Chapter 2: Human Reproduction

Important Definitions
Term Definition
Scrotum Pouch containing testes.
Seminiferous Tubules Site of sperm production.
Spermatogonia Diploid male germ cells.
Sertoli Cells Nourish developing sperms.
Leydig Cells Produce testosterone.
Epididymis Stores and matures sperms.
Vas Deferens Transports sperms.
Urethral Meatus External opening of the urethra.
Penis Male external reproductive organ.
Glans Penis Enlarged terminal part of the penis.
Foreskin (Prepuce) Loose fold of skin covering the glans penis.
Accessory Glands Glands that secrete seminal plasma.
Seminal Plasma Fluid component of semen.
Ovary Primary female reproductive organ producing ova and hormones.
Cortex Outer region of the ovary.
Medulla Inner region of the ovary.
Oviduct (Fallopian Tube) Tube carrying the ovum from ovary to uterus.
Infundibulum Funnel-shaped part of the oviduct.
Fimbriae Finger-like projections that collect the ovum.
Ampulla Widest part of the oviduct; usual site of fertilisation.
Isthmus Narrow part connecting the oviduct to the uterus.
Uterine Fundus Upper dome-shaped portion of the uterus.
Cervical Canal Cavity within the cervix connecting uterus and vagina.
Uterus (Womb) Hollow muscular organ where the embryo develops.
Cervix Narrow lower part of the uterus opening into the vagina.
Cervical Canal Cavity within the cervix forming part of the birth canal.
Perimetrium Outer protective layer of the uterus.
Myometrium Thick muscular middle layer.
Endometrium Inner glandular lining of the uterus.
Mons Pubis Fatty cushion over the pubic region.
Labia Majora Outer fleshy folds of the vulva.
Labia Minora Inner folds protecting the vaginal opening.
 Term Definition
Hymen Thin membrane partially covering the vaginal opening.
Clitoris Small erectile sensory organ.
Mammary Gland Milk-producing gland in female mammals.
Mammary Lobe One of the 15–20 divisions of the breast.
Alveoli Milk-secreting units of the mammary gland.
Lumen Cavity of alveoli where milk is stored.
Gametogenesis Formation of gametes.
Spermatogenesis Formation of sperms from spermatogonia.
Spermatogonia Diploid male germ cells.
Primary Spermatocyte Cell that undergoes Meiosis I.
Secondary Spermatocyte Haploid cell formed after Meiosis I.
Spermatid Haploid cell formed after Meiosis II.
Spermiogenesis Transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa.
Spermiation Release of spermatozoa from Sertoli cells into seminiferous tubules.
GnRH Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone secreted by the hypothalamus.
LH Stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone.
FSH Acts on Sertoli cells and supports spermiogenesis.
Acrosome Enzyme-filled cap helping sperm penetrate the ovum.
Middle Piece Part of sperm containing mitochondria.
Oogenesis Formation of mature female gametes.
Oogonia Diploid female germ cells.
Primary Oocyte Cell arrested in Prophase-I of Meiosis-I.
Primary Follicle Primary oocyte surrounded by one layer of granulosa cells.
Secondary Follicle Follicle with multiple granulosa cell layers and theca.
Tertiary Follicle Follicle containing the antrum.
Graafian Follicle Mature ovarian follicle.
Antrum Fluid-filled cavity in the tertiary follicle.
Zona Pellucida Protective membrane around the secondary oocyte.
Ovulation Release of the secondary oocyte from the Graafian follicle.
Menstrual Cycle Cyclic reproductive changes in female primates.
Menarche First menstruation at puberty.
Menstruation Shedding of the uterine lining through the vagina.
Follicular Phase Phase of follicle growth and endometrial regeneration.
Graafian Follicle Mature ovarian follicle ready for ovulation.
Endometrium Inner lining of the uterus that undergoes cyclic changes.
LH Surge Sudden rise in LH causing ovulation.
Ovulation Release of the secondary oocyte from the Graafian follicle.
 Term Definition
Corpus Luteum Temporary endocrine gland formed after ovulation.
Progesterone Hormone that maintains the endometrium.
Permanent cessation of menstruation.
Menopause
Insemination Deposition of semen into the vagina during coitus.
Fertilisation Fusion of sperm and ovum to form a zygote.
Zona Pellucida Glycoprotein layer surrounding the secondary oocyte.
Polyspermy Entry of more than one sperm into the ovum (normally prevented).
Acrosomal Reaction Release of enzymes from the sperm acrosome to penetrate the ovum.
Zygote Diploid cell formed after fertilisation.
Cleavage Rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote.
Blastomere Cell formed during cleavage.
Morula Embryo with 8–16 blastomeres.
Blastocyst Hollow embryo with trophoblast and inner cell mass.
Trophoblast Outer cell layer of the blastocyst.
Inner Cell Mass (ICM) Cell cluster that develops into the embryo.
Implantation Embedding of the blastocyst into the uterine endometrium.
Placenta Temporary organ connecting mother and foetus
Chorionic Villi Finger-like projections of trophoblast
Umbilical Cord Connects placenta and foetus
Stem Cells Undifferentiated cells capable of forming all tissues
Ectoderm Outer germ layer
Mesoderm Middle germ layer
Endoderm Inner germ layer
Gestation Period Duration of pregnancy (≈280 days).
Parturition Process of childbirth.
Foetal Ejection Reflex Neuroendocrine reflex initiating labour.
Lactation Production and secretion of milk after childbirth.
Colostrum First milk rich in antibodies.
Passive Immunity Protection provided by maternal antibodies.
Memory Tricks (Mnemonics)
1. Parts of the Oviduct 12. Follicular Phase Hormones

