MODULE 1

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Engine is a device, which transforms one form of energy in to another. In heat engines, they transform the
chemical energy in to heat energy and then to mechanical energy to perform useful work. There are two
classifications of heat engines. (1) External combustion engines. (2) Internal combustion engines.
Example for extrnl combustion engines is steam engines and steam turbines.

In internal combustion engines (IC) air is taken from the atmosphere and combustion of fuel-air mixture takes
place in the engine. High thermal efficiency is the advantage compared to the extrnl combustion engines. The
application of IC engines are mobile power plants, automobiles, ships...

MAIN PARTS OF IC ENGINES

1. Cylinder: It is a hollow cylinder inside which the piston reciprocates. The cylinder is closed at its one end
with cylinder heads. Combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder and the power is developed by the
conversion of chem energy in to thermal energy.
2. Cylinder head: This is a cast iron disc bolted to the end of the cylinder. It contains provisions for inlet and
exhaust valves and spark plug in the case of petrol engine and injector in the case of diesel engine.
3. Piston: It is a close fitting cylindrical piece which reciprocates inside the cylinder. The airtight combustion
chamber is formed between the head and the piston head. The function of the piston is to transmit the force
exerted by the high pr gas to the connecting rod. The piston is shaped like an inverted cup made aluminum
alloy.
4. Inlet and exhaust valves: These valves are provided on the cylinder head to admit and exhaust the air and
burned gas respectively. The closing and opening of these valves done by the camshaft arrangement driven
by the engine shaft.
5. Connecting rod: It is the element which connects the piston and the crank to transmit the force generated
by the burning of the high pr gas, from the piston to the crank shaft. Hence the reciprocating motion of the
piston converts to the rotary motion of the crank.
6. Crank: This is a rotary member which receives power from the conn rod and transmits to the crank shaft.
7. Fly wheel: The heavy wheel connected to the crank shaft to store the excess energy and gives out when
needed in the idle strokes of the piston to maintain the angular velocity of the crank constant.

Nomenclature

1. Cylinder bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder.

2. Top dead center: (TDC) The extreme position of the piston at the top of the cylinder. In the horizontal
engines, it is (ODC).
3. Bottom dead center (BDC): The position of the piston when it is farthest from the head of the cylinder. It
is IDC in the horizontal engines.
4. Stroke: The distance traveled by the piston from TDC to BDC. It is also called stroke length.
5. Swept volume: The volume of cylinder between two dead centers denoted by Vs.
6. Clearance volume: The volume between the TDC and cylinder head denoted by Vc.
7. Compression ratio: The r4atio of the vol of the cylinder between the BDC and head to the clearance vol
denoted by ‘r’.

Classification of IC engines based on

1. Ignition system: - spark ignition engines (SI). Compression ignition (CI) engines
2. Type of fuel used:- gas, petrol, diesel, dual fuel
3. Working cycle:- otto, diesel, dual combustion
4. No of strokes:- two stroke, four stroke
5. Application of the engine:- stationary, mobile
Cooling system:- air cooled, water cooled
6. Speed of the engine:- low, medium, high
 -2-

7. No of cylinders:- single, multi

8. Cylinder arrangement: - vertical, horizontal, in-line, V-engine, rotary, opposed cylinder.

Working principle of CI engines (diesel)

The operation of these engines are based on the diesel cycle (const pr). It is available either in four stroke or in
two stroke system. Air is drawn in to the cylinder and compressed by the piston to above the ignition temp of
the fuel. A small quantity of fuel is injected into this high pr air in the cylinder and the air get burned with an
explosion. This explosion creates a very high pr inside the cylinder and due to which the piston moves back
doing work on the crank shaft through connecting rod. The burned gas then escapes out and the fresh air takes
in. the ignition is taking place due to the heat of compressed air and hence the name compression ignition
engine.

Working of 4 stroke diesel engine

One cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston inside the cylinder for two revolutions of the
crankshaft. The different strokes are explained below.

