Content

➢ Message Authentication Requirements

➢ Message Authentication Functions

➢ Message Authentication Code

➢ Digital Signature

➢ Digital Signature Standard

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 Prerequisite and Recap

• Prerequisite

– Encryption and Decryption

– Network Security
– Hash Function

• Recap

– Message Authentication codes

– Digital Signature

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 Objective of Unit -3

• Study about Message Authentication Codes , Authentication

requirements
• To understand authentication functions, message
authentication code
• To understand how hash functions work , security of hash
functions,
• Working of Secure hash algorithm (SHA)
• Learn about Digital Signatures: Digital Signatures, Elgamal
Digital Signature Techniques,
• Working of Digital signature standards (DSS), and proof of
digital signature algorithm

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 Message Authentication CO3

• message authentication is concerned with:

– protecting the integrity of a message

– validating identity of originator

– non-repudiation of origin (dispute resolution)

• will consider the security requirements then three

alternative functions used:
– message encryption

– message authentication code (MAC)

– hash function

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 Message Authentication Requirements

• Disclosure
➢ Sequence modification
– Release of message contents to
any person or process not ⚫ Any modification to a
possessing the appropriate sequence of messages
cryptographic key between parties, including
insertion, deletion, and
• Traffic analysis reordering
– Discovery of the pattern of ➢ Timing modification
traffic between parties
⚫ Delay or replay of messages
• Masquerade
➢ Source repudiation
– Insertion of messages into the
network from a fraudulent ⚫ Denial of transmission of
source message by source

• Content modification ➢ Destination repudiation

– Changes to the contents of a ⚫ Denial of receipt of message
message, including insertion, by destination
deletion, transposition, and
modification
 Message Security Requirements
• Disclosure- Message Encryption
• traffic analysis- Message Encryption
• Masquerade- Message Authentication
• content modification- Message Authentication
• sequence modification- Message Authentication
• timing modification- Message Authentication
• source repudiation- Digital Signatures
• destination repudiation- Digital Signatures + Message
Authentication
 Message Authentication Requirements CO3

• Message authentication is a procedure to verify

that received messages come from the alleged
source an d have not been altered. Message
authentication may also verify sequencing and
timeliness. A digital signature is an authentication
technique that also includes measures to counter
repudiation by the source.

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 Message Authentication Function CO3

MESSAGE AUTHENTICATION FUNCTIONS:

▪ Any message authentication or digital signature

mechanism has two levels of functionality.
▫ At the lower level, there must be some sort of
function that produces an authenticator: a
value to be used to authenticate a message.
▫ This lower-level function is then used as a
primitive in a higher-level authentication
protocol that enables a receiver to verify the
authenticity of a message.

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 Message Authentication Function CO3

The types of functions that may be used to

produce an authenticator may be grouped into
three classes.
▪ Hash function:
A fun ction t h at maps a message of any len gth into a
fixed-length hash value, which serves as the
au th enticator
▪ Message encryption:
The ciphertext of the entire message serves as its
au th enticator
▪ Message authentication code (MAC):
A fun ction o f the message a n d a secretkey th at produces
a fixed- length value t h at serves as the auth enticator
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 Message Authentication Functions
⚫ Hash function
⚫ A function that maps a message of any length into a fixed-length
hash value which serves as the authenticator

⚫ Message encryption
⚫ The ciphertext of the entire message serves as its authenticator

⚫ Message authentication code (MAC)

⚫ A function of the message and a secret key that produces a fixed-

length value that serves as the authenticator

 Symmetric Message Encryption
➢ encryption can also provides authentication
➢ if symmetric encryption is used then:
⚫ receiver know sender must have created it
▪ since only sender and receiver know key used
⚫ know content has not been altered if successfully recovered the correct
plaintext
▪ Because attacker does know the key
▪ Problem: how to recognize correct plain text
• if message has suitable structure, redundancy or a checksum to
detect any changes
 Public-Key Message Encryption
• if public-key encryption is used:
– encryption provides no confidence of sender
• since anyone potentially knows public-key
– however if
• sender signs message using their private-key
• then encrypts with recipients public key
• have both secrecy and authentication
– again need to recognize corrupted messages
– but at cost of two public-key uses on message
 Message Authentication CO3

Message Encryption
• message encryption by itself also provides a measure of
authentication.
• if symmetric encryption is used then:
– receiver know sender must have created it
– since only sender and receiver now key used
– know content cannot of been altered
– if message has suitable structure, redundancy or a
checksum to detect any changes

