth investigating. A research question turns that issue into a focused question
that can realistically be answered with evidence. A strong question is specific, feasible, and connected to the available
time and resources.
Study tip
Remember the basic chain: Problem → Question → Evidence → Analysis → Conclusion.
Page 1
Page 2 — Research Designs
Quantitative research
Quantitative research uses numerical data to measure variables and examine relationships. Surveys, experiments, and
statistical analysis are common approaches. It is useful when researchers need comparable measurements across many
observations.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research explores meanings, experiences, perceptions, and social processes. Interviews, focus groups,
observations, and document analysis are common methods. It provides detailed context but may involve smaller samples.
Mixed methods
Mixed-methods research combines quantitative and qualitative evidence. For example, a researcher might survey 500
students and then interview 20 students to understand why the survey patterns occurred.
Experimental vs. observational
An experiment deliberately changes an independent variable and observes its effect while attempting to control other
factors. An observational study records what happens naturally without assigning an intervention.
Page 2
Page 3 — Sampling and Data
Population and sample
The population is the complete group a study aims to understand. A sample is the smaller group actually studied.
Researchers want a sample that provides useful information about the population.
Probability sampling
• Simple random sampling gives eligible members a known chance of selection.
• Stratified sampling divides the population into groups and samples within each group.
• Cluster sampling selects naturally occurring groups, such as classrooms or workplaces.
Non-probability sampling
• Convenience sampling selects accessible participants.
• Purposive sampling selects participants because they have relevant characteristics or knowledge.
• Snowball sampling uses existing participants to help recruit others.
Data quality
Reliable measurement produces consistent results. Valid measurement captures the concept the researcher actually
intends to measure. A measure can be reliable without being valid.
Page 3
Page 4 — Analysis and Interpretation
Descriptive statistics
Mean, median, mode, range, variance, and standard deviation summarize data. The mean is sensitive to extreme values,
while the median is often more representative when a distribution is skewed.
Correlation
Correlation describes the direction and strength of association between variables. A positive association means the
variables tend to increase together; a negative association means one tends to decrease as the other increases.
Causation
Correlation does not automatically establish causation. A third variable may influence both observed variables, or the
direction of influence may be unclear. Strong causal claims require an appropriate research design and careful reasoning.
Interpreting results
Researchers should consider effect size, uncertainty, sample quality, measurement limitations, and alternative
explanations rather than focusing only on whether a result appears statistically significant.
Page 4
Page 5 — Ethics and Review
Research ethics
Ethical research respects autonomy, minimizes harm, protects privacy, and represents participants fairly. Where required,
informed consent explains what participation involves and allows people to make an informed choice.
Common ethical risks
• Inadequate informed consent
• Unnecessary physical or psychological risk
• Poor protection of confidential information
• Deception without adequate justification
• Fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism
Quick review
• What makes a research question strong?
• How do quantitative and qualitative methods differ?
• Why is sampling important?
• Why does correlation not prove causation?
• What responsibilities do researchers have toward participants?
Key takeaway
Strong research is not simply a large amount of information. It is a disciplined process of asking a focused question,
collecting appropriate evidence, analyzing it carefully, and communicating conclusions honestly.
Page 5