1. Suction stroke:- during this stroke, the piston moves from the TDC to BDC. The inlet valve opens at the
beginning of the stroke and the air at atmos pr is drawn in to the cylinder. The exhaust valve remains
closed. The line 5-1 in the p-V diagram represents this operation.
2. Compression stroke: - after completing the suction stroke of the piston, the compression stroke begins by
moving the piston from BDC to TDC. The air already entered in the cylinder gets compressed during this
stroke and hence the pr and temp of the air is raised above the ignition temp of the fuel (diesel). The line 1-
2 represents this operation. Both inlet and exhaust valves are remain closed during this stroke.
3. Expansion stroke: - this strokes of the piston starts in continuation of the compression stroke. At the end
of the comp stroke the fuel is injected to the high pr and high temp air and gets ignited at const pr. The
ignition causes the development of high pr; in result the explosion inside the cylinder takes place. The work
is done on the piston at this stage and it moves from TDC to BDC again expanding the gas inside the
cylinder. The injection of the fuel starts from2-3 and the expansion stroke starts from 3 and ends at 4. Here
also the valves are remaining closed. At the end of this stroke exhaust valve opens and the pr drops to point
1 in the diagram.
4. Exhaust stroke: - this stroke is the continuation of the expansion stroke. The piston moves from BDC to
TDC for the next suction stroke pushing out all the burned gases through the exhaust valve. The inlet valve
is kept closed in this stroke. The process is represented by the line 1-5. Thus one cycle of operation is
completed.

Working of two stroke diesel engine

Here one cycle of operation is completed in two strokes. i.e.; in one revolution of the crank. Instead of valves
ports are provided on opposite sides of the cylinder.
Fig. Shows the working of the two stroke diesel engine. The cylinder is connected to the crankcase within
which the crank is rotating by the up and down movement of the piston. During the upward movement of the
piston, the air in the cylinder is compressed and fresh air enters the crank case at the same time through the inlet
port, fig.1
At the end of this upward stroke fuel is injected to enable the ignition. The piston moves down, fig.2. At the end
of this downward stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust port and burned gas escapes through it. At the same
time the compressed air from the crank case rushes into the cylinder through the transfer port. The incoming air
helps to push out the burned gas out of the cylinder.

WORKING OF FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE

1. Suction stroke:-When the piston moves from TDC to BDC, the inlet valve opens and petrol-air mixture is
sucked in to the cylinder, keeping the exhaust valve closed. The process is represented by
the line 5-1
 -3-

2. Compression stroke:- as the piston moves up, the mixture gets compressed and at the end, a spark from
the spark plug ignites the mixture. Process 1-2-3. In result of the combustion the piston moves down doing
work on the crankshaft. The both valves remain closed during this stroke.
3. Expansion stroke:- when the piston moves down in the second time, the burned gas expands keeping all
the valves closed. The process is 3-4
4. Exhaust stroke: - during the travel of the piston in the second time from BDC to TDC, keeping the suction
valve closed and exhaust valve open the burned gas in the cylinder is pushed out and prepare for the next
suction. The process is 4-1-5

Working of two stroke petrol engine

Fig. Shows the working of 2-stroke ptrl engine. As in the case of diesel engine, here also the cylinder is
connected to the crankcase. During the upward movement of the piston the mixture already entered in the
cylinder through the transfer port gets compressed. At the end of the compression, the plug ignites the
compressed charge and the combustion takes place. During the downward movement of the piston uncovers the
exhaust port first and the burned gas starts rushing out. At same time fresh mixture enters from the crank case
through the transfer port to the cylinder. Here the newly admitted mixture gets a partial compression by the
downward movement of the piston. This partial pr helps the new charge to push the gas out of the cylinder as
and when they enter the cylinder. Thus starting the next cycle.