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 Message Authentication CO3

Message Authentication Code

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 Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• generated by an algorithm that creates a small
fixed-sized block
– depending on both message and some key
– like encryption though need not be reversible
• appended to message as a signature
• receiver performs same computation on
message and checks it matches the MAC
• provides assurance that message is unaltered
and comes from sender
 Message Authentication CO3

Message and message digest

Notations:
m: message
Note H(m): message digest of m by using hash function H()

The message digest needs to be kept secret, or

unalterable by others.
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 Message Authentication CO3

Hash Function
A hash function accepts a variable-size message M as
input and reduces a fixedsize output, referred to as a
hash code H(M).
A hash code does not use a key but is a function only of
the input message. The hash code is also referred to as
a message digest or hash value. The hash code is a
function of all the bits of the message and provides an
error-detection.
Note

A change to any bit or bits in the message

results in a change to the hash code.
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 Message Authentication CO3

Requirements for a Hash Function

1. H can be applied to a block of data of any size.
2. H produces a fixed-length output.
3. H(x) is relatively easy to compute for any given x,
making both hardware and software implementations
practical.
4. For any given value h, it is computationally infeasible
to find x such that H(x) = h. This is sometimes referred to
in the literature as the one-way property.
5. It is computationally infeasible to find any pair (x, y)
such that H(x) = H(y). This is sometimes referred to as
strong collision resistance.

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 Message Authentication CO3

Simple Hash Functions

A hash function is generally having some set of functions

that compresses the input. It means generally the output
produced is unique for any of the input. This function
takes the input in a random manner and produces the
hash value output of fixed length, commonly 160 bits.

h = H(M)
where M is the variable length message
H is the hash function
h is the fixed length hash value
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 Message Authentication CO3

MESSAGE AUTHENTICATION CODE

A hash function is generally having some set of functions

that compresses the input. It means generally the output
produced is unique for any of the input. This function
takes the input in a random manner and produces the
hash value output of fixed length, commonly 160 bits.

h = H(M)
where M is the variable length message
H is the hash function
h is the fixed length hash value
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 Message Authentication CO3

Requirements of MAC

Message authentication is concerned with some

requirements which are as follows. The requirements
mention the data is not altered or modified. The sender
and receiver are authenticated. Truthfulness of the
message is not denied in any circumstance.
➢Protecting the integrity of the message
➢Validating the identity of the originator
➢Non-repudiation of origin
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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

1. Architecture of MD5
➢MD5 message digest algorithm is the 5th version of
the Message Digest Algorithm developed by Ron Rivest
to produce 128 bit message digest.
➢MD5 produces the message digest through five steps
i.e. padding, append length, divide input into 512 bit
blocks, initialize chaining variables a process blocks and
4 rounds, uses different constant it in each iteration.

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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

How do the MD5 Algorithm works?

Step1: Append Padding Bits

Step 2: Append Length
Step 3: Initialize MD buffer
Step 4: Processing message in 16-word block
Step 5: Output

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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

Architecture of MD5

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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

2. Secure Hash Algorithms

➢ Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) was developed
by NIST along with NSA.
➢ In 1993, SHA was published Information
Processing Standard.

➢ It has following versions-

 SHA-0
 SHA-1
 SHA-2
 SHA-3
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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

SHA-1
➢ It works for any input message that is less than 264
bits.
➢ The output of SHA is a message digest of 160 bits in
length.
➢ This is designed to be computationally infeasible to:
a) Obtain the original message , given its message digest.

b) Find two messages producing the same message

digest.

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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

Properties of SHA

A cryptographic hash function must have some

properties to withstand for cryptanalytic attacks and to
be useful for authentication. It is applied to a block of
variable size.

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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3
How SHA-1 works?
➢ Step 1: Padding of Bits

➢ Step 2: Append Length

➢ Step 3: Divide the input into 512-bit blocks
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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

How SHA-1 works?

➢ Step 4: Initialize chaining variables

Chaining Variables Hex values
A 01 23 45 67
B 89 AB CD EF
C FE DC BA 98
D 76 54 32 10
E C3 D2 E1 F0

➢ Step 5: Process Blocks- Now the actual algorithm

begins….
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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

How SHA-1 works?