"I Am In" "FLE"

 I = Infundibulum  F = FSH
 A = Ampulla  L = LH
 I = Isthmus  E = Estrogen

2. Function of Fimbriae 13. After Ovulation

"Fimbriae = Fingers that Fetch the Egg." "OCPM"

3. Layers of Uterus  O = Ovulation

 C = Corpus luteum
"Please Make Eggs"  P = Progesterone
 M = Maintains endometrium
 P = Perimetrium
 M = Myometrium 14. Reproductive Phase
 E = Endometrium
"Menarche → Menopause"
4. External Genitalia
 Start = Menarche
"My Lovely Lady Has Charm"  End = Menopause

 M = Mons pubis 15. Steps of Fertilisation

 L = Labia majora
 L = Labia minora "I Saw Zebra Making Babies"
 H = Hymen
 C = Clitoris  I = Insemination
 S = Sperms reach ampulla
5. Milk Flow  Z = Zona pellucida
 M = Meiosis II completes
"All Mothers Make Milk Naturally"  B = Blast (pronuclei fuse to form
zygote)
 Alveoli
 Mammary Tubules 16. Sex Determination
 Mammary Ducts
 Mammary Ampulla "Mother gives X, Father gives X or Y."
  Nipple (through Lactiferous Duct)  XX = Female
 XY = Male
6. Stages of Spermatogenesis
17. Embryonic Development Sequence
"Some People Study Smartly"
"Zebra Can Make Babies Instantly"
 Spermatogonia
 Primary Spermatocyte  Z = Zygote
 Secondary Spermatocyte  C = Cleavage
 Spermatid  M = Morula
 B = Blastocyst
7. Hormonal Control  I = Implantation

"G-FLASH" 18. Blastocyst Structure

 G = GnRH "TI"
 F = FSH → Sertoli cells
 L = LH → Leydig cells  T = Trophoblast → Touches uterus
 A = Androgens (Testosterone) (implantation)
 SH = Spermatogenesis Help  I = Inner Cell Mass → Infant (embryo)

8. Parts of Sperm 19. Placental Hormones

"Happy Nice Men Travel" HELP

 H = Head  H = hCG
 N = Neck  E = Estrogen
 M = Middle Piece  L = hPL
 T = Tail  P = Progesterone

9. Follicle Development 20. Germ Layers

"Please Study To Graduate" "Every Muscle Ends"