Comparison of CI and SI engines

Diesel in CIE
1. working cycle--------------------------
Otto in SIE

Diesel in CI
2. fuel used--------------------------------
Petrol-air mixture in SI

Fuel + air in cylinder (CI)

3. method of fuel introduction----------
Fuel + air outside (SI)

Fuel is injected to ignite in CI

4. method of ignition---------------------
Spark is given for combustion

5. Fuel economy------------------------------ CI engines are more economic

16 – 20 for CI
6. Compression ratio-----------------------
6 – 10 for SI

7 Weight------------------------------------- more in CI

COMPARISON

Two stroke four stroke

1. One revolution of crankshaft /cycle Two revolutions

2. Power developed is more Power is less

3. One power stroke in two stroke One power stroke in 4 strokes

4. No valves. Only ports Only valves

 -4-

5. Poor scavenging good scavenging

6. Low speed in CI engines Higher speed in CI engines

7. Combustion chamber is simple Complicated combustion chamber

Air system for petrol engine

Air from atmosphere airfilter

Air filter carburetor
Carburetor air fuel mixture engine cylinder
Engine
cylinder

Product of combustn to atmos. Silencer product of combstn

Silencer

Fuel system for petrol engine

Fuel storage Fuel pump Fuel filter Carburetor

tank

Engine cylinder

DIAPHRAGM PUMP

The fig shows the sectional view of the diaphragm pump to pump the fuel from the tank. This pumped fuel is
then admitted to the carburetor at a low pr. The engine camshaft drives the cam. When the cam rotates it pushes
the rocker arm forward to pull down the link. At the top end of the link a circular flexible diaphragm is provided
with a spring load. When the link moves down the diaphragm also moves with it pushing the spring.
This movement of the diaphragm creates vacuum inside the chamber due to which fuel enters the chamber
through the inlet valve by pulling down the loaded valve. When the cam disengages the rocker arm, it comes
back to its original position by the action of the spring (1) and the diaphragm moves up due to the spring (2).
This action causes the fuel entered through the inlet valve now pushes out through the outlet valve which is also
spring loaded. At this moment the inlet valve closes due to the spring pr and the pr developed inside the
chamber. This up and down movement of the diaphragm continues till the cam stops.

CARBURETOR

This device is to supply the charge (air-fuel mixture) to the cylinder during the suction stroke. The mixing is
taking place by giving the required quantity of fuel in to the air stream. At all loads of the engine the quality of
mixture must be varied. The principle is that when a volatile fuel is placed in the passage of high velocity air,
the fuel gets vaporized at a faster rate.
 -5-

The fig shows a simple carburetor, which consists of a jet situated at the center of a ventury tube through which
air is passing. Petrol is supplied to the jet from a float chamber. Throttle valve is provided to control the flow of
charge to the engine.
Petrol is pumped to the float chamber till it reaches the level of jet provided in the ventury tube. The float and
the valve will keep the level of petrol inside the chamber constant. The float needle will opens and closes when
the level falls below and reaches the normal position respectively.
The diameter of the ventury tube is reduced to form a nozzle shape to increase the velocity of the flowing air.
The pr at this area will be less than atmos pr where as in the float chamber, the pr is atmospheric. Due to this pr
difference fuel will flow in to the air stream and gets vaporized. The level of jet is set 1.5 mm over the level of
fuel in the float chamber so as to avoid the leakage of fuel when there is no airflow or engine is at rest.
The function of the throttle valve is to control the speed and power of the engine by opening and closing. In
open position more power is developed and less power in the semi closed state.

Fuel system for diesel engines

Fuel storage tank Fuel pump Fuel filter

Engine cylinder
Carburetor

Diesel engine fuel pump

The fig shows the sectional view of the high pr diesel pump. The plunger gets up and down movement from the
cam and tappet arrangement at the bottom. When the plunger moves down, the fuel enters in to the barrel
through port (6). There is a rectangular vertical grove from top to bottom of the plunger, which connects, with a
helical grove at the upper half. The delivery valve is kept in closed position by the spring and is a non-return
valve.
When the plunger moves up the inlet and over flow ports are closed and the fuel already above the plunger gets
compressed and escapes to the injector by lifting the delivery valve against the spring load and fuel pr above the
valve. The further upward movement of the plunger, the over flow port opens and the remaining quantity after
injection comes down through the rectangular passage and goes to the fuel sump. Due to this action a sudden pr
drop occurs and the delivery valve falls to its seat by the action of the spring.
The plunger can rotate with the help of the rack operated by the governor. The angular position of the helical
grove with respect to the inlet port can be changed to control the quantity of fuel injection according to the
varying load conditions.