➢ Step 5.1 : Copy chaining variables A-E into variables a-e.
➢ Step 5.2 : Divide current 512-bit block into 16 sub-
blocks of 32-bits.
➢ Step 5.3 : SHA has 4 rounds, each consisting of 20 steps.
Each round takes 3 inputs-
Round Value of t between
➢ 512-bit block, 1 1 and 19
➢ The register abcde 2 20 and 39
3 40 and 59
➢ A constant K[t] (where t= 0 to 79)
4 60 and 79

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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3

How SHA-1 works?

➢ Step 5.4 : SHA has a total of 80 iterations (4 rounds X
20-iterations). Each iteration consists of following
operations:-

abcde = ( e +Process P +S5(a) + W[t] + K[t] ), a, S30(b) , c , d

Where, abcde = The register made up of 5 variables a, b, c, d, e.

Process P= The logic operation.
St = circular-left shift of 32-bit sub-block by t bits.

W[t] = A 32-bit derived from the current 32-bit sub-block

K[t]= One of the five additive constants.

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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3
Comparison between MD5 and SHA-1
Point of discussion MD5 SHA-1
Message digest length in 128 160
bits
Attack to try and find the Requires 2128 operations to Requires 2160 operations
original message given a break in. to break in, therefore
message digest more secure.
Attack to try and find two Requires 264 operations to Requires 280 operations to
messages producing break in. break in.
same message digest
Speed Faster Slower
Successful attempts so far There have been No such claims so far.
reported attempts to
some extent.

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 Message Authentication Algorithm CO3
Parameters for various versions of SHA

Parameter SHA-1 SHA-256 SHA-384 SHA-512

Message digest 160 256 384 512
size(in bits)
Message size(in bits) <264 264 2128 2128

Block size (in bits) 512 512 1024 1024

Word size (in bits) 32 32 64 64
Steps in algorithm 80 64 80 80

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 Digital Signature CO3

• Prerequisite

– Encryption and Decryption

– Message Digest
– Hash Function

• Recap

– Digital Signatures
– DSS

Objective of Topic :- Study about Digital Signature and DSS

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 Digital Signature CO3

In digital signature process the sender uses a signing

algorithm to sign the message. The message and the
signature are sent to the receiver. The receiver receives the
message and the signature and applies the verifying
algorithm to the combination. If the result is true, the
message is accepted; otherwise, it is rejected.
Digital signature process

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 Digital Signature CO3

Adding key to the digital signature process

Note
A digital signature needs a public-key system.
The signer signs with her private key; the verifier
verifies with the signer’s public key.
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 Digital Signature CO3

Signing the digest

Note

A cryptosystem uses the private and public keys of the receiver:

a digital signature uses
the private and public keys of the sender.
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 Digital Signature Services CO3

Message Authentication

A secure digital signature scheme, like a secure

conventional signature can provide message
authentication.

Note
A digital signature provides message authentication.

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 Digital Signature Services CO3
Message Integrity

The integrity of the message is preserved even if we sign

the whole message because we cannot get the same
signature if the message is changed.

Note

A digital signature provides message integrity.

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 Digital Signature Services CO3
non-repudiation

Note

Nonrepudiation can be provided using a trusted party.

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 Digital Signature Services CO3

Confidentiality

Adding confidentiality to a digital signature scheme

Note

A digital signature does not provide privacy.

If there is a need for privacy, another layer of
encryption/decryption must be applied.
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 Digital Signature Schemes CO3

ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme

General idea behind the ElGamal digital signature scheme

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 Digital Signature Services CO3

Key Generation in ElGamal Digital Signature

The key generation procedure here is exactly the same as
the one used in the cryptosystem.

Note
In ElGamal digital signature scheme, (e1, e2, p) is
Alice’s public key; d is her private key.

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 Digital Signature Schemes CO3

Verifying and Signing

ElGamal digital signature scheme

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 Digital Signature Schemes CO3

Digital Signature Standard (DSS)

General idea behind DSS scheme

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 Digital Signature Schemes CO3

Key Generation in DSS

1) Alice chooses primes p and q.

2) Alice uses <Zp*, × > and <Zq*, ×>.

3) Alice creates e1 to be the qth root of 1 modulo p.

4) Alice chooses d and calculates e2 = e1d.

5) Alice’s public key is (e1, e2, p, q); her private key is (d).

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 Digital Signature Schemes CO3

Verifying and Signing

DSS scheme

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 References

1. William Stallings, “Cryptography and Network Security:

Principals and Practice”, Pearson Education.