 Primary Follicle  E = Ectoderm

 Secondary Follicle  M = Mesoderm
 Tertiary Follicle  E = Endoderm
 Graafian Follicle
21. Parturition Sequence
10. Oogenesis
"FOB"
"O → P → S → G → O"
 F = Foetal Ejection Reflex
 Oogonia  O = Oxytocin
 Primary Oocyte  B = Birth
 Secondary Oocyte
  Graafian Follicle 22. Colostrum
 Ovulation
"CAP"
11. Phases of Menstrual Cycle
 C = Colostrum
"My Friend Often Laughs"  A = Antibodies
 P = Passive Immunity
 M = Menstrual
 F = Follicular
 O = Ovulatory
 L = Luteal
 Quick Revision Box
 Humans reproduce sexually.
 Humans are viviparous.
 Gametes: Sperm and Ovum.
 Fertilisation forms a zygote.
 Blastocyst implants in the uterus.
 Embryo develops during gestation.
 Childbirth is called parturition.
 Sperm production continues in males, while ovum formation stops around 50 years of age.
 Scrotum: Maintains temperature 2–2.5°C lower than body temperature.
 Each testis: 4–5 cm long, 2–3 cm wide.
 250 testicular lobules per testis.
 1–3 seminiferous tubules in each lobule.
 Spermatogonia: Produce sperms.
 Sertoli cells: Nourish sperms.
 Leydig cells: Secrete testosterone.
 Sperm pathway: Seminiferous tubules → Rete testis → Vasa efferentia → Epididymis →
Vas deferens → Ejaculatory duct → Urethra.
 Penis → External male genital organ.
 Glans penis → Covered by foreskin.
 Accessory glands → Seminal vesicles, Prostate, Bulbourethral glands.
 Seminal plasma contains fructose, calcium, and enzymes.
 Bulbourethral glands lubricate the penis.
 Ovaries produce ova, estrogen, and progesterone.
 Each ovary is 2–4 cm long.
 Ovary has an outer cortex and inner medulla.
 Female accessory ducts = Oviducts + Uterus + Vagina
 Fallopian tube length = 10–12 cm
 Infundibulum = Funnel-shaped part
 Fimbriae = Collect the ovum
 Ampulla = Widest part; common site of fertilisation
 Isthmus = Narrow part joining the uterus
 Uterus = Womb
 Shape = Inverted pear
 Birth canal = Cervical canal + Vagina
 Uterine layers = Perimetrium, Myometrium, Endometrium
 Endometrium → Menstrual changes & implantation
 Myometrium → Labour contractions
 Female external genitalia = Mons pubis, Labia majora, Labia minora, Hymen, Clitoris
 Hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity (important NCERT statement).
 Mammary glands are paired glands in female mammals.
 Each breast contains 15–20 mammary lobes.
 Alveoli secrete and store milk.
 Milk pathway: Alveoli → Mammary Tubules → Mammary Ducts → Mammary Ampulla
→ Lactiferous Duct → Nipple.
 Gametogenesis includes spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
 Spermatogenesis begins at puberty.
 Spermatogonia (2n) divide by mitosis.
 Primary spermatocyte (2n) undergoes Meiosis I.
 Secondary spermatocytes (n) undergo Meiosis II.
 One primary spermatocyte produces four haploid spermatids (23 chromosomes each).
 Spermiogenesis = Spermatids → Spermatozoa.
 Spermiation = Release of sperms from Sertoli cells.
 GnRH is secreted by the hypothalamus.
 LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone.
 FSH acts on Sertoli cells.
 Sperm has Head, Neck, Middle Piece, Tail.
 Acrosome contains enzymes for fertilisation.
 Middle piece contains mitochondria for ATP production.
 A healthy male ejaculates 200–300 million sperms, with ≥60% normal morphology and
≥40% motility for normal fertility.
 Oogenesis begins during foetal life.
 Around 2 million oogonia are present in each fetal ovary.
 Only 60,000–80,000 primary follicles remain at puberty.
 Primary oocyte is arrested in Prophase-I.
 Tertiary follicle contains the antrum.
 Meiosis-I produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body.
 The Graafian follicle is the mature follicle.
 The zona pellucida surrounds the secondary oocyte.
 Ovulation releases the secondary oocyte.
 Menarche = First menstruation.
 Menstrual cycle lasts 28–29 days.
 Menstrual phase lasts 3–5 days.
 Menstruation occurs due to breakdown of the endometrium when fertilisation does not
occur.
 Absence of menstruation may indicate pregnancy, but can also result from stress or poor
health.
 During the follicular phase, follicles grow and the endometrium regenerates.
 FSH and LH from the pituitary and estrogen from the ovary regulate these changes.
 FSH and LH increase during the follicular phase.
 LH Surge around Day 14 causes ovulation.
 The ruptured Graafian follicle becomes the Corpus Luteum.
 Corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
 Progesterone maintains the endometrium for implantation.
 If fertilisation occurs, menstruation stops and pregnancy begins.
 If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, progesterone decreases, and
menstruation starts.
 Menopause occurs around 50 years of age and marks the end of the reproductive phase.
 Follow proper menstrual hygiene by changing sanitary pads regularly and disposing of them
safely.
 Insemination = Semen deposited in the vagina.
 Fertilisation occurs in the ampullary–isthmic region of the fallopian tube.
 The zona pellucida prevents polyspermy.
 Acrosomal enzymes help the sperm enter the ovum.
 Sperm entry triggers completion of Meiosis II, producing the second polar body.
 Fusion of male and female pronuclei forms the diploid zygote (46 chromosomes).
 Female = XX, Male = XY.
 The father determines the sex of the baby because the sperm contributes either an X or Y
chromosome.
 Cleavage = Rapid mitotic division of the zygote.
 Cells formed during cleavage are called blastomeres.
 Morula contains 8–16 blastomeres.
 The blastocyst has two parts:

 Trophoblast → Attachment to uterus and placenta formation.

 Inner Cell Mass → Forms the embryo.
 Implantation is the embedding of the blastocyst into the endometrium.
 Implantation marks the beginning of pregnancy.
 Placenta develops from chorionic villi + uterine tissue.
 Placenta functions: Respiration, Nutrition, Excretion, Hormone secretion.
 Placental hormones: hCG, hPL, Estrogen, Progesterone.
 Umbilical cord connects the foetus to the placenta.
 Germ layers:

Ectoderm → Skin & nervous system

Mesoderm → Muscles, bones & heart
Endoderm → Digestive & respiratory lining
 Stem cells in the Inner Cell Mass can form all body tissues.
 Foetal milestones:

 1 month: Heart develops

 2 months: Limbs & digits
 12 weeks: Major organs
 5 months: Foetal movement & hair
 24 weeks: Eyelashes & eyelids
 9 months: Fully developed foetus

Human Pregnancy

 Duration = 9 months (280 days)

Parturition

 Delivery of baby.
 Initiated by the foetal ejection reflex.
 Controlled by oxytocin.
 Strong uterine contractions occur by positive feedback.
 Placenta is expelled after delivery.

Lactation

 Begins after childbirth.

 Mammary glands produce milk.
 First milk = Colostrum.
 Colostrum is rich in antibodies and provides passive immunity.
 Breastfeeding is recommended for healthy infant growth.