Fuel Injector / Atomizer

The fuel injector consists of a nozzle valve fitted in a body. The pr is exerted to it through the spindle. The
adjusting screw and the lock nut are provided to adjust the lift of valve. The fuel from the pump enters the
injector through the passage and lifts the nozzle valve. Then the fuel travels down and is injected in to the
engine cylinder at the end of the comprn stroke. When the injection is over and the pr falls, the nozzle occupies
its position/seat under the spring pr. Leakage of fuel if any at the end of comprn is directed back to the suction
line of fuel pump. There is multi orifice and single orifice injectors available.
 -6-

Ignition systems for petrol engines

The combustion process is started with an electric discharge from spark plug at the end of the comprn stroke.
The ignition system provides the discharge at 10,000 volts – 20,000 volts. The system requires the following;

1. Source of electric energy

2. A device to boost the voltage
3. Device for timing and distributing the high voltage.

There are two types of ignition systems: - Battery ignition and Magneto ignition systems.

Battery ignition system: - one terminal of the battery is connected to the primary winding of the ign coil
through a switch and the other end is grounded. An iron core is covered with few windings of thick wire. One
end of this wire is connected to switch and the other end to the contact point (10) and to ground. When the cam
(9) rotates, the breaker point makes and breaks the contact.
The secondary coil consists of large no of turns with thin wires is connected to the center of the distributor and
then to diffrnt spark plugs with respect to the firing order. When the ignition switch is closed, the breaker point
contact touches, current flows through the primary winding and the circuit is completed through the ground.
The condenser connected across the contact breaker prevents the sparking across the gap between the breaker
points. When the breaker points open due to the pushing of the cam, the current now flows to the condenser. As
the condenser becomes charged, the primary curre3nt falls and the magnetic field collapses. This collapse
causes the induction of voltage in the primary winding, which charges the condenser to a voltage higher than
t6he battery voltage. The condenser then discharges in to the battery reversing the direction of both the primary
current and the magnetic field.

This rapid collapse and the reversal of the magnetic field induce a very high voltage in the secondary winding
of the ignition coil in the order of 10,000 – 20,000 volts. The no of turns in the secondary winding is 50 – 100
times that of the primary coil. This high voltage is given to the spark plugs by means of distributor with respect
to the firing order.

Magneto ignition system: - fig shows the circuit diagram for a six cylinder engine. It consists of a rotating
magnetic assembly, fixed armature, switch, condenser, contact breaker, distributor and spark plugs. The
armature has primary and secondary windings and the engine shaft rotates with the magnet in the armature. The
contact breaker transforms, the emf induced in the secondary winding in to a high voltage in the primary
winding. The spark is produced at the exact time across the gap of the electrodes of the plug with the help of the
distributor.

SPARK PLUG

This consists of a central electrode covered by a ceramic material as the insulator. This coating is again covered
at the front end by a threaded steel shell for earthing purpose. The outer electrode is connected to this steel sheet
at the tip with a gap of 1mm from the main electrode through the center from the terminal. The material of
electrode is high nickel alloy to withstand erosion and corrosion.

Lubrication system

If the moving parts are rubbing against each other for a long time, heat will be generated due to friction and
power will be lost. Inorder to avoid or minimize the power loss, a lubricating agent (thin film of oil) is provided
between the mating parts. This activity is called lubrication.

The functions of lubricating oils are:

1. Remove the heat from the mating parts.
2. Acts as a sealing agent between piston rings and cylinder to prevent the leakage of working gases.
3. Clean the metal parts.
The main parts to be lubricated are crankshaft, bearings, crankpin, piston, cylinder walls, cams, valve stems,
gears, etc.