2. Behrouz A. Frouzan: Cryptography and Network

Security, Tata McGraw Hill

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 Youtube & NPTEL Video Links and other Links

Youtube/other Video Links

1. [Link]
M&list=PL71FE85723FD414D7&index=26
NPTEL Video link
1. [Link]

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 Daily Quiz

What you meant by MAC?

What you meant by hash

function?

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 Daily Quiz

What are the requirements of the

hash function?

What requirements should a

digital signature scheme should
satisfy?

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 MCQ s

1. A _________ is used to verify the integrity and

authenticity of a message.

(a) Decryption algorithm

(b) Message digest

(c) MAC

(d) Both (b) and (c)

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 MCQ s

2. Which of the following is the latest version of the

SHA algorithm?

(a) SHA-512

(b) SHA-256

(c) SHA-128

(d) SHA-1

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 MCQ s

3. The purpose of hash function is to ensure

_________.

(a) Message integrity

(b) Message authentication

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) None of these

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 MCQ s

4. Choose the odd one out.

(a) RC5

(b) Blowfish

(c) ECC

(d) MAC

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 MCQ s

5. When two different messages yield the same

message digest, it is called _________.

(a) Attack

(b) Collision

(c) Hash

(d) None of these

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 MCQ s

6. Which of these is a kind of attack possible on digital

signatures?

(a) Ciphertext-only attack

(b) Known-message attack

(c) Key-only attack

(d) Both (b) and (c)

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 MCQ s

7. An attacker needs to perform _________ operations

in order to determine collision in SHA-1.

(a) 264

(b) 280

(c) 2256

(d) 272

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 MCQ s

8. Which of these is not a variation of a digital

signature?

(a) Timestamped signature

(b) Blind signature

(c) Encrypted digital signature

(d) Undeniable digital signature

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 MCQ s

9. Which of these statements is not correct about DSS?

(a) It was published by the National Institute of Standards

and Technology.

(b) It uses three functions to create a digital signature.

(c) An elaborated version of DSS was named as FIPS 186-2.

(d) It uses Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA).

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 MCQ s

10. Which of these is a kind of attack possible on digital

signatures?

(a) Ciphertext-only attack

(b) Known-message attack

(c) Key-only attack

(d) Both (b) and (c)

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 MCQ s

11. Which of the following is a property of a digital

signature?

(a) It must be able to verify the author.

(b) It must be able to verify the date and time of the

signature.

(c) It must be able to authenticate the contents of the

message at the time of the signature.

(d) All of these

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 MCQ s

12. RSA _________ be used for digital signatures.

(a) can

(b) cannot

(c) must

(d) must not

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 MCQ s

13. The sender encrypts the message with his or her

private key to achieve _________.

(a) Authentication

(b) Confidentiality

(c) Both (a) and (b)

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 MCQ s

14. Which of the following pair of keys is used to create

and verify the digital signature, respectively?

(a) Signer's private key and verifier's public key

(b) Verifier's public key and verifier's private key

(c) Signer's private key and signer's public key

(d) Signer's public key and signer's private key

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 MCQ s

15. Which of the following services is not provided by

digital signatures directly?

(a) Message authenticity

(b) Message confidentiality

(c) Message integrity

(d) Nonrepudiation

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 MCQ s

16. Which of the following is /are offered by the Hash

functions?

a. Authentication

b. Non repudiation

c. Data Integrity

d. All of the above

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 MCQ s

17. Which of the following is not possible through hash

value?

a. Password Check

b. Data Integrity check

c. Digital Signatures

d. Data retrieval in its original form

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 MCQ s

18. Which of the following is not a property of Hash

Function?

a) Pre-Image Resistance

b) Compression

c) Fixed Length Output

d) None of the above

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 MCQ s

19. Which of the following is not a property of Hash

Function?

a) Pre-Image Resistance

b) Compression

c) Fixed Length Output

d) None of the above

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 MCQ s

20. Which of the following names can we use for

denoting the output of the hash function?

a) Hash value

b) Hash Code

c) Message Digest

d) All of the above

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 Old Question Papers

• AKTU Previous year question paper

[Link]

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 Expected Questions for University Exam

1. Differentiate MAC and Hash function?

2. Describe MD5 algorithm in detail. Compare its

performance with SHA-1.

3. Write and explain the Digital Signature Algorithm.

4. Explain the classification of authentication function in

detail.

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 Summary

➢Message Authentication Code

➢Authentication requirements
➢Message Digest
➢Hash Function
➢Digital signature
➢DSS

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