MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Transformation of raw materials into finished product
MOULDING AND CASTING
MOULDING CLASSIFICATIONS
• Bench moulding
• Floor moulding
• Pit moulding
• Machine moulding
MOULDING SAND
Silica sand is most widely used. Also zircon sand, chromite sand and olivine sand can be
used
Binders
and is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
Types of Sand Mould
Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;
“Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring
Dry sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND
• Porosity or permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in sand
• Cohesiveness or strength – Ability of sand particles to stick together
• Adhesiveness – Property of sand particles to stick on to other bodies
• Plasticity – Moulding sand must have sufficient plasticity to get a good impression of the
patterns
• Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high temperatures
• Flow ability - It can flow to all portions of a moulding box and around the pattern
when it is rammed
• Chemical stability – Resist chemical reactions
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten metal
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
PATTERNS
• It is the replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications.
• A pattern may be made up of wood, plastic, rubber, wax etc. The imp. Properties which
the pattern must possess are
• light in weight
• strong, hard and durable
• resistant to wear and corrosion
• dimensionally stable(unaffected by temp., humidity
Types of patterns used in sand casting:
• (a) solid pattern
• (b) split pattern
• (c) match plate pattern
• (d) cope and drag pattern
SAND MOULDING PROCEDURE
Pattern allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance
permanent mould CASTING
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mould, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify
Die Casting\
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mould cavity under
high pressure
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mould is opened and part is removed
• Moulds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what distinguishes this from other
permanent mould processes
Die Casting Machines
• Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closed while liquid
metal is forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot chamber machine
2. Cold chamber machine
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the
chamber (2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under high pressure into the die
• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon
• Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not chemically attack plunger
and other mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as hot chamber machines because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
Advantages of hot chamber process favor its use on low melting point alloys (zinc, tin, lead
Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages of die casting:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low me elting points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die
CASTING DEFECTS
Misrun : A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity
Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to premature freezing
Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze
Sand Blow ( BLOW HOLES)
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during pouring
Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of casting
Penetration (Scab)
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand mold or core, causing casting
surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal
Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
Hot tears
• Internal or external cracks occurs due to unwanted cooling stress
Slag holes
• Smooth depression surface of casting
Inclusion
• Any separate undesirable foreign material present in casting
Crush
Displacement of sand while closing the mold thereby deforming the mold surface
Swell
• Localized or overall enlargement of casting due to loose ramming of the sand
FORGING OPERATIONS
A metal is shaped by compressive forces
Oldest metal working process – 4000BC
Can be performed with a hammer and anvil. Heated metal to be shaped is placed on a mold.
Pressure is applied to the metal with the help of a press or hammer and due to this impact the
malleable metal conforms to the die cavity shape
TYPES OF FORGING
• Hand forging :- Hand forging is emplayed only to shape a small number of light forgings
chiefly in repair shops.
• Hammer forgings :- Usually used for small item forging.
• Press forging :- Usually used for heavy item forging.
• Machine forging :- For medium sized and large articlesrequiring very heavy blows.
• Drop forging :- For mass production of identical parts.
ADVANTAGES OF FORGING
-The forgings are consistent in shape and do not have any voids, porosity, inclusions, or
defects.
-Forging improves directional properties.
- Metal can be easily shaped to the required dimension
- It offers low cost for moderate to long runs.
LIMITATIONS
• Initial and maintenance cost of equipment and dies is high
• Intricate and cored shapes cannot be produced
• The size and shape is limited as compared to casting process
• The forged part cost more than the cast part
FORGING OPERATIONS
• UPSETTING
– Is carried out to increase the thickness or diameter of a material and reduce its
length
Drawing down
It is used to reduce the thickness of a bar and to increase its length
BENDING
Fullering
• It is used to reduce the cross sectional area of a portion of a stock. Metal flow is outward
and away from the centre of the fullering tool
Edging
• Edging is the process of concentrating material using a concave shaped open die
Swaging
• Swaging is done to reduce and finish to the desired shape, usually round or hexagonal
Forge welding
• In forge welding the parts to be welded are heated to about 1000 0 C
• Mating parts are upsetted
• Cleft shape is formed
• Applying excess pressure at the mating surface
DEEP DRAWING
• Forming a flat metal piece into cup shape by means of a punch
BLANKING
• Is the operation of cutting a shape from a metal strip
• The piece detached from the strip is called blank
• Remaining metal strip is called scrap
PUNCHING
• Is a process of producing a hole in a metal piece using a punch and a die
Various forging operations
Forged components
In automotive applications, forged components are commonly found at points of shock and
stress. Forged automobile components include connecting rods, crankshafts, wheel spindles,
axle beams, pistons, gears, and steering arms. Forgings are also used in helicopters, piston-
engine planes, commercial jets, and supersonic military aircraft.
FORGING DEFECTS
• Cracks
• Laps
• Dirt, Slag and Sand
• Blow holes
• Cold shuts
• Mismatching
METAL FORMING PROCESS
ROLLING
• Rolling is a fabricating process in which the metal, plastic, paper, glass, etc. is passed
through a pair (or pairs) of rolls.
• Work is subjected to high compressive stresses
• Rolling helps to improve various physical properties such as strength , toughness,
ductility, shock resistance
Types of rolling Process
HOT ROLLING
• Rolling a metal above its recrystallization temperature
• Grains are elongated in the direction of rolling
• Friction is high
• Heavy reduction in area
• Surface finish is not good
Roll radius is generally larger
COLD ROLLING
• Rolling a metal below its recrystallization temperature
• Worked at room temperature
• Less friction
• Heavy reduction area cannot be obtained
• Roll radius is smaller
Good surface finish is obtained
TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS
• TWO HIGH MILL, THREE HIGH MILL, FOUR HIGH MILL, CLUSTER MILL
Two high mill three high mills
Cluster mills
METAL JOINING PROCESS
– Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating
them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application
of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material. Welding is used for making
permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway
wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and
ship building
TYPES
• Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together by
external pressure
(Ex) Resistance welding
• Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding
The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify
(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding
GAS WELDING
• Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler material and method of
moving torch
• The temperature generated during the process is 33000c
• When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the torch combines with
molten metal and forms oxides, results defective weld
• Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides
• Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium. Lithium and borax.
• Flux can be applied as paste, powder,[Link] coating or gas.
OXY – ACETYLENE GAS WELDING
GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT...
Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Welding rods
7. Flux
Types of flames
• The neutral flame is produced when the ratio of oxygen to acetylene, in the mixture
leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-to-one. It’s termed ”neutral” because it will
usually have no chemical effect on the metal being welded. It will not oxidize the weld
metal; it will not cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal.
• The Carburizing flame as its name implies, is created when the proportion of acetylene in
the mixture is higher than that required to produce the neutral flame. Used on steel, it will
cause an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal.
• The oxidizing flame results from burning a mixture which contains more oxygen than
required for a neutral flame. It will oxidize or”burn” some of the metal being welded.
ARC WELDING
Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can
use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable
electrodes. The welding region is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or
slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated
TYPES OF ARC WELDING
• Carbon arc welding
• Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
• Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
Flux Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Flux Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
• Surface to be joined are fused by the heat produced from an electric arc
• Electric arc is provided by AC/DC power sources
• Generate a temperature up to 60000C – 70000C
• AC Power source - 50-90 V, 100- 3000A
• DC Power source - 50 – 90 V, 200 – 600 A