-7-

Types of lubricating systems: - 1. Splash, 2. Gravity, 3. Pr feed, 4. Combination of the above three methods.
The splash is the simplest system. When the crankshaft rotates with in the crankcase, the oil stored in the
bottom of the crankcase will splash up by a spoon like provision made at the counter weight side of the crank.
This splash spray lubricates the internal part of the engine. This system is employed in small single cylinder
stationary engines.
In gravity system, the operations are same as above except that an oil pump is employed to keep the reservoir
with oil.
In splash and pr feed system the pump gives oil to all main bearings, crankshaft bearings and oil reservoir with
pr. Other parts are lubricated by splash method.
In the pr system oil is pressurized by the pump and supplies to all bearings, gears, valve mechanisms. The oil
spray lubricates the cylinder walls, piston and pins.
Desirable properties of lubricants
1. Should maintain rated viscosity under all temperatures, which may vary with temp.
2. Must not vaporize in operating conditions.
3. Should have high sp heat to absorb the generated heat from the parts.
4. Must be free from corrosive acids and moisture.
5. Should have adhesive quality to stick on the mating parts.
6. Should have cohesive qlty to form continuos film between the parts.

Cooling system

The purpose of cooling is to prevent the engine from over heating. In an IC engine 30% of the generated heat is
converted to work. The engine materials and parts absorb 30%. The remaining is escaped through the exhaust
gases.
The heat absorbed by the engine parts is to be removed then and there. The cylinder walls should not be heated
above 2500C. If heat is not removed the piston will expand and stuck to the walls of the cylinder. Hence it must
be cooled to keep the engine temp with in the limit. There are two types of cooling. Air and water.
Air cooling: - Basic principle is that air is allowed to flow continuously over the heated surface and absorbs
heat. This system is used in motor cycles, airplanes and small stationary engines. The heat decipation is done by
conduction. Fins are provided on the outer surface of the engine to increase the surface area of heat transfer. In
some cases blower is used to increase the heat transfer rate.
Advantage: simplicity, lightness, cheap
Disadvantage: non uniformity of cooling, difficult to control the cooling rate.
Water-cooling:- Being the medium of cooling it is circulated through the passages called jackets around the
main components which are about to be heated. Pumps or gravity force does the circulation.
Fig shows a water cooling system used in an automobile engine. The hot water after circulating through the
jackets flows to the filler tank of the radiator at its top. The heated water gets cooled in the radiator by air flow
while falling down to the lower tank. Several tubes with fins are provided in the radiator to increase the heat
transfer area. A fan is provided to increase the flow of air. Ethylene glycol is added, being the no freezing agent,
in the circulating water, during cold conditions. There are three types of water cooling systems.
1. Natural / gravity circulation.
2. Forced circulation.
3. Open circulation
 -8-

RADIATOR
ENGINE

Water cooling system

ENGINE

∞
∞
∞
p
u
Gravity circulation m
p

The change of gravity due to change of temp is the reason for gravity circulation. Also called thermo siphon. In
forced circulation a pump is used to circulate water through jackets. Engine drives the pump. In stationary
diesel engine power plants open circulation system is used. Here a pump is used to draw water from the cooling
pond and to circulate it through the engine jacket. After circulation water is returned to the pond in the form of
spray from a higher level and gets cooled during the down flow through air.

REFRIGERATION

The process of keeping a system at a temp below the temp of its surroundings by removing the heat from the
system. The device by which the temp is maintained lower is called refrigerating system. Refrgn can be done
either by natural methods or by artificial methods. The application of refrgn is classified in to three.
1. Industrial purposes.
2. Food preservation.
3. Air conditioning.
Air refrigeration and Vapor refrgn are the two types in general. Air is the working substance in the former one
where as Ammonia, Carbon dioxide, Sulfur dioxide, Freon... are working fluids.

Unit of Refrigeration: - the rate of heat absorbed by the refrgn system from the body to be cooled, equivalent
to the latent heat of fusion of one ton of ice from and at 00C in 24 hrs is called one ton of refrgn. The STD unit
of refrgn is ton of refrgn or ton.

Coefficient of performance (COP):- The ratio of desired refrigerating effect to the work done to produce
the same effect.
Refrigerating effect
COP = ---------------------------
Work done
COP will always be greater than ONE

-9-

Vapor compression refrigeration system (VCR): - in this system the working fluid is readily evaporates
and condenses. It evaporates absorbing heat from the space and rejects heat to the surroundings during
condensing. The following are the basic components of a simple vapor compression system.
1. compressor
2. condenser
3. expansion valve
4. evaporator
coolingwater

3
2 Condenser

2 1
3 2’ 2
c
Pr 3
4
1

Evaporator 4

H brine solution

The line diagram of the system and its pr-enthalpy plotting is shown in the fig. The dry saturated vapor of the
working fluid (Freon or R12) is entered in to the compressor at pr p1 and temp T1during its suction stroke and
compressed isentropically to pr p2 and temp T2. The line 1-2 in the p-H diagram shows this process.
At the end of the compression, the high temp and high pr vapor is in the super heated state passes to the
condenser through which water is circulated to receive heat from the vapor. The vapor is cooled to the
saturation temp at 2’ and at constant pr. The cooling continues till the vapor reached at 3 in the liquid phase at
low temp and high pr. The latent heat of condensation removes from the vapor by this time. This high pr low
temp liquid is allowed to expand by passing through an expansion valve. Now the pr and temp very low to p1.
The expansion process 3-4 is a const enthalpy process. During throttling the liquid partly evaporates and gets a
liquid vapor mixture at temp T1 and pr p1.
This vapor passes through the evaporator coil, which is surrounded by the items/liquid (brine solution) to be
cooled. The refrigerant from the expansion valve will absorb heat of the brine solution in the evaporator and
gets vaporized and reaches the dry saturated condition at 1and thus completing one cycle of operation.

The cold brine then circulated through coils around the space to be refrigerated. The net refrigerating effect of
the system is heat absorbed by the refrigerant from the brine. The work done by the compressor is the heat
added to the refrigerant during the compression process

Heat extracted from the brine

COP = --------------------------------------
Work done by the compressor

Vapor absorption system: - in this system the compressor in the VCR system is replaced by the
combination of generator, pump, absorber and pr reducing valve. Fig below shows the line diagram.

The low pr dry refgrnt from the evaporator enters the absorber where it is desolved in cold water. As the
desolving process is going on more refrigerants from the evaporator is drawn and the latent heat of
condensation and the sensible heat of solution are liberated and hence the temp of the solution rises. Water is
circulated to remove this heat. At low temp water absorbs more refrigerant and solution becomes richer in
refrigerant. This solution is pumped to the generator. In the generator, the solution is heate4d by external

-10-

means and the vapor is driven out of the solution as a high pr vapor. The remaining weak solution in the
generator flows back to the absorber.

From the generator the refrigerant vapor flows to condenser where the heat is rejected to the circulating water.
The condensed refrigerant is then allowed to pass through expansion valve. As in the case of VCR system, this
refrgrnt-vapor mixture is allowed to pass through the evaporator where the heat from the brine solution is
rejected to the refrgnt mixture and it gets vaporized fully. This vapor is then allowed to enter in to the absorber
completing one cycle of operation.

Heat extracted in the evaporator

COP = ------------------------------------------------------------------
Work done by the pump + heat supplied to the generator

Comparison between

VCR system VAR system

--------------- ---------------
1. Compressor does energy input. 1. Energy input is done by adding heat from the
Exhaust of the engines and turbines.
2. Noisy operation due to compressor. 2. Quite in operation due to simple pump
3. Affect the system when the load is reduced 3. No effect on load reduction
4. Liquid traces in suction may damage compr. 4. No damage as there is no comprr
5. COP decreases when evaporator pr reduces 5. No reduction in COP at low evapr pr
6. Automation is possible 6. Automation impossible

Cooling water

Condenser

Generator
1
(1)

Expn. Valve
P
u Pr. reducing valve

2 Absorber

Evaporator

(1) Heating coil

 (2) Cooling water
Brine solution

-11-

Desirable properties of refrigerants

1. Condensing and evaporating pr should be above atmospheric pr.

2. Should possess high critical temp.
3. The freezing temp should be below the operating temp to prevent solidification.
4. Specific heat should be low to minimize the vapor formation during expansion.
5. Latent heat of vaporization should be high to reduce the quantity to be circulated.
6. Sp volume should be low to reduce the size of compressor.
7. Viscosity should be low to reduce pr drops, size of the pipes.
8. Thermal conductivity should be high to increase the efficiency of condenser and evaporator.
9. Stability should be there through out the operation.
10. Inflammability – should not catch fire.
11. Should be non corrosive when comes in contact with pipes and other metallic parts.
12. Should be non-toxic.
13. Leakage should be detected easily.
14. Should not react with oil, but it can mix with it for lubrication.
15. Should have high electric resistance.
16. Should be cheap and easily available.

Air conditioning
This is one of the applications of refrigeration which deals with the control of air purity, air motion, temperature
and humidity inside a room, hall or business complex. The main classifications are comfort a/c and industrial
a/c.
Considering human comfort and health we select comfort a/c. other category belongs to industrial a/c.
equipment and processes are same but the required inside condition is different.

Phychrometry:-This topic deals with the behavior of the moist air. All a/c calculations are based on
phychrometry. The following are the main terms to be noted in the study of phychrometry.

1. Dry air: - without any moisture. 79% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen
2. Moist air: - ordinary atmos air containing water vapor.
3. Std air: - air containing maxm water vapor at a given temp and pr.
4. Humidity ratio or Specific humidity: - ratio of mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air in a given vol of
moist air.
5. Relative humidity: - the ratio of mass of water vapor in a given vol of moist air at a given temp to the mass
of water vapor contained in the same vol of moist air at the same temp when the air is saturated.
6. Dry bulb temp (dbt):-temp of air measured by an ordinary thermometer.
7. Wet bulb temp (wbt):- the temp recorded by a thermometer when its bulb is covered by wet cloth and is
exposed to a flow of air. The difference of dbt and wbt depends on the RH of air.
8. Dew point temp (DPT):- it is the temp at which the water vapor in the moist air starts condensation at const
pr.
9. Sensible heat: - the enthalpy of dry air which can be calculated by measuring the dbt.

Process involved in air conditioning

1. Air purification: - air filtration for dust removal – air sterilization for bacteria – air ionization
air odour removal - air suppression
2. Temperature control: - this is the main process, which regulates the [Link] various psychrometric processes.
Passing air over evaporator coils of refrigerator system can do cooling of air. Passing air over

heated surfaces located outside the room can do heating of air. Warm air heating, steam heating, ele-heating
systems, hot water heating... are examples.
4. Humidity control: - done by the process of humidification or de humidification by adding or removing
water vapor to air. Using air washers can do addition and using absorbents like activated alumina, calcium
chloride, silica gel. can do removal.

-12-

Different types of humidifiers are:

Steam humidifier – injecting steam to air
Atomization type – compressed air is aspirated in water
Impact type – water jet impacts to form spray through which air is passing
Forced evaporation – mixing of water vapor formed by the evaporation with air
5. Air distribution:-air motion in sufficient quantity is the main criteria of a/c. the speed of air movement is
from 7 – 15 m/minute.

WINTER AIR CONDITIONING

Filter preheater water spray eliminator reheater blower

Damper

air

Collecting pond

Pump
Here air needs heating and humidification. The schematic arrangement is shown in the fig. This type is used
when the temp of air is between 50 – 100C. The comfort condition in this weather is 260 dbt and
55% RH.
Atmos air flows through a damper to the air filter where dust, dirt and other impurities are removed and allowed
to pass through an air pre heater to prevent the freezing of water. The RH is acquired by humidifying by
spraying water over the passing air from pre heater. Eliminator is provided in the path to prevent water droplets
carried by the air coming through the spray. This air is then heated to the required temp and supplied to the
space to be conditioned with the help of a blower.

SUMMER AIR CONDITIONING

Air is cooled and dehumidified in summer. The air passes through the damper before it enter in to the filter and
then allowed to pass through the cooling coil whose temp is much below the dew point temp of air. Water is
sprayed to the air while passing from cooling coil to the eliminator. Here, due to the vaporization of water the
temp of air further decreases. This conditioned air is then circulated through the space using blower.

Filter cooling coil water spray eliminator blower

Damper conditioned

Air Air

Collecting
From evapor Water